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MBARA OZIOMA COLLEGE OF TECHNLOLGY EHIME MBANO IMO STATE.

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
COURSE CODE: COM 101
LEVEL: NID 1
INTRODUCTION
Who invented the computer is not a question with a simple answer. The real
answer is that many inventors contributed to the history of computers and
that a computer is a piece of machinery made up of many parts, each of which
can be considered a separate invention.

Computer – before 1935: A computer was a person who performed arithmetic

calculations. Between 1935 and 1945 the definition referred to a machine,
rather than a person. The modern machine definition is base on Von
Neumann’s concepts: A device that accepts input, process data, store, and
produces output.
We have gone from the vacuum tube to the transistors, to the microchip. Then
the microchip started talking to the modem. Now we exchange text, sound,
photos and movies in a digital environment.

WHAT IS A COMPUTER
We are all familiar with what a computer is in a specific, contemporary sense.
Personal computers (PCs) are found in most aspects of our daily life, and for
some it is hard to even imagine a world without them. But the term means
more than simply the Macs and PCs we are familiar with. A computer is an
electronic machine that works under the control of a stored program capable
of accepting, storing, processing data, and returning the results of the
processing as information. A computer is, at its most basic, a machine which
can take instructions, and perform computations based on those instructions.
It has the ability to take instructions – often known as programs – and execute
them, which distinguishes a computer from a mechanical calculator. While
both are able to make computations, a calculator responds simply to
immediate input. In fact, most modern calculators are actually computers, with
a number of pre-installed programs to help aid in complex tasks.
To have a full grip on what a computer is; it is necessary to have a proper
understanding of what program, data, and information are. So what is a
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program? A program is any set of instructions given to a computer for carry

out a specific operation. Without a program a computer can do nothing. For a
computer to carry out any given task, a program must be there to give the
computer instructions on what to do and how to do it. The program that
controls the computer is inside the computer. Data on the other hand are
unprocessed facts or information given to a computer for processing, while
information is processed facts or data that the computer has finished
processing.
The term computer is derived from the word ‘compute’, this means to
calculate. But today's computers are not just calculating devices. Computers
are versatile; they are capable of performing varied types of jobs and can
handle multiple applications at one time. The acronym for computer is:
"Common Oriented Machine Particularly used for Trade, Education and
Research." A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or
data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data and gives the output
in a desired manner.
Characteristics of Computer:
SPEED: Computer is very fast calculating device. It can execute basic operations
like addition, multiplication, subtraction and division at a few microseconds.
ACCURACY: The accuracy of Computer does not go down when they are used
continuously for hours together. It always gives accurate results.
STORAGE: Computer has a very large storage capacity. It has an in-built
memory where it can store a large amount of data. We can also store data in
secondary storage devices like Floppy disk, Hard disk etc.
VERSATILITY: It means Computer can perform different types of job efficiently.
Computer can work with different types of data and information such as
visuals, text, graphics & video etc. at same time.
PAPER WORK REDUCED: The Computer reduces the paper work of any
organization. The required data which was earlier stored in files, drawers and
cabinets is now stored in the memory of computer. So Organization can reduce
the paper work.
MANPOWER REDUCED: The work which was done by many persons in an office
can be done by one computer with more accuracy and efficiency. Thus an
Organization need less manpower or persons to employ.
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DILLIGENCE: A Computer can work for long hours with the same accuracy and
speed because it is free from the problems of boredom or lack of
concentration.

Drawbacks of Computer
Despite various advantages, computer has certain limitations also:-
NO IQ: A Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without
instruction from the user. It has no intelligence of its own. So the Computer
cannot take its own decision as we can.
NO FEELINGS: It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and
experience. That's why it does not get tired even after long hours of work.
NO DECISION MAKING CAPABILITY: Computers are not capable of taking decisions.
Human beings take decisions after analysis the output given by computer.
Applications of Computer:
The use of computer is well recognized, since we are living in the informative
society.
Information Technology is playing an ever-growing role in our lives.
It includes telecommunications, microwaves, lasers and fibre optics along with
computer.
There is no area of human life which is not affected by the power of computer
systems.
Computer is a tool to work with information and to create new information.
Following are the applications of Computer
Uses of Computers in Homes: These days, computers are essential for a family like
washing machines and refrigerators. They are used for entertainment,
watching movies, playing games etc. Computers are used to manage
faineances, working in home away from office, Internet Backing,
communication and information sharing, doing homework etc.
Computers in Education: More and more schools are adding computer technology
to their syllabi so that students may be aware of the computer skills and may
use these skills for other subjects also. Computers can be used for solving
engineering, mathematical and scientific problems with great speed and
accuracy. Students make use of Encyclopaedias to search and find useful
information. They can read the books available online and can surf the e-
libraries of other institutions.
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Computers in Entertainment: Computer also finds place in music and

entertainment industry. MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a tool for
creating and recording music. Children particularly use of computers for the
purposes of entertainment.
Computer and Health Care: Computers play a major rule in the field of medical
diagnosis and health care. The detection of diseases and its suitable
preparation has become fast and quick using IT tools. Moreover the diagnosis
is accurate and quick. In health care, physicians and surgeons use computers
for performing delicate operations, conduct surgeries, ultra sound and laser
eye surgeries, MIR, CT scan and maintain patients record etc.
Computer and Weather forecasting: Computers are used to get correct and
timely prediction of weather conditions. People working and living at sea
shores and hilly areas make suitable arrangements for saving their lives and
avoiding damages.
Computer and Business Sector: Computers also find place in business; even the
small companies’ use computers to perform their basic functions and to
manage the accounting, inventory, marketing and payroll etc.
Computers in Banking: Banking functions in all the urban, semi-urban and rural
areas are fully computerized. ATMs have been installed by all the banks at
various locations to provide the facility of quick withdrawal of money at any
time. Computerized statements of account and interest calculation can be
obtained in few seconds, which was initially very time consuming job. The
survival of banking industry is impossible without computers.
Computers in Communication: Now a day’s people don't use convention methods
of communication. They communicate through email, voice chat, audio and
video conferencing. In these methods, we don't have to arrange the meeting's
venues and management. Thus saves a lot of time and money. People
communicate and exchange ideas sitting at remote graphical areas.
Computers and Industries: Industries use different types of computers in many
combinations to automate their jobs. Computers are used to design and make
new products, computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided
manufacturing (CAM) of many parts.
Computers in Government Sector: Governments. Are also big consumers of
technology? They use computers to calculate taxes and revenues, military
people use computers for weapon control, to communicate on radio under
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water, on air and on the surface of the earth. Govt. also uses computerized
control systems to manage traffic. Moreover airlines, railways are also
computerized. The details of flights or rail can be easily found on the
computers via Internet. The entire world has become small because of the
availability of Information Technology. Computers in Agriculture: Information
Technology is used in crop farming and management practices. This area
includes the control of pest and disease, weed control, land preparation and
other related practices.
Components of Computer:
A computer system has mainly four basic units. These are:
Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer
system by the user for processing.
Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before
and after processing.
Central Processing Unit: The CPU takes data and instructions from the storage
unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given to it.
Then it is sent back to the storage unit. CPU includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
and control unit (CU).
Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced
by the computer after processing.

History of Computers:
COMPUTER AS A SYSTEM
Computer is an electronic device that performs calculation on data,
manipulates the data band thus presenting the results to humans.
The computer includes not only the hardware but also software that is
necessary to make the computer functional.
Like any other system, computer is also a system which communicates with all
its functional units.
All the functional units work together to get input. Then input is processed and
output is generated. Functional units or computer organization is explained
below:-
Computer Organization:
A computer performs basically five major operations or functions. These are:
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Input: This is the process of entering data and programs into computer system.
.
You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other
machine which takes input raw data and performs some processing giving
processed data or output.
Thus, the input unit takes data from human or other systems; it consists of
instructions regarding what to do.
Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanent ally known as
storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts.
It is because the processing speed of CPU is very fast that data has to be
provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the
storage unit for fast access and processing. The storage unit performs the
following major functions:-
All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical
operations is called processing. CPU takes data and instructions from the
storage unit and does all sorts of calculation based on the instructions given
and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing
must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you
in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer. It
may also be used for further processing.
Control: The manner in which instructions are executed and operations are
performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are
performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all
operations inside the computer. In order to carry out the operations
mentioned above, the computer allocate the task between its various
functional units, the computer system is divided into several units for its
operations:
CPU: The place from where everything is done, decisions are made,
computations are performed, and input/output requests are delegated.
Memory: Stores information being processed by the CPU.
Input devices: Allow people to supply information to computer system.
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Output devices: Allow people to receive information from computer system.

Buses: A bus is a subsystem that transfers data or power between computer
components inside a computer.

What happens when you turn on a computer?

The process of starting a computer and loading the operating system is
referred to as "Booting". To boot a computer is to load an operating system
into computer's main memory or random access memory (RAM). Once the
operating system is loaded, it is ready for users to run applications. Operating
system generally does the following when you switch on the computer system:
- A soon as the computer is turned on, the basic input/output system (BIOS) on
your system's read only memory (ROM) chip is "woken up" and take charge.
BIOS is already loaded because it is built into the ROM chip and unlike Random
Access Memory (RAM), ROM contents don't get erased when the computer is
turned off.
BIOS first does a power-on self test(POST) to make sure that all the computer's
components are operational. Then the BIOS's boot program looks for the
special boot programs that will actually load the operating system on to hard
disk. First, it looks for drives at the specific places where operating system is
located. If there is a diskette in drive A but it's not a system disk, BIOS will send
you a message that drive A doesn't contain a system disk. If there is no diskette
in drive A, BIOs looks for the system files at a specific place on your hard drive.
Having identified the drive where boot files are located, BIOS next looks at the
first sector and copies information from it into specific locations in RAM.
It then loads the boot record into a specific place in RAM.
The boot record contains a program that BIOS now branches to, giving the
boot record control of the computer. The boot record loads the initial system
file (for example, in DOS system) into RAM from diskette or hard disk. The
initial file then loads the rest of the operating system into RAM. The initial file
loads a system file that knows how to work with the BIOS.
One of the first Operating system files that is loaded, is a system configuration
file, information the configuration files tells the loading program which specific
operating system files need to be loaded. For example, specific device driver.
Another special file that is loaded is one that tells which specific applications or
commands the user wants to have included or performed as part of the boot
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process. In DOS, this file is named AUTOEXEC.BAT. In windows, It is called

WIN.IN
After all operating system files have been loaded, the operating system is given
control of the computer and performs requested commands and then waits for
the first interactive user input. Thus you have seen that the various subparts of
a computer system work together, thus it is known as a machine or system.
COMPUTER GENERATIONS
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation
has been discussed in detail along with their time period.
The main five generations of computer are:
First Generation: Period: 1946-1959. Vacuum Tube Based.
Second Generation: Period: 1959-1965. Transistors Based.
Third Generation: Period: 1965-1971. IC (Integrated Circuit) Based.
Fourth Generation: Period: 1971-1980. VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated)
Based.
Fifth Generation: Period: 1980-onwards. ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integrated)
Based.
1st Generation (1946-1959):
First Generation Computers uses vacuum tubes, magnetic tapes drivers and
magnetic core was developed.ENIAC was the First digital computer. It uses
18,000 vacuum tubes. Its size was too larger. It was developed by two
scientists Mauchly and Echert at the Census Department of United States.
Examples of first generation computers are ENIVAC and UNIVAC-1.
Advantages:
Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
These computers could calculate data in millisecond.
Disadvantages:
The computers were very large in size.
They were not very reliable.
Air conditioning was required.
They consumed a large amount of energy.
Non-Portable.
Very slow speed.
Used punch cards for input.
Used machine language only.
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They produced too much heat and energy.

2nd Generation (1959-1965):
The second generation computers used transistors. The scientists at Bell
laboratories developed transistor in 1947. These scientists include John
Barden, William Brattain and William Shockley. The size of the computers was
decreased by replacing vacuum tubes with transistors. The examples of second
generation computers are IBM 7094 series, IBM 1400 series and CDC 164 etc.
Advantages:
Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.
The 2nd generations Computers were more reliable.
Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds.
Disadvantages:
Costly and not versatile.
Only used for specific purposes.
Constant maintenance was required
3rd Generation (1965-1971):
The computers of third generation used integrated circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made
computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation remote
processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating system were used.
High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-
68 etc.) were used during this generation.
Advantages:
i. Smaller in size as compared to the previous computers.
ii. They were more reliable.
iii. Used less energy.
iv. Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is rear.
v. Less expensive.
vi. Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages:
i. Air conditioning was required.

The latest technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

4th Generation (1971-1980):
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After 1971 the fourth generation computers were built. The fourth generation
computers were the extension of third generation technology. The fourth
generation computers emerged with development of the VLSI (Very Large
Scale Integration).With the help of VLSI technology microprocessor came into
existence. The computers were designed by using microprocessor, as
thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. It became
more powerful and reliable.
Advantages:
i. Smaller in size as compared to the previous generations.
ii. More powerful and reliable than previous generations.
iii. No air conditioning required.
iv. Cheapest among all generations.
v. Totally general purpose
vi. Less need to repair the Computers.

Disadvantages:
The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.
5th Generation (1980-Onwards):
Fifth generation computers are in developmental stage which is based on the
artificial Intelligence (AI). The idea of fifth generation computer was developed
by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry in 1982. Computers can
understand spoken words & imitate human reasoning. Scientists are constantly
working to increase the processing power of computers. They are trying to
create a computer with real IQ with the help of advanced programming and
technologies. So we can say that the fifth generation computers will have the
power of human intelligence.
Advantages
i. Smaller in size.
ii. More powerful, reliable and easy to handle.
iii. VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated) is replaced by ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integrated).

The fifth generation is a more updated, clean and easy to use

Having capabilities of parallel processing.
Having extra high processing speed.
Wireless facility is provided.
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Disadvantages:
If Computers have their own brain then they can harm the humans.
TYPES OF COMPUTER
There are several different types of computers, each of which is surrounded to
the humans. For example, there are desktops and laptops for home use and
can carry them while travelling.

Basis of Classification:
i. Operational Principle
ii. Size
iii. Processing Power
iv. Based on Usage

Analogue, Digital and Hybrid Computers

Mainframe and Micro- Computers
Desktop, Laptop, Tablets etc.

Based on Operational Principle

The Computer which provides us continuous information is called Analogue
Computers.
Analogue data is of continuous nature and which is not discrete or separate.
They are the first computers being developed and provided the basis for the
development of the modern digital computers. Output from an analogue
computer is generally in the form of readings on a series of dial (Speedometer
of a car) or a graph on strip chart.
They were widely used in scientific and industrial applications.
Astrolabe, MONIAC Computer, Water integrator, Mechanical Computer etc.
are Analogue Computers.
Digital Computers: A computer that performs calculations and logical
operations represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0”
and “1” are called Digital Computers.
In contrast to analogue computers, digital machines work on numbers.
Each variable is converted into numbers and each number into binary form, i.e.
0 and 1.
It is this combination of 0 and 1 that does all the calculations.
Characteristics: They are versatile, accurate and reprogrammable.
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All modern computers, laptops, and calculators are all digital computers.
Hybrid Computers: A hybrid is a combination of digital and analogue
computers. It combines the best features of both types of computers.
It has the speed of analogue computer and the memory and accuracy of digital
computer. Hybrid computer is a digital computer that accepts analogue signals,
converts them to digital and processes them in digital form. Hybrid Machines
are generally used in scientific applications or in controlling industrial
processes.
It is also used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient.
Hybrid Devices are also used in petrol pumps.

Based on Size and Processing Power:

Mainframe Computers
A mainframe computer is a very large computer capable of handling and
processing very large amounts of data quickly.
They are used by large institutions, such as government agencies and large
corporations.
Mainframe computers were developed in the 1950s.
Mainframe computers are designed to handle very high volumes of input and
output and are optimized for computational speed.
A Mainframe computer has processing units (PUs), memory, I/O channels,
control-units and peripheral devices.
A processing unit (PU) is the brain of the mainframe computer that executes
instructions.
Micro Computers: A microcomputer is a complete computer on a smaller scale.
It is generally a synonym for the desktop computer which is designed for the
individual.
It is smaller than a mainframe or a minicomputer.
A microcomputer's CPU includes random access memory (RAM), read-only
memory (ROM) memory, input/output (I/O) ports, interconnecting wires and a
motherboard.>
The first microcomputers became available in the 1970s and were used
primarily by businesses.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
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Application software are often called productivity programs or end-user

programs because they enable the user to complete tasks such as creating
documents, spreadsheets, databases, doing online research, sending email,
designing graphics etc. Application software runs under the System Software.
They are made to do a specific task which has indirect access to the hardware.
For Example: Web Browser, Word Processing Software, Spreadsheet Software,
Database Software, and Presentation Graphics Software.

Advantages of Application Software:

i. Only one specific software application can complete single or multiple
tasks.
ii. There are very small amount of virus threat invading custom-made
application.
iii. Business can restrict access and protect their network.
iv. Licensed application software can get regular updates from the
developer for security purposes.
v. The developer can also check timely if a problem occurs in their
network.
vi. Easy to access and always available.
vii. Properly documented.
viii. Efficient, quick and easy to follow instruction.
ix. Application package can designed the whole system software to finish
multiple tasks.
x. Provide a complete set of application from only one source.

Disadvantages of Application Software:

i. Application Software cannot access the System Memory.
ii. Application Software cannot connect into other Software.
iii. Application Software cannot access the whole network.
iv. Developing Application Software is highly cost.
v. The risk of developers can affect budget and revenue flow if the site is
not performing.
vi. Delays of entire productions can occur when business needed a lot of
time to review software that is commonly used by many people carries a very
serious threat of infection in a computer.
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vii. If computer virus or other malicious programs enter your whole data
then packages will be damaged including PC.
viii. Incompatible with the other programs.
ALTERNATIVELY,

WHY COMPUTER IS CALLED A SYSTEM?

A system is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an
integrated whole or a set of element (often called ‘components’) and
relationships which are different from relationships of the set or its elements
to other elements or sets. Therefore, a computer is called a system because it
is made up of different components that work together as one.
The term system may also refer to a set of rules that governs structure and/or
behaviour.

A COMPUTER SYSTEM

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF SYSTEM

1. A system has structure, it contains parts (or components) that are directly or
indirectly related to each other;
2. A system has behaviour, it contains processes that transform inputs into
outputs (material, energy or data);
3. A system has interconnectivity: the parts and processes are connected by
structural and/or behavioural relationships.
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4. A system’s structure and behaviour may be decomposed via subsystems and

sub-processes to elementary parts and process steps.

WHAT A COMPUTER IS MADE UP OF

A PC (personal computer) is a system, consisting of many components. Some
of those components, like windows 7, windows 8, and all the other programs,
are software. The stuff you can actually see and touch, and would likely break
if you throw it out a fifth – story window, is hardware.
The parts of the computer system that accept, store, process data and output
information, and also responsible for powering the computer are the
hardware, while the set of programs that controls the hardware are the
software. Therefore, a computer is made up of hardware and software.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
The computer hardware is the physical components of the computer that we
can see and touch. Not everybody has exactly the same hardware. But those of
you, who have a desktop system, like the example shown in fig 1, probably
have most of the components shown in that same figure. Those of you with
notebook computers probably have most of the same components. Only in
your case the components are all integrated into a single book – sized portable
unit.

EXAMPLES OF COMPUTER HARDWARE

IDE Cables
Power Pack Expansion Card

Hard Disk Drive

Processor
Heat Sink &
Fan
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CD - ROM

Motherboard
RAM

Hardware Components inside the System Unit

The system unit is the actual computer; everything else is called a peripheral
device. Your computer's system unit probably has at least one floppy disk
drive, and one CD or DVD drive, into which you can insert floppy disks and CDs.
There's another disk drive, called the hard disk inside the system unit, as
shown in Figure 3. You can't remove that disk, or even see it except you open
the System Unit. But it's there. And everything that's currently "in your
computer" is actually stored on that hard disk. (We know this because there is
no place else inside the computer where you can store information!).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

There's too much "stuff" on your computer's hard disk to use it all at the same
time. During the average session sitting at the computer, you'll probably use
only a small amount of all that's available. The stuff you're working with at any
given moment is stored in random access memory (often abbreviated RAM,
and often called simply "memory"). The advantage using RAM to store
whatever you're working on at the moment is that RAM is very fast, much
faster than any disk. For you, "fast" translates to less time waiting and more
time being productive. So if RAM is so fast, why not put everything in it? Why
have hard disks at all? The answer to that lies in the fact that RAM is volatile.
As soon as the computer is shut off, whether intentionally or by an accidental
power outage, everything in RAM disappears, just as quickly as a light bulb
goes out when the plug is pulled. So you don't want to rely on RAM to hold
everything. A disk, on the other hand, holds its information whether the power
is on or off.
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The Hard Disk

All of the information that's "in your computer", so to speak, is stored on your
computer's hard disk. You never see that actual hard disk because it's sealed
inside a special housing and needs to stay that way. Unlike RAM, which is
volatile, the hard disk can hold information forever -- with or without
electricity. Most modern hard disks have tens of billions of bytes of storage
space on them. Which, in English, means that you can create, save, and
download files for months or years without using up all the storage space it
provides?

In the unlikely event that you do manage to fill up your hard disk, Windows will
start showing a little message on the screen that reads "You are running low on
disk space" well in advance of any problems.  In fact, if that message appears,
it won't until you're down to about 800 MB of free space. And 800 MB of
empty space is equal to about 600 blank floppy disks. That's still plenty of
room!

The Mouse

Your mouse probably has at least two buttons on it. The button on the left is
called the primary mouse button; the button on the right is called the
secondary mouse button or just the right mouse button. I'll just refer to them
as the left and right mouse buttons. Many mice have a small wheel between
the two mouse buttons.

The idea is to rest your hand comfortably on the mouse, with your index finger
touching (but not pressing on) the left mouse button. Then, as you move the
mouse, the mouse pointer (the little arrow on the screen) moves in the same
direction. When moving the mouse, try to keep the buttons aimed toward the
monitor -- don't "twist" the mouse as that just makes it all the harder to
control the position of the mouse pointer.

If you find yourself reaching too far to get the mouse pointer where you want
it to be on the screen, just pick up the mouse, move it to where it's
comfortable to hold it, and place it back down on the mouse pad or desk. The
buzzwords that describe how you use the mouse are as follows:
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 Point: To point to an item means to move the mouse pointer so that it's
touching the item.
 Click: Point to the item, then tap (press and release) the left mouse button.
 Double-click: Point to the item, and tap the left mouse button twice in rapid
succession - click-click as fast as you can.
 Right-click: Point to the item, then tap the mouse button on the right.
 Drag: Point to an item, then hold down the left mouse button as you move the
mouse. To drop the item, release the left mouse button.
 Right-drag: Point to an item, then hold down the right mouse button as you
move the mouse. To drop the item, release the right mouse button.

The Keyboard

Like the mouse, the keyboard is a means of interacting with your computer.
You really only need to use the keyboard when you're typing text. Most of the
keys on the keyboard are laid out like the keys on a typewriter. But there are
some special keys like Esc (Escape), Ctrl (Control), and Alt (Alternate). There
are also some keys across the top of the keyboard labeled F1, F2, F3, and so
forth. Those are called the function keys, and the exact role they play depends
on which program you happen to be using at the moment.

Most keyboards also have a numeric keypad with the keys laid out like the keys
on a typical adding machine. If you're accustomed to using an adding machine,
you might want to use the numeric keypad, rather than the numbers across
the top of the keyboard, to type numbers. It doesn't really matter which keys
you use. The numeric keypad is just there as a convenience to people who are
accustomed to adding machines.

Most keyboards also contain a set of navigation keys. You can use the
navigation keys to move around through text on the screen. The navigation
keys won't move the mouse pointer. Only the mouse moves the mouse
pointer.

On smaller keyboards where space is limited, such as on a notebook computer,

the navigation keys and numeric keypad might be one in the same. There will
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be a Num Lock key on the keypad. When the Num Lock key is "on", the
numeric keypad keys type numbers. When the Num Lock key is "off", the
navigation keys come into play. The Num Lock key acts as a toggle. Which is to
say, when you tap it, it switches to the opposite state. For example, if Num
Lock is on, tapping that key turns it off. If Num Lock is off, tapping that key
turns Num Lock on.

Combination Keystrokes (Shortcut keys)

Those mysterious Ctrl and Alt keys are often used in combination with other
keys to perform some task. We often refer to these combination keystrokes as
shortcut keys, because they provide an alternative to using the mouse to select
menu options in programs. Shortcut keys are always expressed as:

key1+key2

Where the idea is to hold down key1, tap key2, then release key1. For example,
to press Ctrl + Esc hold down the Ctrl key (usually with your pinkie), tap the Esc
key, then release the Ctrl key. To press Alt + F you hold down the Alt key, tap
the letter F, then release the Alt key.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software, or just software, is any set of machine-readable
instructions (most often in the form of a computer program) that directs a
computer's processor to perform specific operations. The term is used to
contrast with computer hardware, the physical objects (processor and related
devices) that carry out the instructions. Hardware and software require each
other; neither has any value without the other.
Software is a general term for the various kinds of programs used to operate
computers and related devices. Software can be thought of as the variable
part of a computer. Software is often divided into application software
(programs that do work users are directly interested in) and system software
(which includes operating systems and any program that supports application
software).
 20

Software can be purchased or acquired as shareware (usually intended for sale

after a trial period), liteware (shareware with some capabilities disabled),
freeware (free software but with copyright restrictions), public domain
software (free with no restrictions), and open source (software where the
source code is furnished and users agree not to limit the distribution of
improvements).

Software is often packaged on CD-ROMs and diskettes. Today, much purchased

software, shareware, and freeware is downloaded over the Internet. A new
trend is software that is made available for use at another site known as an
application service provider.

Types of software

System software is the software used to manage and control the hardware
components and which allow interaction between the hardware and the other
types of software. The most obvious type of system software is the computer's
operating system but device drivers are also included within this category.

Applications software (also known as 'apps') is designed to allow the user of

the system complete a specific task or set of tasks. They include programs such
as web browsers, office software, games and so on. They are usually the
reason you bought the computer system in the first place and aren't concerned
with the management or maintenance of the system itself.

Utility software is software such as anti-virus software, firewalls, disk

defragmenters and so on which helps to maintain and protect the computer
system but does not directly interface with the hardware.

Any individual software package, whichever of the above types it falls into, can
be either generic (or 'off-the-shelf') or it can be bespoke (custom-built).
Generic software is mass produced with the intention that it will be used by a
wide variety of different users in a range of different situations. Bespoke
software is created for a specific purpose which will be used in a known
environment.
 21

Often generic software is used when there is a package available that meets
the needs of the user. Because it is used by many more people the cost of
creating it is spread over a greater number of people or organisations and so
the cost to the individual is much lower. It also has the advantage that it is
available immediately there's no waiting time involved while the software
package is designed, created and tested. Bespoke software has the advantage
that it can be tailor made to exact specifications but it significantly more
expensive and will take time to create.

CHAPTER TWO

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON GENERATIONS

In the beginning a generation refers to the state of improvement in the

development of a product.  This term is also used in the different
advancements of computer technology.  With each new generation, the
circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the previous generation
before it.  As a result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and memory of
computers have proportionally increased.  New discoveries are constantly
being developed that affect the way we live, work and play.

The First Generation:  1946-1958 (The Vacuum Tube Years).

The first generation computers were huge, slow, expensive, and often
undependable.  In 1946two Americans, Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly built
the ENIAC electronic computer which used vacuum tubes instead of the
mechanical switches of the Mark I.  The ENIAC used thousands of vacuum
tubes, which took up a lot of space and gave off a great deal of heat just like
light bulbs do.  The ENIAC led to other vacuum tube type computers like the
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) and the UNIVAC I
(Universal Automatic Computer).

       
 22

The vacuum tube was an extremely important step in the advancement of

computers.  Vacuum tubes were invented the same time the light bulb was
invented by Thomas Edison and worked very similar to light bulbs.  Its purpose
was to act like an amplifier and a switch.  Without any moving parts, vacuum
tubes could take very weak signals and make the signal stronger (amplify it). 
Vacuum tubes could also stop and start the flow of electricity instantly
(switch).  These two properties made the ENIAC computer possible.

The ENIAC gave off so much heat that they had to be cooled by gigantic air
conditioners.  However even with these huge coolers, vacuum tubes still
overheated regularly.  It was time for something new.

The Second Generation:  1959-1964 (The Era of the Transistor)

The transistor computer did not last as long as the vacuum tube computer
lasted, but it was no less important in the advancement of computer
technology.  In 1947 three scientists, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and
Walter Brattain working at AT&T's Bell Labs invented what would replace the
vacuum tube forever.  This invention was the transistor which functions like a
vacuum tube in that it can be used to relay and switch electronic signals.       

There were obvious differences between the transistor and the vacuum tube. 
The transistor was faster, more reliable, smaller, and much cheaper to build
than a vacuum tube.  One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum
tubes.  These transistors were made of solid material, some of which is silicon,
an abundant element (second only to oxygen) found in beach sand and glass. 

Therefore they were very cheap to produce.  Transistors were found to

conduct electricity faster and better than vacuum tubes.  They were also much
smaller and gave off virtually no heat compared to vacuum tubes.  Their use
marked a new beginning for the computer.  Without this invention, space
travel in the 1960's would not have been possible.  However, a new invention
would even further advance our ability to use computers.
 23

The Third Generation:  1965-1970 (Integrated Circuits - Miniaturizing the

Computer)
Transistors were a tremendous breakthrough in advancing the computer. 
However no one could predict that thousands even now millions of transistors
(circuits) could be compacted in such a small space.  The integrated circuit, or
as it is sometimes referred to as semiconductor chip, packs a huge number of
transistors onto a single wafer of silicon. Robert Noyce of Fairchild Corporation
and Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments independently discovered the amazing
attributes of integrated circuits.  Placing such large numbers of transistors on a
single chip vastly increased the power of a single computer and lowered its
cost considerably.

Since the invention of integrated circuits, the number of transistors that can be
placed on a single chip has doubled every two years, shrinking both the size
and cost of computers even further and further enhancing its power.  Most
electronic devices today use some form of integrated circuits placed on printed
circuit boards-- thin pieces of bakelite or fibreglass that have electrical
connections etched onto them -- sometimes called a mother board.

These third generation computers could carry out instructions in billionths of a

second.  The size of these machines dropped to the size of small file cabinets.
Yet, the single biggest advancement in the computer era was yet to be
discovered.

The Fourth Generation:  1971-Today (The Microprocessor)

This generation can be characterized by both the jump to monolithic
integrated circuits (millions of transistors put onto one integrated circuit chip)
and the invention of the microprocessor (a single chip that could do all the
processing of a full-scale computer).  By putting millions of transistors onto one
single chip more calculation and faster speeds could be reached by computers. 
Because electricity travels about a foot in a billionth of a second, the smaller
the distance the greater the speed of computers.

However what really triggered the tremendous growth of computers and its
significant impact on our lives is the invention of the microprocessor.  Ted Hoff,
employed by Intel (Robert Noyce's new company) invented a chip the size of a
 24

pencil eraser that could do all the computing and logic work of a computer. 
The microprocessor was made to be used in calculators, not computers.  It led,
however, to the invention of personal computers, or microcomputers.

It wasn't until the 1970's that people began buying computer for personal
use.  One of the earliest personal computers was the Altair 8800 computer kit. 
In 1975 you could purchase this kit and put it together to make your own
personal computer.  In 1977 the Apple II was sold to the public and in 1981
IBM entered the PC (personal computer) market.

Today we have all heard of Intel and its Pentium® Processors and now we know
how it all got started.  The computers of the next generation will have millions
upon millions of transistors on one chip and will perform over a billion
calculations in a single second.  There is no end in sight for the computer
movement. 

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond (Artificial Intelligence)

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition,
that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors
is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and
molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in
years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices
that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization.

An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a

semiconductor material. The first integrated circuit was developed in the
1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild
Semiconductor.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE AND CAPACITIES

Super Computer
The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense
 25

amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting

requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated
graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum
exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a
supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as
possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
concurrently.

Mainframe Computer

A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even

thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple
microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to
supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In
some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because
they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a
single program faster than a mainframe.

Mini Computer

A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between

workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between
large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the
distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to
about 200 users simultaneously

Micro Computers

Those computers that use microprocessor as their central processing unit and
are the smallest of the types are the microcomputers. Microcomputers are
often called personal computers (PCs) because they are intended to be used by
a single person at a time. While mainframe and mini computers can support
multiple users simultaneously, it can support only one user at a time.
 26

Micro computers can further be classified into desktop computers (that can fit
within the top of a desk), laptops (portable computers that can be operated on
your lap) and palmtops (hand held computers).

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON THEIR PURPOSE

General Purpose Computers

As the name implies, general purpose computers are computers that can be
programmed and put to use for general purposes.
Most common office and home computers are general purpose computers, so
they can be used by just anybody for a variety of everyday tasks depending on
the available package in the market.
Some super computers and mainframes are general purpose computers, but a
greater number of them are special purpose in nature.
However, many minicomputers and micro computers that are manufactured
and put into the market today for purchase by the general public are general
purpose digital computers.

Special Purpose Computers

Special purpose computers are computers that have been designed for use in
special circumstances and for special purposes. Some of these special
considerations are computers that are embedded in the control system of an
aircraft, a space ship, a submarine or a robot.
Most embedded computers fall within the special purpose category. These
computers may not be readily reprogrammed for document processing.
Additionally, computers that are used in aeronautic engineering and for
launching and teleguiding satellites and spacecrafts into outer space fall into
the category of special purpose computers.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON MODE OF OPERATIONS

Analog Computers
Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers
represent variables by physical quantities. Thus any computer which solve
problem by translating physical conditions such as flow, temperature,
 27

pressure, angular position or voltage into related mechanical or electrical

related circuits as an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated in
general it is a computer which uses an analog quantity and produces analog
values as output. Thus an analog computer measures continuously. Analog
computers are very much speedy. They produce their results very fast. But
their results are approximately correct. All the analog computers are special
purpose computers.

Digital Computers
Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or
numbers. These numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also
make logical decision to reach a conclusion, depending on, the data they
receive from the user.

Hybrid Computers
Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog
characteristics combining the advantages of analog and digital computers
when working as a system. Hybrid computers are being used extensively in
process control system where it is necessary to have a close representation
with the physical world. The hybrid system provides the good precision that
can be attained with analogue computers and the greater control that is
possible with digital computers, plus the ability to accept the input data in
either form.

CHAPTER THREE

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
The computer system is organized by the four basic operations of the
computer system. These basic operations are Input, Storage, Processing, and
Output. Therefore, the computer system is organized into Input Devices,
Storage Devices, Processor, and Output Devices.
INPUT DEVICE
In computing, an input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware
equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information
processing system such as a computer or other information appliance.
 28

An input device is any hardware device that sends data to the computer,
without any input devices, a computer would only be a display device and not
allow users to interact with it, much like a TV.

EXAMPLES OF INPUT DEVICES

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader

Keyboard

Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps
in inputting the data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing some additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108
keys keyboard is also available for Windows and Internet.

Mouse

Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control

device. It is a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the
movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the
buttons.
 29

Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is
present at the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on
screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a

monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper
ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The Joystick can be moved in
all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a

displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends
the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop

computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
 30

Scanner

Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is

used when some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred
to the hard disc of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the
digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before
they are printed.

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into a digital

form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the
computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts

graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is
used for doing fine works of drawing and images manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital

form. The microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a
multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of

cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque
number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The
main advantage of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
 31

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically
character by character, converts them into a machine readable code and
stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of
light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods,
numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded
in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is
connected.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations having multiple choice questions.

CHAPTER FOUR

STORAGE DEVICES

A computer storage device is any type of hardware that stores data. Storage
Devices are the data storage devices that are used in the computers to store
the data. The computer has many types of data storage devices. Some of them
can be classified as the removable data Storage Devices and the others as the
non removable data Storage Devices. The memory is of two types; one is the
primary memory and the other one is the secondary memory.

PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES

The primary memory is the volatile memory and the secondary memory is the
non volatile memory. The volatile memory is the kind of the memory that is
 32

erasable and the non volatile memory is the one where in the contents cannot
be erased. Basically when we talk about the data storage devices it is generally
assumed to be the secondary memory.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

The secondary memory is used to store the data permanently in the computer.
The secondary storage devices are usually as follows: hard disk drives – this is
the most common type of storage device that is used in almost all the
computer systems. The other ones include the floppy disk drives, the CD ROM,
and the DVD ROM. The flash memory, the USB data card etc.

EXAMPLES OF STORAGE DEVICES

Floppy discs

A floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin,

flexible floppy) magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular
plastic shell. Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive.

Application

Any use where small files such as word processing, small spreadsheets and
databases need to be moved from one computer to another.
Useful to backup small data files.

Fixed hard discs

A hard disk drive is the device used to store large amounts of digital
information in computers and related equipment like iPods and games
consoles such as the Xbox 360 and PS3.
Hard disk drives are used to store operating systems, software and working
data.
These are suitable for any application which requires very fast access to data
for both reading and writing to. However, Hard disk drives may not be suitable
for applications which need portability.
Almost all computers used a fixed hard disc. Used for on-line and real time
 33

processes requiring direct access. Used in file servers for computer networks to
store large amount of data.

Portable hard discs

Portable hard discs are good fun because you can carry data about all over the
place and transfer information, programs, pictures, etc between computers.

Advantages:

 Greatly improved data cargo carrying capacity (relative to the 1.44 Mb floppy
discs).
 You don't need to worry about the other person having the same type of
special cartridge drive as yourself.

Disadvantages:

 Hard drives have to be handled quite carefully, and when being transported
should be wrapped in something soft and put in a padded bag.
 More expensive than other forms of removable media.

Application

Portable discs are used to store very large files which need transporting from
one computer to another and price is not an issue.

Magnetic tapes

Magnetic tape has been used for data storage for over 50 years. When storing
large amounts of data, tape can be substantially less expensive than disk or
other data storage options. Tape storage has always been used with large
computer systems. Modern usage is primarily as a high capacity medium
for backups and archives.  

Drawbacks
Writing and retrieving data is slow.
It uses serial access for reading and writing.
 34

Application

Magnetic tapes are used for application which requires extremely large storage
capacity where speed of access is not an issue.
It is commonly used for backups of file servers for computer networks, in a
variety of batch processing applications such as reading of bank cheques,
payroll processing and general stock control.

Optical backing storage media such as CDs and DVDs

 CDs tend to be used for large files (but smaller than 1Gb) which are too big for
a floppy disc to hold such as music and general animation.
 DVDs are used to hold very large files (several Gb) such as movie films. Both
CDs and DVDs are portable i.e. they can be transported from one computer to
another. Both can be used to store computer data.
 CD ROM/DVD ROM Applications which require the prevention of deletion of
data, accidental or otherwise. CDs used by software companies for distributing
software programs and data; by Music companies for distributing music
albums and by book publishers for distributing encyclopaedias, reference
books etc. DVDs used by film distributors.
 CD R/DVD R Applications which require a single ‘burning’ of data, e.g. CDs -
recording of music downloads from the Internet, recording of music from MP3
format, recording of data for archiving or backup purposes. DVDs – recording
of film movies and television programs.
 CD RW/DVD RW Applications which require the updating of information and
ability to record over old data. Not suitable for music recording but is very
useful for keeping generations of files. DVDs have between five and ten times
the capacity of CDs.

Solid state backing storage

 These are the smallest form of memory available in the market today.
 Widely used as removable storage.
 They are more robust than other forms of storage.
 35

 Though expensive than other forms they can be easily written to and updated.

Memory sticks/Pen drives

USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, much smaller than a
floppy disk. Storage capacities typically range from 64 MB to 64 GB. USB flash
drives offer potential advantages over other portable storage devices,
particularly the floppy disk.
They have a more compact shape, operate faster, hold much more data, have
a more durable design, and operate more reliably due to their lack of moving
parts. Flash drives are widely used to transport files and backup data from
computer to computer.

Flash memory cards

A memory card or flash memory card is a solid-state electronic flash memory

data storage device used with digital cameras, handheld and Mobile
computers, telephones, music players, video game consoles, and other
electronics.
Nowadays, most new PCs have built-in slots for a variety of memory cards;
Memory Stick, Compact Flash, SD, etc. Some digital gadgets support more than
one memory card to ensure compatibility.
 36

CHAPTER FIVE

THE COMPUTER PROCESSOR

Introduction

The processor (CPU, for Central Processing Unit) is the computer's brain. It
allows the processing of numeric data, meaning information entered in binary
form, and the execution of instructions stored in memory.

A central processing unit (CPU), also referred to as a central processor unit, is

the hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer
program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output
operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at
least since the early 1960s. The form, design, and implementation of CPUs
have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation
remains much the same.

The first microprocessor (Intel 4004) was invented in 1971. It was a 4-bit
calculation device with a speed of 108 kHz. Since then, microprocessor power
has grown exponentially.

A computer can have more than one CPU; this is called multiprocessing. Some
integrated circuits (ICs) can contain multiple CPUs on a single chip; those ICs
are called multi-core processors.

Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which
performs arithmetic and logical operations, and the control unit (CU), which
extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on
the ALU when necessary.

Not all computational systems rely on a central processing unit. An array

processor or vector processor has multiple parallel computing elements, with
no one unit considered the "centre". In the distributed computing model,
problems are solved by a distributed interconnected set of processors.
 37

Control unit

The control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to
direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions.
The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other
parts of the system to do so. The control unit must communicate with both the
arithmetic/logic unit and memory.

Clock rate

The clock rate is the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions.

Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which
instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer
components. The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to
execute each instruction. The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU
can execute per second.

Operation

The processor (called CPU, for Central Processing Unit) is an electronic circuit
that operates at the speed of an internal clock thanks to a quartz crystal that,
when subjected to an electrical current, send pulses, called "peaks". The clock
speed (also called cycle), corresponds to the number of pulses per second,
written in Hertz (Hz). Thus, a 200 MHz computer has a clock that sends
200,000,000 pulses per second. Clock frequency is generally a multiple of the
system frequency (FSB, Front-Side Bus), meaning a multiple of the
motherboard frequency.

With each clock peak, the processor performs an action that corresponds to an
instruction or a part thereof. A measure called CPI (Cycles per Instruction) gives
a representation of the average number of clock cycles required for a
microprocessor to execute an instruction. A microprocessor’s power can thus
be characterized by the number of instructions per second that it is capable of
processing. MIPS (millions of instructions per second) are the unit used and
correspond to the processor frequency divided by the CPI.
 38

Instructions

An instruction is an elementary operation that the processor can accomplish.

Instructions are stored in the main memory, waiting to be processed by the
processor. An instruction has two fields:

 The operation code, which represents the action that the processor must
execute;
 The operand code, which defines the parameters of the action. The operand
code depends on the operation. It can be data or a memory address.

Instructions can be grouped by category, of which the main ones are:

 Memory Access: accessing the memory or transferring data between registers.

 Arithmetic Operations: operations such as addition, subtraction, division or
multiplication.
 Logic Operations: operations such as AND, OR, NOT, EXCLUSIVE NOT, etc.
 Control: sequence controls, conditional connections, etc.

Registers

When the processor executes instructions, data is temporarily stored in small,

local memory locations of 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits called registers. Depending on
the type of processor, the overall number of registers can vary from about ten
to many hundreds.

The main registers are:

 The accumulator register (ACC), which stores the results of arithmetic and
logical operations;
 The status register (PSW, Processor Status Word), which holds system status
indicators (carry digits, overflow, etc.);
 The instruction register (RI), which contains the current instruction being
processed;
 The ordinal counter (OC or PC for Program Counter), which contains the
address of the next instruction to process;
 The buffer register, which temporarily stores data from the memory.
 39

Cache Memory

Cache memory (also called buffer memory) is local memory that reduces
waiting times for information stored in the RAM (Random Access Memory). In
effect, the computer's main memory is slower than that of the processor.
There are, however, types of memory that are much faster, but which have a
greatly increased cost. The solution is therefore to include this type of local
memory close to the processor and to temporarily store the primary data to be
processed in it. Recent model computers have many different levels of cache
memory:

 Level one cache memory (called L1 Cache, for Level 1 Cache) is directly
integrated into the processor. It is subdivided into two parts:
o The first part is the instruction cache, which contains instructions from the
RAM that have been decoded as they came across the pipelines.
o The second part is the data cache, which contains data from the RAM and data
recently used during processor operations.

Level 1 cache can be accessed very rapidly. Access waiting time approaches
that of internal processor registers.

 Level two cache memory (called L2 Cache, for Level 2 Cache) is located in the
case along with the processor (in the chip). The level two cache is an
intermediary between the processor, with its internal cache, and the RAM. It
can be accessed more rapidly than the RAM, but less rapidly than the level one
cache.
 Level three cache memory (called L3 Cache, for Level 3 Cache) is located on the
motherboard.

All these levels of cache reduce the latency time of various memory types
when processing or transferring information. While the processor works, the
level one cache controller can interface with the level two controller to
transfer information without impeding the processor. As well, the level two
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cache interfaces with the RAM (level three cache) to allow transfers without
impeding normal processor operation.

Control Signals

Control signals are electronic signals that orchestrate the various processor
units participating in the execution of an instruction. Control signals are sent
using an element called a sequencer. For example, the Read / Write signal
allows the memory to be told that the processor wants to read or write
information.

Functional Units

The processor is made up of a group of interrelated units (or control units).

Microprocessor architecture varies considerably from one design to another,
but the main elements of a microprocessor are as follows:

 A control unit that links the incoming data, decodes it, and sends it to the
execution unit: The control unit is made up of the following elements:
o Sequencer (or monitor and logic unit) that synchronizes instruction execution
with the clock speed. It also sends control signals;
o Ordinal counter that contains the address of the instruction currently being
executed;
o Instruction register that contains the following instruction.
 An execution unit (or processing unit) that accomplishes tasks assigned to it by
the instruction unit. The execution unit is made of the following elements:
o The arithmetical and logic unit (written ALU). The ALU performs basic
arithmetical calculations and logic functions (AND, OR, EXCLUSIVE OR, etc.);
o The floating point unit (written FPU) that performs partial complex calculations
which cannot be done by the arithmetical and logic unit.
o The status register;
o The accumulators register.
 A bus management unit (or input-output unit) that manages the flow of
incoming and outgoing information and that interfaces with system RAM.
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CHAPTER FIVE

Output Device

An output device is any electronic or electromechanical equipment connected

to a computer and used to transfer data out of the computer in the form of
text, images, sounds, or other media. Examples of output devices include
speakers, headphones, printer and screen/monitor.
Output devices are computer hardware that allows information in a computer
system to be accessed by a user or another system. It works with input devices
which allow users and other systems to send data. Other output devices allow
computers to send information visually such as texts, pictures and other
images.

TYPES OF OUTPUT DEVICES

Computer Monitors

The computer monitor is an output device that is part of your computer's

display system. A cable connects the monitor to a video adapter (video card)
that is installed in an expansion slot on your computer’s motherboard. This
system converts signals into text and pictures and displays them on a TV-like
screen (the monitor).

The computer sends a signal to the video adapter, telling it what character,
image or graphic to display. The video adapter converts that signal to a set of
instructions that tell the display device (monitor) how to draw the image on
the screen.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The CRT, or Cathode Ray Tube, is the "picture tube" of your monitor. Although
it is a large vacuum tube, it's shaped more like a bottle. The tube tapers near
the back where there's a negatively charged cathode, or "electron gun". The
electron gun shoots electrons at the back of the positively charged screen,
which is coated with a phosphorous chemical. This excites the phosphors
causing them to glow as individual dots called pixels (picture elements). The
image you see on the monitor's screen is made up of thousands of tiny dots
(pixels). If you've ever seen a child's LiteBrite toy, then you have a good idea of
the concept. The distance between the pixels has a lot to do with the quality of
 42

the image. If the distance between pixels on a monitor screen is too great, the
picture will appear "fuzzy", or grainy. The closer together the pixels are, the
sharper the image on screen. The distance between pixels on a computer
monitor screen is called its dot pitch and is measured in millimeters. You
should try to get a monitor with a dot pitch of .28 mm or less.

Note: From an environmental point of view, the monitor is the most difficult
computer peripheral to dispose of because of the lead it contains.

There are a couple of electromagnets (yokes) around the collar of the tube that
actually bend the beam of electrons. The beam scans (is bent) across the
monitor from left to right and top to bottom to create, or draw the image, line
by line. The number of times in one second that the electron gun redraws the
entire image is called the refresh rate and is measured in Hertz (Hz).
If the scanning beam hits each and every line of pixels, in succession, on each
pass, then the monitor is known as a non-interlaced monitor. A non-interlaced
monitor is preferred over an interlaced monitor. The electron beam on an
interlaced monitor scans the odd numbered lines on one pass, and then scans
the even lines on the second pass. This results in an almost unperceivable
flicker that can cause eye-strain.

This type of eye-strain can result in blurred vision, sore eyes, headaches and
even nausea. Don't buy an interlaced monitor, they can be a real pain in the
eyes... ask your optometrist.

Interlaced computer monitors are getting harder to find (good!), but they are
still out there, so keep that in mind when purchasing a monitor and watch out
for that "steal of a deal".

Video Technologies
Video technologies differ in many different ways. However, the major 2
differences are resolution and the number of colours it can produce at those
resolutions.

Resolution
Resolution is the number of pixels that are used to draw an image on the
screen. If you could count the pixels in one horizontal row across the top of the
screen, and the number of pixels in one vertical column down the side, that
would properly describe the resolution that the monitor is displaying. It’s given
 43

as two numbers. If there were 800 pixels across and 600 pixels down the side,
then the resolution would be 800 X 600. Multiply 800 times 600 and you’ll get
the number of pixels used to draw the image (480,000 pixels in this example).
A monitor must be matched with the video card in the system. The monitor
has to be capable of displaying the resolutions and colours that the adapter
can produce. It works the other way around too. If your monitor is capable of
displaying a resolution of 1,024 X 768 but your adapter can only produce 640 X
480, then that’s all you’re going to get.
When we talk about the different technologies, we’re talking about the video
card and monitor that make up that display system. Also, standards describe
the basic number of colours and resolutions for each technology, but individual
manufacturers always take liberties, providing options and enhancements that
are designed to make their product more appealing to the end user. This is, of
course, how new standards come about.

Monochrome
Monochrome monitors are very basic displays that produce only one colour.
The basic text mode in DOS is 80 characters across and 25 down. When
graphics were first introduced, they were fairly rough by today’s standards,
and you had to manually type in a command to change from text mode to
graphics mode. A company called Hercules Graphics developed a video adapter
that could do this for you. Not only could it change from text to graphics, but it
could do it on the fly whenever the application required it. Today’s adapters
still basically use the same methods.
CGA/EGA
The Colour Graphics Adapter (CGA) introduced colour to the personal
computer. In APA mode it can produce a resolution of 320 X 200 and has a
palette of 16 colours but can only display 4 at a time. With the introduction of
the IBM Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA), the proper monitor was capable of
a resolution of 640 X 350 pixels and could display 16 colours from a palette
of64.

VGA
Up until VGA, colours were produced digitally. Each electron beam could be
either on or off. There were three electron guns, one for each colour, red,
green and blue (RGB). This combination could produce 8 colours. By cutting the
intensity of the beam in half, you could get 8 more colours for a total of 16.
IBM came up with the idea of developing an analog display system that could
 44

produce 64 different levels of intensity. Their new Video Graphics Array

adapter was capable of a resolution of 640 X 480 pixels and could display up to
256 colours from a palette of over 260,000. This technology soon became the
standard for almost every video card and monitor being developed.

SVGA
Once again, manufacturers began to develop video adapters that added
features and enhancements to the VGA standard. Super-VGA is based on VGA
standards and describes display systems with several different resolutions and
a varied number of colours. When SVGA first came out it could be defined as
having capabilities of 800 X 600 with 256 colours or 1024 X 768 with 16
Colours. However, these cards and monitors are now capable of resolutions up
to 1280 X 1024 with a palette of more than 16 million colours.

XGA
Extended Graphics Array was developed by IBM. It improved upon the VGA
standard (also developed by IBM) but was a proprietary adapter for use in
Micro Channel Architecture expansion slots. It had its own coprocessor and
bus-mastering ability, which means that it had the ability to execute
instructions independent of the CPU. It was also a 32-bit adapter capable of
increased data transfer speeds. XGA allowed for better performance, could
provide higher resolution and more colours than the VGA and SVGA cards at
the time. However, it was only available for IBM machines. Many of these
features were later incorporated by other video card manufacturers.

Printer
An external hardware device responsible for taking computer data and
generating a hard copy of that data. Printers are one of the most used
peripherals on computers and are commonly used to print text, images, and
photos.

Types of printers
Below is a list of all the different types of computer printers. Today, the most
common printers used with a computer are Inkjet and Laser printers.
 45

AIO (All – In – One)

Alternatively referred to as a Multifunction printer (MFP), AIO is short for All-
In-One and is used to describe a hardware device such as an all-in-one printer
that is a printer, fax, and scanner and everything you'd need in one device. In
the picture below is an example of a Samsung all-in-one printer that is a laser
printer, sheet fed scanner, and flatbed scanner.

Advantages of All-In-One devices

 Take up less desk space and room by combining multiple devices (e.g. fax,
printer, and scanner) into one device.
 Less cords. Since the printer and the scanner are one device the AIO only
requires one power cord and usually one data (USB) cable.

DOT matrix
1. The term DOT matrix refers to the process of placing dots to form an image;
the quality of the image being determined by the dots per inch.
2. Alternatively referred to as a pin printer, Dot matrix printers were first
introduced by Centronics in 1970 and is a printer that uses print heads to shoot
ink or strike an ink ribbon to place hundreds to thousands of little dots to form
text or images. Today, Dot matrix printers are rarely used or found because of
the low quality print outs when compared to ink jet printers and laser printers.
In the picture below, is an example of what a dot matrix printer may have
looked like.

Inkjet printer
The most popular printer for home computer users that prints by spraying
streams of quick-drying ink on paper. The ink is stored in disposable ink
cartridges, often a separate cartridge is used for each of the major colors.
These colors are usually Black, Red/Magenta, Green/Cyan, and Yellow (CYMK).
In the picture below, is an example of a computer inkjet printer.
Although inkjet printers themselves are often relatively inexpensive, the ink
cartridges used in the printers can increase the overall cost of the printer.
 46

Tip: If you have no plans on printing in colour, I highly recommend a laser

printer instead of an Inkjet printer.

Laser printer

First developed at Xerox PARC by Gary Starkweather and released in 1971, a

laser printer is a printer that utilizes laser technology to print images on the
paper. Laser printers are often used in corporate, school, and other
environments that require print jobs to be completed quickly and in large
quantities. In the picture below, is an example of what a laser printer may look
like. This picture is of the Lexmark C782n laser printer and as can be seen much
larger than an ink jet printer found in most homes. Finally, below is a chart of
the steps a laser printer takes to print.

Laser printer printing steps

Cleaning
Removes prior image information and toner from the drum.

Conditioning
Applies a uniform negative charge to the drum.

Writing
Light source such as lasers, LED, or LCS (Liquid Crystal Shutter) write to areas
on the drum discharging the negative potential where it hits.

Developing
The toner is ionized with a negative charge and is attracted to the areas
previously written (discharged) on the drum.

Transfer
The toner of the drum is transferred to the paper by either a positively ionized
field (created by a transfer corona wire) or by a transfer roller in newer
 47

printers. The toner is not yet permanently set on the paper and requires the
last stage.

Fusing
Heat and pressure are applied to the paper and toner. The toner melts and
then is pressed to the paper like doing an iron-on transfer to a T-shirt.

Thermal printer
1. A thermal impact printer or electrothermal printer is a printer that uses
heated pins to "burn" images onto heat-sensitive paper. These printers are
commonly used in calculators and fax machines; and although they are
inexpensive and print relatively fast, they produce low resolution print jobs.
2. A thermal printer, thermal transfer printer, or thermal wax-transfer printer
is a high quality printer invented by Jack Kilby that commonly utilizes a thermal
wax ribbon that melts a colored wax onto the paper creating near photo-
realistic images.
LED Printer
Short for light emitting diode printer, LED printers were developed by Casio
and are printers capable of printing at the same or close to the same quality as
most laser printers. LED printers work much like laser printers, but utilize a LED
panel that recreates the image on a negatively charged drum. The areas where
the light hits the drum become less charged, which attracts toner. The printer
then transfers the toner from the drum to the paper and applies intense heat
to fuse the toner to the paper.

Plotter

A plotter is a computer hardware device similar to a printer that uses a pen,

pencil, marker or other writing tool to make a design. Often these printers are
used in schematics, CAD, and other print jobs. In the picture below, is an
example of what a plotter printer may look like.

Speaker

A hardware device connected to a computer's sound card that outputs sounds

generated by the computer. In the picture below, is the Altec Lansing VS2221
 48

speakers with subwoofer and resemble what most computer speakers look
like today. When computers were originally released they had on-board
speakers that generated a series of different tones and beeps. As multimedia
and games became popular, higher quality computers speakers began to be
released that required additional power. Because computer sound cards are
not powerful enough to power a nice set of speakers today's speakers are self-
powered, relatively small in size, and contain magnetic shielding.

Speakers are rated in Frequency response, Total Harmonic Distortion, and

Watts. The Frequency response is the rate of measurement of the highs and
lows of the sounds the speaker produces, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is
the amount of distortion created by amplifying the signal, and the Watts is the
amount of amplification available for the speakers.

Projector

An output device that can take the display of a computer screen and project a
large version of it onto a flat surface. Projectors are often used in meetings and
presentations to help make sure everyone in the room can view the
presentation. In the picture below, are a ViewSonic projector and an example
of what a projector may look like. Projectors used with computers are small
devices that are rarely much larger than a toaster and typically weigh a few