The Child and Adolescent Learner

and Learning Principles

MIDTERMS REVIEWER

Arielle Grace J. Yalung

BEED 2B
CHAPTER 1: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS
I. DEFINITION OF CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
a. Childhood
 The time or state of being a child, the early stage in the existence of
development of something.
 A time of innocence, where one is free from responsibility but vulnerable to
forces in his environment.
Changing Patterns of Childhood

 The “typical” free child belonged to a homogenous society where he had to contend with similar
values, common religious precepts and expectations, and opportunities from a characteristically
rural setting.
 With the onset of the 20th century, the “typical child” is confronted with more complex forces in
the environment and in particular in a society that offers varies rules and choices and institutions.
 In mid-nineteenth century, reaching all ethnic and economic groups was the “extension of
childhood.” The extension of childhood was actually a stretching of adolescence, a term
popularized at the turn of the 20th century by child psychologist G. Stanley Hall
 By the 1960s lawmakers recognized the lengthening of childhood of girls by raising the age consent
during the 19th century when the average of 27 fell to 22. This was followed by attempts were seen
in the changes in health and welfare of children.
 All children were educated to meet the needs of their communities.
 Members of every cultural group raised children to understand their particular traditions.
 Many of the issues that have characterized children’s experiences in the past continue to shape their
lives up to the present.

b. Adolescence
 Adolescence (Latin adolescentia, from adolescere, “to grow up”) is the period of
psychological and social transition between childhood and adulthood.
 As a modern cultural and social phenomenon “adolescence” and its end-points are
not tied to physical milestones. The word is derived from the Latin noun dolor
meaning “pain”.

 The ages of adolescence vary by culture. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines
adolescence as the period of life between 10 and 19 years of age.
 A teenager or teen is a person whose age I a number ending in “teen,” someone from the age
13 to 19.

II. THE RIGHTS OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS

Presidential Decree No. 603 dated December 10, 1974 (Bustos, et al., 1999) listed down the
Rights of Children and Young Persons. This was aimed at understanding children better and
for the Filipino teacher to be more aware of the children’s rights. The code contained the
following provisions:
  To understand and help children better, it is important for every Filipino teacher to be
cognizant of such rights. The provisions of the Code regarding such rights are as
follows:
1. All children shall be entitled to the rights herein set forth without distinction
as to legitimacy or illegitimacy, sex, social status, religion, political
antecedents, and other factors.
2. Every child is endowed with dignity and worth of a human being from the
moment of his conception, as generally accepted in medical parlance, and has
therefore, the right to be born well
3. Every child has the right to a wholesome family life that will provide him with
love, care, and understanding, guidance, and counseling, moral and material
security
4. Every child has the right to a well-rounded development of his personality to
the end that he may become a happy, useful, and active member of society.
5. Every child has the right to a balanced diet, adequate clothing, sufficient
shelter, proper medical attention, and all the basic physical requirements of a
healthy and vigorous life.
6. Every child has the right to be brought up in an atmosphere of morality and
rectitude for the enrichment and the strengthening of his character.
7. Every child has the right to an education commensurate with his abilities and
to the development of his skills for the improvement of his capacity for service
to himself and his fellowmen.
8. Every child has the right to full opportunities for safe and wholesome
recreation and activities, individual as well as social, for the wholesome use of
his leisure hours.
9. Every child has the right to protection against exploitation, improper
influences, hazards, and other conditions or circumstances prejudicial to his
physical, mental, emotional, social, and moral development.
10. Every child has the right to live in a community and a society that can offer
him an environment free from pernicious influences and conducive to the
promotion of his health and the cultivation of his desirable traits and attributes.
11. Every child has the right to the care, assistance, and protection of the state,
particularly when his parents or guardians fail or unable to provide him with
his fundamental needs for growth, development, and improvement.
12. Every child has the right to an efficient and honest government that will deepen
his faith in democracy and inspire him with the morality of the constituted
authorities both in their public and private lives.
13. Every child has the right to grow up as a free individual, in an atmosphere of
peace, understanding, tolerance, and universal brotherhood and with the
determination to contribute his share in the building of a better world.
*UNCRC – United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989.
*CRC – Convention of the Rights of the Child
The State Parties to the Convention shall:
a. Respect and ensure the rights to each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind,
irrespective of the child’s parents or his or her legal guardian’s race, color, sex, language, religion,
property, political opinion, national ethnic or social origin, property, birth or other status (Article 2:1)
b. Register the child immediately after birth and have the right from birth to a name, nationality, and right
to know and be cared by his parents (Article 7:1)
c. Ensure that a child shall not be separated from his/her parents against his will, except when separation
is necessary for the best interests of the child after having been determined by judicial review (Article
9:1)
d. Respect the rights of the child to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion (Article 14:1)
e. Recognize the rights of the child to freedom of association and peaceful assembly (Article 15:1)
f. Not subject the child to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home, or
correspondence nor to unlawful attacks on his honor and reputation (Article 16:1)
g. Recognize the important function of mass media and ensure that the child had access to
information/material from a diversity of national and international sources (Article 17:a,b)
h. Ensure recognition that both parents have common responsibilities for the upbringing and development
of the child (Article 18:1)
i. Take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social, and educational measures to protect the child
from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect, maltreatment, and exploitation
(Article 19:1)
j. Provide assistance to a child temporarily deprived of a family environment (Article 20:1)
k. Permit a system of adoption that shall ensure that the best interests of the child shall be paramount
consideration (Article 21:1)
l. Recognize for every child the right to benefit from social security (Article 26:1)
m. Recognize the right of the child to education with a view to achieving this right progressively and on
the basis of equal opportunity (Article 28:1)
n. Recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any
work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with child’s education (Article 32:1)

III. THE SITUATION OF FILIPINO CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS

1. Children’s Hour
2. BPI Foundation “Ang Panaghoy ng mga Bata”
3. Tahanan Outreach Projects and Services, Inc (TOPS)
4. Create Responsive Infants by Sharing (CRIBS)
5. Filiae Aesculapii (Daughters of Aesculapius)
CHAPTER 2
I. PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
A. EARLY CHILDHOOD
 Growth is manifested at the earliest stage, usually following a cephalocaudal
trend in the lengthening of the neck and torso followed by the legs.
 According to Tanner (1990), genetic factors strongly influence physical
characteristics.
 It is between ages 6 and 12 that children grow 2 to 3 inches high and 16 pounds
each year
 Among school-aged children, this development is seen fine motor coordination as
exemplified in writing, drawing, cutting, and other related school tasks.
  Motor development improve with age such motor skills involves large muscle
movements along with fine motor skills, controlled by small muscles.

B. MIDDLE CHILDREN
 Motor development. As children age, coordination both in fine motors skills and
those involving large-muscles improves.

C. ADOLESCENCE
 Puberty brings about the physical differences that differentiate females and
males.
 Spermarche – the first ejaculation of semen containing ejaculate for males
 Menarche – the beginning of the menstrual cycle for the female.

II. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

A. EARLY CHILDHOOD
 The brain continues to develop after birth
 Brain development proceeds at an uneven pace occurring between 3 to 10 months
and between 15 and 24 months.
 There are 100 billion neurons or brain cells present at birth which conduct
nerve impulses.

 Glial Cells – responsible for the increase in brain cells/ production of myelin
 Myelin – a fatty substance that forms the covering of the axon of the neuron, the long filament
extending out form the cell body which the neuron makes contact with other nerve cells.
 Myelination of nerve fibers grows at different paces for different parts of the brain.

 Peripheral Nervous System – the length of axons increases and tiny branchlike fibers or dendrites
at the end of axon increases in density over the first two years of life.

 The sensory and motor areas are the primary sites of brain growth during the first
spurt of brain growth that the focus of development shifts to the frontal lobes of the
cerebral cortex.
 Myelination continues through middle childhood in particular the reticular
formation and the nerves linking the reticular formation to the frontal lobes.
 The ability to control attention increases significantly during the middle childhood.
 The particular kind of concentration, referred to as selective attention is a result of
the continuous myelination that allows the frontal lobes and reticular formation to
work together.
 Selective attention – allows children to focus cognitive ability in the elements of
a problem or situation.
 The full myelination of the reticular formation and the frontal lobes enables the
children between ages 6 and 12 to function more like adults in the presence of possible
distractions.

B. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
 95% of brain growth is reached by the time a child reaches the age of 9
1. Cell proliferation – over production of neurons and interconnections
2. Cell pruning – selective elimination of excess cells and cutting back of connections.

 There is an ability to identity and act a relationship between objects in space. This
results from the laterization of special perception, occurring at the right cerebral
hemisphere.

C. ADOLESCENCE
 In the teenage years, there are 2 major brain growth spurts, one occurring
between ages 13-15 and the second brain growth spurt, beginning around age 17
and which continues into early adulthood.
 In the first spurt, the cerebral cortex becomes thicker and neuronal pathway
become more efficient.
 The second brain growth spurt has the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex as
focus of development.

III. FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT: MATERNAL NUTRITION, CHILD

NUTRITION. EARLY SENSORY STIMULATION
1. Maternal Nutrition
- Mother supplies all the nutrients to the inborn fetus through the food intake so the she
should take care of her diet for her sake and that of the fetus
2. Child Nutrition
- Adequate nutrition contributes to a continuous brain growth, rapid skeletal, and
muscular development
3. Early Sensory Stimulation
- Children under 6 years of age tend to be farsighted because their eyes have not matures
and are shaped differently from those of adults.

 FACTORS THAT AFFECT GROWTH

1. Genetic History
2. Nutrition
3. Medical Conditions
4. Exercise
5. Sleep
6. Emotional Well Being

IV. EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: PHYSICAL DISABILITIES, SENSORY

IMPAIRMENTS, LEARNING DISABILITIES AND ATTENTION DEFICIT
HYPERACTIVITY DISORDERS

A. PHYSICAL DISABILITIES
1. Impairment of the Bone and Muscle Systems
2. Impairment of the Nerve and Muscle Systems
3. Deformities or absence of Body Organs and Systems
 CAUSES:
1. PRENATAL FACTORS
a. Genetic or Chromosomal Aberrations
b. Prematurity
c. Infection
d. Malnutrition
e. Irradiation
f. Metabolic Disturbances
g. Drug Abuse
h. Birth Injuries
i. Difficult Labor
j. Hemorrage

2. POSTNAL FACTORS
a. Infections
b. Tumor or Absess in the Brain
c. Fractures and Dislocations
d. Tuberculosis of the Bones
e. Cerebrovascular Injuries
f. Post-seizure or Post-Surgical Complications
g. Arthritis, Rheumatism

B. SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS
1. Visual Impairment
2. Blindness

VISUAL ACTIVITY PROBLEMS:

1. Reduce Visual Activity – Poor Sight
2. Amblyopia – Lazy Eye
3. Hyperopia – Farsightedness
4. Myopia – Near sightedness
5. Astigmatism – Imperfect Vision

OTHER VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS:

1. Albinism
2. Cataracts
3. Macular Degeneration
4. Diabetic Retinopathy
5. Glaucoma
6. Retinitis Pigmentosa
7. Retinopathy of Prematurity

*Impairment – any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function

*Disability – any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range
considered normal for a human being
*Handicap – a disadvantage for a given individual that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is
normal.
*Prenatal Factors – factors that affect development before and after conception virtually lasting up to the
first trimester or the third trimester of life especially genetic, prematurity, infections, malnutrition,
irradiation, metabolic disturbances and drug abuse.
*Perinatal Factors – relating to or being the period around childbirth that cause crippling includes birth
injuries, difficult labor and haemorrhage.
*Postnatal Factors – the factors causing crippling conditions after birth such as infections, tumor, fractures,
tuberculosis of the bones, cerebrovascular injuries and post seizure and arthritis.
HEARING IMPAIRMENTS

 Auditory handicap – auditory problems is severe and beyond correction

*Students with auditory handicap are hearing impaired which most always manifests in their poor
language development.
*Quality of voice is difficult to comprehend, difficult to hear themselves or others, shows speech
difficulties/vocabulation seize on their first year/coding
1. Deaf Individuals – hearing disability precludes successful processing of linguistic information through
hearing with or without a hearing aid.
2. Hard of Hearing Individuals – use hearing aid
3. Deafness:
a. Prelingual – deafness present at birth or occurring before language or speech development (requires
specialized services with special instrument)
b. Postlingual – deafness occurs after speech or language development (physical impairment on the inner
ear)

CAUSES OF DEAFNESS
1. Prenatal Causes
a. Toxic Conditions
b. Viral Diseases
c. Congenital Defects
2. Perinatal Causes
a. Injury
b. Anoxia – lack of oxygen due to prolonged labor
c. Heavy – overdosed anesthesia
d. Blocking of the Infant’s respiratory passage

3. Post Natal Causes

a. Disease, ailments, conditions – meningitis, discharged, impacted
b. Accidents/Trauma – falls, head buts, overexposure on high frequency sound, undrained water
on ear
 4. Other Causes
a. Heredity
b. Prematurity
c. Malnutrition
d. RH Factor – blood incompatibility of
parents
e. Overdosage of Medicine

CLASSIFICATION OF HEARING IMPAIRED CHILDREN

1. According to Age at Onset of Deafness
a. Congenitally Deaf – born deaf
b. Adventitiously Deaf – born with normal hearing but became deaf due to illness

2. According to Language Development

a. Prelingually Deaf
b. Postlingually Dead – who became deaf after the development of speech or language

3. According to Place of Impairment

a. Conducive Hearing Loss
b. Sensory Neural Hearing Loss
c. Mixed Hearing Loss

4. According to Degree of Hearing Loss

a. Slight
b. Mild
c. Moderate
d. Severe
e. Profound

C. LEARNING DISABILITIES
- Includes problems among children related to disorders in understanding or using
spoken and/or written language
- At the preschool level, learning disabilities may come in the form of problems related
pre-academic skills, gross motor, fine motor, visual, auditoty, and tactile/kinaesthetic,
perception, and expressive language.

*Sensory Integration or Sensory Dysfunction – refers to the ability of the individual to process
information coming from the environment and makes use if the information in the process.
-The senses are: auditory, tactile, vestibulary (balance center in the inner ear), proprioceptive (muscles,
joins, and tendons) and visual

IDENTIFICATION OF STUDENT QUALIFIED FOR EDUCATIONAL SERVICES DEPENDING

ON 3 CONDITIONS:
1. Normal Intelligence – refers to child’s performance at above normal range using non-verbal
measures which include language concepts.
 2. Academic Achievement Deficit – condition where child shows academic achievement deficit in
at least one subject, such as oral expression, listening, comprehension, mathematical calculation
and spelling.
3. Absence of Other Handicapping Conditions – no manifestation. Learning disabilities are
characterized by poor academic performance, social and psychological problems and delayed
physical developments.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES

1. Dyslexia – reading
2. Dysgraphia – writing
3. Visual Agnosia – Sight
4. Motor Aphasia – Speaking
5. Dysarthia – Stuttering
6. Auditory Agnosia – Hearing
7. Olfactory Agnosia – Smelling
8. Dyscalcullia - Math
3 GENERAL CAUSES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
1. Problematic Pregnancies – occurring before, during and after delivery. Causing injury whether
minimal or sever to brain and brain dysfunction.
2. Biochemical Imbalance – caused by intake of food with artificial food colorings and flavouring
3. Environmental factors – caused by emotional disturbance, poor quality of instructional and lack
of motivation

CHAPTER 3: LINGUISTIC AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

I. NATURAL HISTORY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

* Principle of Reinforcement-
* Imitation- behaviorist theory (B.F. Skinner)

Noam Chomsky- Father of Linguistics; nativist approach

- Children have an innate Language Acquisition Device that enable them to learn a language early and
quickly.

Modern theorists- interactionist view

-Children biologically prepared for language but requires extensive experience with spoken language for
adequate development.

Jerome Bruner- emphasized the importance of parents and other early caregivers' play in language
development
* LASS- Language Acquisition Support System

The Antecedents of Language Development

1. Pseudodialogues- give and take conversation (baby talk)
2. Protodeclaratives- gestures for statement (an infant using gestures for statement e.g their hands are closed
when hungry, and open when not.)
3. Protoimperatives- gestures in getting

II. BILINGUAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Bilingualism is where children learn two languages simultaneously and puts children to an advantage in terms
of language proficiency
 Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism

1. Bilingualism does not impact on early language milestones like babbling

2. In bilingual homes, infants readily discriminate between two languages phonologically and
grammatically.
3. Learning a grammatical device as using "s" to denote plurals in one language facilitate learning
corresponding devices in the other languages.
4. Bilingualism is associated with an advantage in meta-linguistic ability, or capacity to think about
language among preschool and school age children.
5. Most bilingual children manifest greater ability than monolingual children when it comes to focusing
attention on language tasks.

Cognitive Disadvantages of Bilingualism

1. Limited vocabulary
2. Think more slowly in the language in which they have the lesser fluency.
3. Parents who choose bilingualism should consider whether they can help their children achieve fluency
in both languages.
4. Children who speak their immigrant parents' language tend to be attached to their parents' culture of
origin and therefore are able to speak the language.

MOTHERESE- kind of adaptation done by parents in the process of learning the language; naiintindihan
nila sinasabi ng mga anak nila kahit na baby talk
CODE SWITCHING- a special linguistic and social skill

Some implications of language and culture

1. Children use the four language systems as the same time in the process of communicating
2. Children bring their unique backgrounds of experience to the process of learning
3. Children's cultural and linguistic diversity impact on the students' learning process