A Report on The Study and Analysis of Five

Vernacular Settlements of Nepal

Kathmandu University, School of Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering with Architecture Program

Mountain Architecture, ARCH 301

Date of Submission: 6th July 2021

Submitted by: Submitted to:

Aashraya Rajkarnikar Ar. Jharna Joshi
B.Arch T.Y. – 1 Course tutor
Roll no. 22 Mountain architecture, ARCH 301
Table of Contents

Introduction 3-4
Vernacular architecture, recent popularity and context in Nepal

Lo Manthang Settlement 5-12

Geography, history, climate, people and architecture

Gatlang Village 13-19

Geography, climate, people and architecture

Lwang Village 20-23

Geography, climate, people and architecture

Bungamati Settlement 24-29

Geography, history, climate, people and architecture

Sauraha Settlement 30-34

Geography, climate, people and architecture

Comparitive Analysis 35-38

Comparision of different aspects of architecture & conclusion

2
Abstract: Vernacular architecture is characteristic to the people, culture and climate of an
area. In ancient settlements, the primary goal of vernacular architecture has been to fulfill
the functional requirements of the people and to provide human comfort with the use of
locally available materials and natively developed construction methods. The architecture
of a place changes according to the lifestyle people living there and the people are also
dependent on the architecture. This report aims to study the characteristic traits of 5
settlements, their locations, geography, climate, terrain, and how the inhabitants of these
locations have adapted their architecture to suit these very characteristics. It also seeks to
study the culture, tradition and lifestyle of the inhabitants and analyze how each aspect is
interrelated to or is reflected in their architecture. Ultimately, this report compares the
similarities and differences between aspects of these settlements and the subsequent
differences in their architecture.

Introduction
Vernacular architecture is architecture that uses materials and construction techniques
that are native to a specific location, in order to respond to the climatic conditions,
landscape, as well as the space requirements of the people of that very location. It can
be described as a product of regional characteristics. It is the collision between intention
and condition (H Glassie 2000). Intention refers to the needs and functional requirements
of the people, which is derivative of their lifestyle and culture. This is why the architecture
of these places are so strongly influenced by factors like occupation, social structure,
traditions, festivals of the people. Condition refers to the requirements that are
established by the physical conditions of the location. Factors like geographic location,
climate, terrain, topography, available materials, etc. condition the inhabitants to build
architecture that is suited to withstand these factors and can provide human comfort in
the presence of these factors. As a result, vernacular architecture is observed to use
regional materials, and respond to microclimates of their particular locations.
An example of vernacular architecture can be seen in the upper mountainous terrains of
Mustang district in Nepal. The climate here is very cold and arid which demands houses
with high thermal retention capabilities. The geographical location also makes materials
like mud and stone readily available. As a result, the houses in Mustang have thick walls
with stone or mud bricks which are coated with layers of mud for insulation. The lack of
rain here gives rise to flat roofs which have a higher solar heat gain coefficient than sloped
roofs. It can be clearly observed how the architecture is a result of the conditions of the
location and how it responds to the needs and intentions of the inhabitants.

3
Similarly, the physical features of hilly areas of Nepal like the Kathmandu valley demand
a different type of architecture and so does the Terai region. To cover a wide variety of
unique settlements with different physical features and different ethnic groups, five
settlements all over different geographical regions of Nepal were chosen to be studied.
The five settlements that were studied and analyzed are as follows:
• Lo Manthang Settlement, Mustang
• Gatlang Village, Rasuwa
• Lwang Village, Kaski
• Bungamati Settlement, Lalitpur
• Sauraha Settlement, Chitwan

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Lo Manthang Settlement, Mustang

Geography
The Lo Manthang Settlement is an ancient medieval settlement near the Nepal-Tibet
border. It is located in the 4th Province of Nepal in the Upper Mustang region in the
Mustang district between Charang and Chhonhup which are former VDCs of the region.
The elevation of this settlement is at around 3600 meters to 3850 meters above the sea
level. The population of this settlement is around 1899 according to the 2011 census.

5
Climate
Lo-Manthang has a cool and semi-arid climate with an average high temperature of 18
degrees and an average low temperature of 10 degrees. The rainclouds coming from the
windward side are mostly blocked by the Dhaulagiri and Annapurna range which means
that Lo Manthang lies in the rain shadow area of the Dhaulagiri/Annapurna range. As a
result, this area experiences minimal to no rainfall (about 250-400mm) every year.
However, extremely strong winds blow through the large gorge created between the
mountainous terrains by the Kali Gandaki river.

Lo Manthang as a rain shadow

area
Topography
As shown in figure, on the North and
South of the settlement are rugged
mountainous terrains This rugged
terrain prevents access from these
directions. However, from the East
and West, the settlement can be
accessed through the low gorge along
the Kali Gandaki river. The settlement
itself, is in a relatively flat land at an
altitude of 3800m with a slight
downward slope towards the river.
The areas closer to the river comprise Location Plan of the settlement
of farmlands where wheat and barley
are grown.

6
 Location Plan of the settlement

History
This settlement falls on the trans-Himalayan trade route which is a historic trade route
that runs across the Nepal-Tibet border. Historically, this trade route was used to trade
salt from the Tibetan plateau with the crops and agricultural products of the Nepalese
lowlands. (Peissel, 1992) The Lo Manthang settlement was the capital of the Kingdom Lo.
It was ruled by king Ama-d’pa who built the four-storey palace in 1440 A.D. The Jampa
Gompa and Thubchen Gompa, two Buddhist monasteries were built in the early 15 th
century. The wall around the settlement was built in the second half of the 15th century
for defense against other kingdoms at the time (Darnal, 2017). These days, the settlement
can be seen on an overgrowth, with houses being made outside its fortified walls.

People and Culture

Historically the original inhabitants of the Lo Manthang
settlement were the Loba people (Pyakurel, Bhatta, 2021). The
Lobas are tribespeople of Tibetan origin. They are often
ethnically referred to as Bhote. The Loba people are primarily
farmers, shepherds and merchants of high Himalayan areas.
The farmers grow crops like wheat, rice and barley in the area
close to the Kaligandaki river. The people who are into animal
husbandry keep sheep, yaks and even horses. Traditionally, the

7
most important festivals celebrated by the people of Lo Manthang are the Tiji festival,
and Yartung festival.

Salt trading Farming Animal Husbandry

Salt trading

Settlement Pattern and Architecture

The settlement pattern of Lo
Manthang is very compact.
Houses here are joined wall to
wall with narrow alleyways that
can be used to navigate the
settlement. The compact
settlement is surrounded by a
6m tall fortification wall in the
shape of an L. There are very few
open spaces, the main being the
plaza in front of the palace which
is used for gatherings and
celebration of festivals. The Settlement Plan of Lo Manthang
other two open spaces are the Salt trading

assembly in the New Gompa and an open space outside the wall near the check post.
Houses are stuck to each other and the entire settlement is accessible from roof to roof.
Visual hierarchy can be seen in the buildings with the palace being the highest (4 storey),
and houses being lower (3, 2 and 1 storey). Religious architecture can be seen scattered
throughout the settlement with the Chortens placed at the outskirts and the Gompas
being placed at the heart of the settlement. These religious structures are dissociated
from the other buildings by their red exterior which is painted on their walls. On the
contrary, exterior walls of dwellings are white washed.

8
 Narrow alleyways Festival settlement in Plaza

The dwellings of Lo Manthang have

unique characteristics. Many of these
small rectangular houses are seen with an
open courtyard in the middle. Main
windows of the house open up towards
the courtyards whereas smaller and
minimal windows face the outside. The
roofs of these houses are extremely
uniform and smooth. In a typical
vernacular house in this settlement Houses in Lo Manthang
(shown in figure), The ground floor is

Ground Floor Plan First Floor Plan

entirely dedicated for grain storage and cattle sheds or stables. The upper floors consist
of living spaces i.e., the kitchen and the living room. These rooms are generally placed
adjacent to each other. In addition to these, a deity room is also seen on the upper floors
that people use for prayer and worship. The upper floors generally have an outdoor

9
terrace that has a ladder which leads up to the roof. The ladder is made up of a single log
with steps cut into it. The roof and the terrace spaces are used by the people to bask in
the sunlight while performing household activities. Bunches of firewood can be seen left
to be dried on the edges of a roof that gives the houses of this settlement their
characteristic look.

Roof Plan Single Log Ladder

Materials and Construction technology

All the materials used in the settlement have been locally sourced. Natural stone and
rubble are used in the foundation and plinths, timber posts and beams are used as
support structures for upper floors. Sundried bricks and mud mortar are used in the
construction of walls. These sundried bricks have been reinforced with cut wheat and rice
husk. The external fortification is done by rammed earth walls made by compressing the
surrounding earth.

10
 Construction Process of a house

For construction of houses, a thick layer of rubble stone masonry is used for the
foundation and plinth. Stone masonry is also seen being used in walls up to 1 m above
the plinth. Then, a layer of sundried bricks bound by mud mortar is laid on top of the
plinth. On the outside, the walls are covered with another layer of mud mortar which is
finished by white washing. On the inside, at the same time, timber posts and beams are
erected to support joists which in turn support the floor above. The floor above is a series
of timber planks layered with wheat stalks and finally a 10 cm layer of packed white clay.

11
If the upper floor is the roof, two extra layers of bricks are laid as a parapet wall where
timber is dried. (Weise, 2016)
The installation of windows is done simultaneously with the walls. A single frame is used,
often carved and painted. Wooden blocks that span the width of the wall are fixed
perpendicular to the top member of the frame, which is then covered with wooden planks
to hold the earthen wall (Weise, 2016).

Installation of Window

The social structure of the Loba people has affected the architecture here. We can
observe that the buildings within the wall are at different elevations. This is because the
feudal lords have 3-storey houses, the commoners have 2-storey houses and the people
of the lower ladder were only allowed to have single storey houses without walls in
compounds.

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Gatlang Village, Rasuwa

Geography
Gatlang village is a rural village located in the northwestern part of Rasuwa district in the
3rd Province of Nepal. It lies at an elevation of around 2200m and has a population of
2,183 (“About Gatlang,” 2014). Gatlang is located in a mountainous geographical area
between the Kathmandu Valley and high Himalayan ridges with a latitude of 28’ 9’ 44” N
and a longitude of 85 16’ 4” E. It lies on the north facing slope of a hill uphill from the
Trishuli river and downhill from Goljung village.

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Climate and Topography
According to the Koppen climate classification, Gatlang lies in the Dry-inter subtropical
highland climate zone.Maximum precipitation occurs during the monsoon (around
400mm average) and minimum occurs during winter (around 35mm average) (“About
Gatlang,” 2014). The settlement is located on a hilly terrain with a valley nearby where
the Trishuli river flows. The areas closer to the river are used for maize and millet fields.
Abundant trees (Pine, Fir and Spruce) are found in the surrounding hills. (F. J. Castilla, J.
Agulló, Castellote, 2020).

Location Plan and topographical section

History and People
In the 13th century, a group of people from Tibet decided
to build a new village near Lake Aamachhodingmo that
they considered a sacred lake. Later in the 14th century,
another village was founded to the northeast and at a
lower altitude, this village is the one that we can consider
as the current Gatlang. The primary demographic of
Gatlang village is the Tamang ethnic group. The lifestyle
of the people here is mainly based around yak and sheep
herding, cheese production and selling livestock.
Subsistence farming is also done at the areas closer to the

14
river. Food like potatoes, barley, corn and millet are grown.

Animal Husbandry Farming

Ground Floor Plan

The main religion of the people here is Buddhism. Sonam Lhosar, Buddha Jayanti and Jeth
Mani festival are some of the most popular festivals celebrated amongst the people.

Settlement Pattern and Architecture

The settlement has been built starting from
the lower parts of the hill and slowly moving
upward. This is evident from the carved
finishes in stone and wood that can be seen in
the houses closer to the river that are absent
in the houses in the higher parts (F. J. Castilla,
J. Agulló, Castellote, 2020). The houses here
are huddled together in multiple rows with
spaces in between. The houses in rows have
shared walls and have different elevations
descending with the terrain. Since the land is Settlement Plan
sloped upwards towards the south, the
facades of these rows face the south east direction to take in sunlight. The ample space
between two rows ensures that one row doesn’t block the sunlight on the other. After

15
 Section of the settlement

the earthquake in 2015, temporary houses were made of wood and GI sheets which are
marked in red in figure.
Typical houses of Gatlang are
somewhat similar but very
different to houses in Lo
Manthang. Seen in the floor plans
(figure), the ground floor is used
for storage of firewood, crops,
straw bales and a shed for cattle.
The upper floor is used as a living,
kitchen and bedroom space. The
access to the upper floor is done
by a wooden ladder that leads to a
small balcony on the façade. The House in Gatlang

Floor Plans

16
external wall of the houses is made up of dry rubble masonry whereas the internal
support structure, the partitions and the
roof structure are made out of wood.
Sometimes, extra sheds are made
outside the houses to accommodate
more cattle.
One distinct architectural feature of the
houses here is the sculpted wooden
windows that are placed in the facades.
These facades are painted in a House Section
decorative manner and reflect a strong
symbolic character relating to Buddhism. The interiors of the houses are divided into
spaces of different functions by wooden partition walls. The living spaces have small
chapels for everyday worship. Another distinct feature of these houses is the roof that is
covered with layers of timber planks held down with rocks. These timber planks, after
sitting in the sun for long periods of time, turn into a greyish black color which gives the
roofs their distinct look. This is also why the village is called the Gatlang black village.
(Pokhrel)

Sculpted window in facade Storage shelves in kitchen Chapel in living space

Materials and Construction technology

Like in the previous settlement, the building materials used here are also locally sourced.
The exterior walls are made of dry stone, timber posts are used for supporting upper
floors, bamboo is used as joists in the roof structure and timber planks are used for roof
covering.

17
For the roof, the frame structure is set up at the beginning with bamboo sticks which are
tied to the joists with wires, The timber planks are set on top of the frame and held down
by rocks. The construction procedure of the timber roof is shown in the sketches below.

Dry stone Timber Posts Bamboo Timber Planks

Dry stone masonry is used for the construction of walls, which means no mortar is used
to bind the stones together. Hence, the rocks have to be cut with high precision for the
wall to be stable. The floors above are supported by timber posts which have a wooden
bracket that are connected to the beams by mortise and tenon joints as shown in figure.
(F. J. Castilla, J. Agulló, Castellote, 2020).

Roof Construction Process

18
Dry Stone Masonry Timber joint details

19
Lwang Village, Kaski

Geography and Climate

Lwang is a Gurung Village located in south-western Kaski in the 4th Province of Nepal. It
lies on high hills towards the north-east of Pokhara. The village is located at an elevation
of around 1460m. The landscape of this area is somewhat similar to the landscape of
Gatlang village with the village being on a north facing slope uphill from the Mardi River.
However, the climate here is very different. Lwang lies in a humid subtropical climate with
plenty of rain (~600mm annually). Because of the rain, the area is full of fertile soil that
supports agriculture. There is also plenty of vegetation in the surroundings.

20
People and Culture
The majority of the population here is made up of Gurung people who are said to have
migrated to Nepal from Tibet during the 7th to 10th century. The main religion here is
Buddhism and the primary occupation is agriculture and herding sheep. People here make
rice, wheat, etc. The main festivals celebrated here are Tamu Lhosar, Ghatu dance, Tohte
Parva and Rodhi dance.

Farming Sheep Herding Weaving

Farming

Settlement Pattern and Architecture

Houses here face the south-east because of the
upward slope towards the south. However,
houses here are more loosely spaced, clustered
around the existing road. Stone pathways
connect the clusters of houses together.
Typical houses in Lwang are two-storey with a
rectangular plan. Kitchen and living spaces are on
the ground floor. These spaces have a fireplace,
a space for storing firewood and a narrow Location Plan
wooden ladder that leads to the upper floor. The
upper floor is called the Aati which is used as a
space for storage of grains. The Pidhi is a porch or a transitional space at the entrance of
the building which is used for household activities. The houses here have small wooden
windows on the façade which are primarily for ventilation in the grain storage room.

21
Typical house in Lwang Crops dried in front yard

Fireplace, Ladder, Firewood storage and grain storage

22
Materials
The construction materials used in these houses are locally sourced. Slate is used as a roof
covering, stone is used to build walls, timber is used for support and cow dung and red
mud are used as finishing materials for walls and floors.

Slate Natural Stone Timber Posts

Cow dung Red Mud

23
Bungamati settlement, Lalitpur

Geography, Topography and Climate

Bungamati settlement is an ancient Newari settlement located in Lalitpur in the 3 rd
Province. It has a population of around 5966 (2011 census). It lies in the mid-hill ranges
of Nepal towards the south of Khokana. The landscape across Bungamati is a series of
hilltops and valleys as shown in figure.
Bungamati has a sub-tropical climate. There’s plenty of rainfall here with a highest
average precipitation of 778mm.

24
History
Historically, Bungamati was built as a satellite city of the Malla
kingdom around fertile fields. Because of a harsh drought,
Machhindranath God was called upon to reside in the valley. The
temple where Machhindranath resides was built by the king in
Bungamati. As tradition, a sculptural embodiment of
Machhindranath is taken from Bungamati to Patan in a chariot
during the summers.

People and Culture

The people here are mostly Newars whose lifestyle is heavily influenced by culture and
tradition. The main occupation of the people here are weaving, agriculture wood carving,
sculpting and handicraft. The main festival of Bungamati is the Machhindranath jatra
whereas Bhairav jatra and Ganesh jatra are secondary ones.

Farming Woodcarving
Weaving and knitting
Settlement Pattern and
Architecture
25
The settlement in Bungamati is
clustered around two main areas: the
temple square and the Pokhari (de
Pokhu). Rows of houses can be seen
densely located around these areas.
These two areas are connected by a
major street where the chariot runs
through. Narrow secondary streets
run through the settlement providing
access to pedestrians and connecting
dwellings to the square. Nodal points
in these streets have Pati which is a
resting space meant for passers-by
but is also used by the local people to Settlement Plan
sit and interact.

Crop-drying in town square De Pokhu Tertiary roads

A typical house in Bungamati is a three and a half storey building with vertically divided
spaces. As shown in the section, the ground floor is called cheli which is where the shop
is, the first floor is called mata which is the bedroom, the second floor is called chota,
which is the living room and the attic is called the baiga, which is the kitchen and dining
room. These houses have features of the typical Newari house. Low and narrow wooden
doors as entrances, different types of small wooden windows, projected brick cornices,
gable roofs with jhingati tiles, alleys at the bottom of houses that connect to streets.

26
 Section of a house in Bungamati Typical house in Bungamati

Low wooden doors Small wooden windows Gable roof

Alleys connecting streets Brick cornices

27
Materials and Construction Technology
The main materials used for building in Bungamati are brick and mud mortar. However,
the architecture here has seen an extensive use of rubble stone for foundations and
plinths because of its abundance near the bank of the Bagmati river. Jhingati tiles are used
for roof covering. Timber posts are used as support structures. (Korn, 2014)

Burnt bricks Rubble stone Mud Plaster

Jhingati tiles Timber Posts

For the construction of the foundation, rubble stones are laid in the bottom layer and
burnt bricks are laid on the upper layers supporting the wall. For the wall itself, the
exterior is lined with burnt bricks (dachi appa) and the interior is lined with sun dried
bricks. The upper floors are supported by timber columns and beams on which timber
planks are laid. The floor and walls are lined with a layer of mud plaster as finishing. For
the roof, the timber rafters are supported by the eaves board which in turn is supported
by wooden struts. On the rafters, a layer of mud plaster is laid and jhingati tiles are then
inserted into the plaster from the bottom up as shown in figure. (Korn, 2014)

28
Construction Details, Detail references taken
from Korn (2014)

29
Sauraha Settlement, Chitwan

Geography and Topography

The Sauraha settlement is a Tharu settlement located in Chitwan in the 3rd Province. This
settlement is located towards the south of the Chure range at the bank of the Rapti river.
It is located at around 27°30′0″N, 84°20′0″E and has an average elevation 190 m. It is
located south of the Chure range which has hills of up to 600m.

30
 Topography of Terai

Climate
The climate here is humid-subtropical characterized by hot and humid summers and mild
winters. The average high temperature is 35 degrees and the average low is 10 degrees.
There is plenty of rainfall in Chitwan during the monsoon with a yearly average of over
2000 mm.

People and Culture

The primary demographic of the Sauraha settlement is Tharus. Tharus have been the
original inhabitants of the lowlands of Nepal. Their occupations are agriculture, fishing
and animal husbandry. Tharus of Sauraha are also into bamboo sewing because of the
abundant bamboo that is available here. The main festivals that they celebrate are the
Jitya festival, Maghi festival and Tihar. (Ways, 2020)

Farming Fishing Bamboo Sewing

31
Settlement Pattern and Architecture
The settlement in Sauraha is very loose with larger
distances between houses. They are located away
from the main road, but are placed along tertiary
roads and connected by mud paths. They generally
oriented with the longer axis along the north-south
direction. The boundary of these houses is defined
by bamboo hedges and trees.
A typical house in Sauraha has a rectangular plan
with the façade facing the road. The exterior spaces
can be divided as the outer courtyard and the inner
courtyard. The outer courtyard in front of the house
is allocated for gatherings and celebration whereas
the inner courtyard is separated for household work
like drying straw, cow dung, etc. The house itself is
divided into three spaces namely Bhitar, Bahari and
Ghari. The Ghari is a shaded space for cows and hay
storage and the bhitar is the interior of the house
with living spaces. The Bahari is a buffer space
between the outside and the inside spaces and also
separates the living spaces form the cowshed. These Settlement Plan
houses have pitched roofs for protection against
heavy rain. On the inside, the sleeping space, kitchen and deity room are partitioned by
means of hollow containers used to store grains. The inner space is also divided vertically
by a wooden platform. This space is used as an attic where more grains are stored. The
cross ventilation in the attic makes it a very good storage space for grains.1

Typical house in Sauraha

32
All materials used in this settlement are locally sourced. Bamboo is used as a frame
structure for the walls, cow dung and mud mortar are used for finishing and thatch is used
for the roof. Khapda tiles can also be seen being used on the roofs of some houses. 1

Bamboo sticks Cow dung Thatch

Mud Khapda tiles

For the construction of the walls, a mesh like structure is made out of bamboo sticks
which is layered on the outside and inside with a mixture of mud, cow dung and rice husk.
During this process, small holes are left in the bamboo mesh which serve the purpose of
ventilation.

Construction of the walls

33
For the roof, the ridge beam and joists are made out of bamboo and on the bamboo
frame, bunches of thatch are tied from the bottom up, in overlapping layers. This keeps
out the rain while also protecting the inside from harsh sunlight. In some cases, Khapda
tiles are used on the roof. They are semicircular tiles that aid in stormwater drainage.

Construction of the thatch roof

Construction of roof with Khapda tiles

34
Comparative Analysis of Vernacular Settlements

Lo
Gatlang Lwang Bungamati Sauraha
Manthang
Location Mustang Rasuwa Kaski Lalitpur Chitwan
Geographica
Mountain Mountain Hilly Hilly Terai
l zone
Elevation ~3600m ~2200m ~1460 ~1335 ~155
cool, semi Humid, humid,subtro
Climate subtropical
arid subtropical pical
Ethnic group Lobhas Tamang Gurung Newar Tharu
Animal
husbandry
Trade, Agriculture, Agriculture, Agriculture,
, cheese
agriculture, sheep woodcarvin fishing,
Occupation productio
animal herding, g, rope- bamboo
n,
husbandry weaving wool making sewing
agricultur
e
Evenly
distribute Clustered
Settlement Highly
d with Clustered Linear along tertiary
pattern compact
shared roads
walls
Stepped Facades
Most Longer face Longer axis
Building roofs open oriented
Buildings face usually along N-S
orientation up towards towards
southeast faces south direction
south southeast
Square, Square
Building rectangular Rectangul temple,
Rectangular Rectangular
form with ar rectangular
courtyard houses

35
 Lo
Gatlang Lwang Bungamati Sauraha
Manthang

Roof Sloped roof

Sloped
Flat supported by Gable roof Sloped
roof
struts
Number of 1-2 for
storeys houses, 3-4 2 1-2 3 and a half 1
for palace
Spaces Ghari (hay
(interior) Cattle Cheli, Mata store, pig
courtyard Aagan, Pidhi,
shed, (bedroom), pen), Bahara
Storage, Kitchen,
Storage, Chota (transitional
Cattle shed, bedroom,
Kitchen, (Living space),
Bedroom, firewood
Bedroom, room), Bhitar
Kitchen, storage, grain
Water Baiga (kitchen,
Deity room , storage
storage (Kitchen) bedroom,
deity room)
Foundation Rubble Rubble Rubble Rammed
Rubble stone
stone stone stone earth
Wall Sun dried Bamboo
bricks, Stone and Burnt mesh filled
Dry stone
rammed mud bricks with mud &
earth cow dung
Roof Timber
Jhingati Thatch roof
Mud filling planks
Slate over tiles over bamboo
over over
timber inserted in framework
wooden bamboo
framework mud or Khapda
structure framewor
mortar roof
k

36
 Lo
Gatlang Lwang Bungamati Sauraha
Manthang

Floor Timber
planks laid
Timber Timber planks
Timber over layer
covered covered with Mud flooring
planks of bricks,
with mud mud
covered
with mud
Finishing Mud mortar none Mud mortar Mud Mud mixed
mortar on with cow
the inside dung

Conclusion
Architecture is highly dependent on the land configuration, climate as well as culture and
lifestyle of the people in a place. The people in a place are also dependent on its
architecture. Architecture that responds to the needs of people can help the community
thrive. The symbiotic relationship existing between the people and their architecture
shown in the above 5 settlements must be well preserved

37
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Material In-text
Bibliography
type Citation
(H Glassie
Book Henry Glassie (2000) Vernacular Architecture
2000)
(Peissel, Peissel Michael, 1937, Mustang, the forbidden kingdom:
Book
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(Darnal, Prakash Darnal, 2017, Significant Heritages of Upper
Article
2017) Mustang and Issue of Conservation
Neel Kamal Chapagain, Revisiting Conservation Charters in
Research (Chapagain Context Of
Paper N. K., 2007) Lomanthang, Nepal: Need to Acknowledge Local
Inhabitants And Changing Contexts
(Weise, Kai Weise (August 4, 2016) The Courtyard Houses of Upper
Website
2016) Mustang
(About
Prapati Kunda Homestay (2014), About Gatlang
Website Gatlang,
https://parpatikundahomestay.com/about-gatlang/
2014)
(F. J. Castilla,
F. J. Castilla, J. Agulló, J. Castellote Characterization and
J. Agulló,
Article Proposals for Recovery of Traditional Tamang Construction
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in Northern Nepal
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black-roofs-of-gatlang
Wolfgang Korn (2014), The Traditional Architecture of the
Book (Korn, 2014)
Kathmandu Valley

Website - Lwangghale, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lwangghale

David Ways (2020) Guide to Visiting a Tharu Village in

Chitwan
Website (Ways, 2020)
https://www.thelongestwayhome.com/travel-
guides/nepal/tharu-village-chitwan.html
Chitwan Tharu Village
1
Website https://www.amazing-world-in-free-stock-pictures-and-
photos.com/chitwan-tharu-village.html

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