Construction Materials and Testing

Lesson 2
Wood as a Construction Material
TOPICS
1. Characteristics of Wood
2. Philippine Timber
3. Physical and chemical Composition of Wood
4. Structural properties of Wood
5. Units of measurement for Lumber
6. Lumber related Products

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Understand the importance of wood as construction material
 Familiarize with the different properties of wood
 Determine how woods/lumber are measured and sold
 Identify lumber related products and their characteristics as construction material.

TOPIC 1: Characteristics of Wood

Wood is an organic material, produced by a large number of woody plants and quite variable in
properties. Wood is a natural organic material that has been used for many centuries for the construction of
buildings, bridges and a variety of other structures. It remains an important construction material today as
research and improved technology have led to a better knowledge of the material behaviour.

Wood in the form of lumber and timber is one of the most familiar construction material. Wood is
used to produce a variety of reconstituted products, such as plywood, particleboard, and hardboard. The
wood which is suitable or fit for engineering construction or engineering purpose is called timber.

Timber is used as a material for building construction in the following:

• House Post Construction
• Beams And Rafters
• Construction Of Bridges And Boats
• Furniture And Instruments
• Railway Sleepers And Packing Cases
• Toys And Engraving Work
• Railway Coach Wagons
• Formwork Of Cement Concrete

General Properties of Timber

1. Color – darker color indicates durability
2. Odor- present only for on freshly cut trees
3. Hardness – the ability of the wood to withstand indentation caused by harder bodies
4. Density – densest wood are generally the strongest
5. Grain- it can be straight, spiral, interlocked, wavy or irregular
6. Texture – for hardwoods it depends on the size and distribution vessels and rays while for
softwoods it is determined by the size and distribution of the tracheid.

Types of Timber
Trees and commercial timbers are divided into two types: softwoods and hardwoods. This
terminology refers to the botanical origin of timber and has no direct bearing on the actual softness or
hardness of the wood.

1. Softwoods
- Used for structural framing, sheathing, roofing, subflooring, siding, trim and millwork
- Softwoods, characterised by having naked seeds or as cone-bearing trees, are generally
evergreen with needle-like leaves (such as conifers) comprising single cells called

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tracheids, which are like straws in plan, and they fulfil the functions of conduction and
support and generally characterized by:
 Quick growth rate (trees can be felled after 30 years) resulting in low-density
timber with relatively low strength.
 Generally poor durability qualities, unless treated with preservatives.
 Due to the speed of felling they are readily available and comparatively cheaper.

2. Hardwoods
- More expansive that softwoods and are useful in cabinetry, furniture making, paneling,
interior trim and flooring
- Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved (deciduous) trees, which often lose their leave at
the end of each growing season. The cell structure of hardwoods is more complex than
that of softwoods with thick-walled cells, called fibres, providing the structural supporter
and thin-walled cells, called vessels, providing the medium for food conduction.
- Hardwood are characterized by:
 Hardwoods grow at a slower rate than softwoods, which generally results in a
timber of high density and strength, which takes time to mature, over 100 years in
some instances.
 There is less dependence on preservatives for durability qualities.
 Due to the time taken to mature and the transportation costs of hardwoods, as
most are tropical, they tend to be expensive in comparison with softwoods.

Natural characteristics of timber

Wood as a natural material is highly varied in its structure and has many natural characteristics or
defects which are introduced during the growing period and during the conversion and seasoning process.

1. Knots
A knot is a portion of a branch enclosed by the
natural growth of the tree, normally originating at the centre
of the trunk or a branch. The influence of knots depends on
their size, shape, frequency and location in the structural
member. Knots affects the mechanical properties as fibres
are distorted causing fibre discontinuity and non-uniform
stress distributions.

2. Slope of grain
Wood grain refers to the general direction of the
arrangement of fibres in wood and is expressed with
respect to the longitudinal axis of the sawn timber or the
round timber (log or pole).
Spiral Grain – the deviation with respect to the
log (longitudinal) axis
Interlocked grains are often produced in
tropical hardwoods where the grain direction
changes routinely from one direction to another.
Cross grain occurs when the grain direction is
at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the sawn
section. A cross grain occurs during conversion
(sawing process) as a result of conversion of a
bent or heavily tapered log or a log with spiral or
interlocked grain.

3. Reaction wood
Reaction wood is referred to
abnormal wood tissues produced in tree
trunks subjected to strong wind
pressures. Horizontal branches and
leaning branches are believed to form
reaction wood in an attempt to prevent
them from excessive bending and

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cracking under their own weight.

Compression in softwoods-forms on the underside of the braches of leaning softwood and
contains more lignin than normal wood.
Tension wood in hardwoods as tension wood forms on the upper sides of leaning
hardwoods and contains more cellulose than normal wood

4. Juvenile Wood
Juvenile wood is a wood produced early in the
first 5–20 rings of any trunk cross-section and exhibits
lower strength and stiffness than the outer parts of the
trunk and much greater longitudinal shrinkage than
mature, normal wood. Juvenile wood is mainly contained
within the heartwood

5. Density and the annual ring widths

Density is an important physical characteristic
of timber affecting its strength properties; it is a good
indicator of the mechanical properties if the section is
straight grains, free from knots and defects. Annual
ring width is also critical in respect of strength in that
excessive width of such rings can reduce the density of
the timber.

6. Conversion of timber
The conversion of timber refers to the cutting process by which tree from the forest are converted
into lumber and logs to the desired dimensions.

Knots occur where imbedded branches in tree trunks are cut.

Shake can result when a tree is racked or bent, as in wind storm. It appears as small
cracks running with or across annual rings.
Wane refers to the absence of wood or the presence of bark along the edge of a board.
Insect holes are caused by boring insects eating their way into wood.
Pitch is the accumulation of sap or resin in pockets in a tree (often occurs in softwoods)

7. Seasoning
Seasoning is the controlled process of reducing
the moisture content of the timber so that it is suitable for
the environment and intended use. There are four main
methods of seasoning timber: the air-drying, kiln-drying:
dehumidification and solar drying.

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 Air-drying
- It involves stacking boards with stickers (wood strips) inserted between layers
permitting the air to circulate and air dried.
- It is a slow process that cannot be controlled and takes time to fully seasoned a
timber

 Kiln drying
- Involves stacking lumber in the same manner
for air drying inside a kiln where the
temperature, humidity and air circulation are
controlled to carefully reduce a wood’s
moisture content. Temperature inside the kiln
can reach to 180°F (82°C).
- Lumber are quickly dried and may take less
than two weeks to achieve the desired
moisture content
- The process also reduces defects and produces a product that will not expand or
contract

 Dehumidification and solar drying

- Dehumidification method uses electricity to dry the lumber while Solar kilns use the
sun’s energy to produce needed heat and are the most economical

8. Seasoning defects
Seasoning defects are directly related to the movements which occur in timber due to
changes in moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying, as well as the presence of compression
wood, juvenile wood or even knots, exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking and spacing
during seasoning can all produce defects or distortions in timber. All types of defects have an effect
on structural strength as well as on fixing, stability, durability and finished appearance.

 Twist- occurs when the piece of wood is

spirally distorted along its length
 Bow- indicated by curvature formed in the
direction of length of timber
 Cup – indicated by curvature in the
transverse direction of timber
 Spring – occurs when the curvature of the
piece of sawn timber in the plane of its wide
face, known as crook or free side bend

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 Case hardening caused by the exposure of timber during drying that tends to shrink
when under compression while the interior surface is under tension

 Check – the cracks that separates fires of wood but do not extends from one end to
other end.

9. Cracks and fissures

Cracks and fissures are caused by the separation of the fibres along the grain forming
fissures and cracks that appear on one face or at the end grain but do not necessarily continue
through to the other side. Their presence may indicate decay or the beginnings of decay.

10. Fungal decay

Fungal decay may occur in growing mature
timber or even in recently converted timber, and in
general it is good practice to reject such timber.

TOPIC 2: Philippine Timber

The Philippine timber/lumbers/woods are mainly categorized into fur groups:

I. First group
 Narra –most expensive, .used for furniture and panelling, for expensive floorings, door
panels, stairs and plywood veneer or facings.
 Yacal and Guijo-both hardwoods, used for posts and girders, or jambs attached to concrete
and also for wooden decks having flooring and railings exposed to weather.
 Pine Benguet -Softwood, used for panelling, sidings, flooring and furniture. Also used for
framings, trusses.
 Tanguile and Apitong-the most common lumber in the market. Used generally for framings,
joists, trusses, nailers, etc.

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 White and Red lauan-for framings, chests, jewel boxes

 Kamagong-hardwood for chests, jewel boxes, stair frames.
 Dao-used for 'panelling and plywood veneer.
 Ajmaciga-similar to pine for paneling.
 Mahogany
 lpil
 Kalantas
 Kalamansanai
 Supa

II.Second Group
 Acacia (rain tree) for wood carvings
 Agoho ·
 Oita
 Oak
 Phflippine Chestnut
 Pili
 Malabayabas

III. Third group

 Bakawan
 Malakamias
 Malasaging
 Matamata
 Nangka
 Santol

IV. Fourth Group

All other ordinary wood species

TOPIC 3: Physical and Chemical composition of wood

1. Porosity of wood
- Wood is a cellular material
- Softwood cellular structure contains large longitudinal cells called tracheids and smaller
radial cells called rays, both of which store and transfer nutrients
- Annual rings are also cellular
- The structures of hardwood is more complex, having two different types of longitudinal cells,
small – diameter fibers and larger diameter vessels or pores, which transport the sap of the
tree. They also have a higher percentage of rays than is found in woods.

2. Composition of wood
- The cells are made of mainly cellulose and hemicellulose fibers that are bonded together
with an organic substance called lignin.
- Cellulose and hemicellulose are complex glucose compounds
- Glucose is a sugar useful to fungi and insects as food
- Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are elements that that give wood its strength,
susceptibility to decay and hygroscopic properties.
- Hygroscopic refers to the property of wood that permits it to absorb and retain moisture
- Cellulose provides strength in tension, toughness and elasticity
- Lignin, because it bonds the fibers together in fiber bundles, gives wood its compressive
strength
- Paper products are made using the cellulose and hemicellulose in wood
- Cellulose is also used in some textiles, plastics and other products requiring cellulose
derivative

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3. Hygroscopic Properties of Wood

- Expanding when it absorbs moisture and shrinking when it loses it
- To be useful in construction, furniture and other products, it must be in a dry condition
- The moisture content of wood must be reduced to a level acceptable for its intended
purpose

4. Moisture content of wood

The moisture content of wood is usually expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry
weight and can be determined by the oven-dry method or by an electric Moisture meter method.
For the oven-dry method, they should be cut the full width of the board and from 1/2 to 3/4
inches long. The sections should be cut at least 2 feet from the end of the board to eliminate a
sample that may have end-dried: The pieces are weighed and the results recorded as the, original
weight. The samples are placed in an oven heated to 212°F and left until all the moisture has been
removed. The weights are then checked several times until it is found that the pieces are no
longer-losing weight, and are constant. The pieces are removed from the oven and weighed
immediately.

(𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥 100%
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

5. Fibre Saturation Point

When the cell walls are completely saturated, and there is no free water in the cell cavity,
the wood is at its fibre‐saturation point. This occurs when the moisture content is between 25 and
32 per cent, depending on species. Most softwoods have a moisture content of about 30 percent at
this point. As moisture is removed from the cell walls, they begin to shrink. Therefore, the fibre
saturation point is the point at which shrinkage begins.

6. Equilibrium Moisture Content

Wood is a hygroscopic material. It evaporates or absorbs moisture until its moisture
content is in equilibrium with the surrounding air. This is called the equilibrium moisture content of
wood and a function of temperature and relative humidity. Continues to take on and give off
moisture as the air’s moisture content varies. As wood seeks equilibrium, it gradually shrinks or
expands.

7. Density of Wood
In terms of density, the wood substance is actually heavier than water, with a specific
gravity of about 1.5 regardless of species. Wood usually floats because the wood cells are hollow.
If the cavities become filled, the wood becomes water logged and sinks taking a long time, usually
years.

8. Specific Gravity of Wood

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a certain volume of a material to the
weight of an equal volume of water at 39.2°F(4°C). The specific gravity of wood is found by
weighing a piece of wood of known volume, such as 6 cubic inch, and dividing this by the weight of
an equal volume of water. Water has a specific gravity of 1. If the material has a specific gravity
less than this, it will float; if it is greater, it will sink.
Because specific gravity indicates the amount of solid matter, it is an excellent indicator of
strength. The denser the wood, the stronger it is. All strength properties are not affected equally but
that is not important to the designer because listed stresses already take that into consideration.

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TOPIC 4: Structural Properties of Wood

Wood is much stronger parallel to grain than

perpendicular to grain. The high parallel to grain strength is due
to the predominantly vertical orientation of the wood cells and
the micro fibrils in the cell walls. Standing trees have developed
this internal structure to resist external forces such as wind.
Exposed trees have a rapid taper in the trunk to increase
resistance to wind.

Wood is very strong in compression parallel to grain because the wood cells act as tiny columns or
tubes bonded together, giving and receiving support from neighbouring cells. Strength in compression
perpendicular to grain is difficult to measure. Compressive strength increases with deformation, reaching a
maximum when the wood is compressed to about one third of its original thickness

Wood is also strong in tension parallel to grain. Knots reduce the strength, but this is already
considered in setting design strength properties. Wood is relatively weak in tension perpendicular to grain.
However, it is rarely required to take much load in that direction except for secondary stresses in some
curved members

Wood is very strong in bending. Shallow beams have relatively greater resistance to bending in
comparison to proportionately deeper beams. Therefore, depth effect is considered in setting design
properties.

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Longitudinal or horizontal shear is often a controlling factor in beam design. It is caused by bending
loads, creating maximum longitudinal shear stresses parallel to grain at the neutral axis.

Thermal expansion of wood is usually insignificant, especially along the grain. For very long
spans, such as in bridges and wood stave pipes, expansion should be calculated taking the offsetting effect
of moisture shrinkage into account. Wood is a natural insulator against heat and cold because of the tiny air
pockets within its cellular structure. Wood is also a good acoustical material. Wood converts sound energy
into heat energy by frictional and viscous resistance in the wood cells.

TOPIC 5: Units of Measurement for Lumber

BOARD MEASURE - is the term to indicate that the board foot is the unit of measurement for most lumber
items. A board foot is defined as a piece one inch thick (nominal) by one foot wide (nominal) by one foot
long (actual) or its equivalent. For instance a 2 x 6 also equals one board foot for each foot of length.
Board footage is calculated by multiplying the nominal thickness in inches (T) by the nominal width in inches
(W) by the actual length in feet (L) and dividing by 12.
𝑇𝑥𝑊𝑥𝐿
𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 =
12
Board foot in round log
(𝐷 − 4)2 𝑥 𝐿
𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 =
16
Where: D = smaller diameter of the log in inches
L = length of the log in feet

SURFACE MEASURE - is the square feet on the surface of a piece of lumber. Surface measure is
calculated without regard to thickness of the piece, i.e. 2 x 12 board, one foot long equals one square foot.
𝑊𝑥𝐿
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
12

LINEAL MEASURE - is the total length in feet of a board, regardless of its thickness or width, i.e. a 2 x 14
one foot long is one lineal foot.

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TOPIC 6: Lumber and related products

Veneer
Veneer refers to thin slices of wood and sometimes bark,
usually thinner than 3 mm (1/8 inch) typically are glued onto core panels
(typically, wood, particle board or medium-density fibreboard) to produce
flat panels such as doors, tops and panels for cabinets, parquet floors and
parts of furniture. Compared to wood, one of the primary advantages of
using veneer is stability. While solid wood can be prone to warping and
splitting, because veneer is made of thin layers of wood glued together,
the chances of splitting or cracking are reduced.

Plywood
Plywood is a material manufactured from thin layers or
"plies" of wood veneer that are glued together with adjacent layers
having their wood grain rotated up to 90 degrees to one another. It is
an engineered wood from the family of manufactured boards with
thickness ranging from 3.2mm(1/8), 4.7mm(3/16), 12mm 91/2); 20mm
(3/4) with a width of 4ft x 8ft (1.2m x 2.4m).
 Soft plywood – the most common type for
structural use
 Hard plywood commonly specified for panelling and finishing works with one
face containing hardwood finished
 Exterior or Marine plywood – waterproof plywood manufactured from interior-
exterior finishes and other marine uses.
Hardboard
Hardboard or pressed wood is made from wood chips exploded
into fibres under high pressured steam. The lining in the wood itself binds
pressed wood together with no fillers or no artificial adhesives applied.
Hardboard is similar to particle board and medium-density fibreboard, but is
denser and much stronger and harder because it is made out of exploded wood
fibres that have been highly compressed.

Particle Board
Particle boards are manufactured from wood chips. Flakes,
strands, shavings, slivers, etc. bound together and pressed into sheets and
other moulded shape. Particle board has equal strength in all directions of a
given cross sectional area. It is not brittle can resist warping.

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1
1. Find the total board foot of 5 pieces of 2” x 6” x 14’ lumber.
2. Find the total net board foot lumber that could be obtained from the log with diameter of 24” and
length of 18’

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Laboratory Activity 1
Density, Specific Gravity and Moisture Content of Wood
I. Introduction
All matter has mass and volume. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter an object has. Its
measure is usually given in grams (g) or kilograms (kg). Volume is the amount of space an object occupies.
Expressed in liters (L), cubic meters (m3), and gallons (gal). The density of an object can be used to identify
the material of the object, and to predict its behavior when placed in a fluid, either liquid or gas. If the density
of an object is greater than the fluid it will sink, and if it is less than the density of the fluid it will rise. Water is
the most commonly used fluid to compare material for density measurement. Density is defined as the ratio
of the mass of an object to the volume it occupies expressed as
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

Where: m = mass of the object and V is the volume

While, Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a material compared to water. The specific
gravity SG is the ratio of a material’s density compared to water. The official specific gravity is defined using
water at 4°C. Because it is the ratio of two densities with the same units (g/cm3), it has no units. Note that
since water has a density of 1 g/cm3 , the specific gravity is equivalent to the density of the material.
𝜌𝑂
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤

Moisture content is simply the mass of moisture present in wood divided by the mass of the wood with no
moisture in it, expressed as a percentage. What’s important about the moisture content in timber is that the
board width will increase with increasing moisture content, and will decrease with decreasing moisture
content. Moisture content can be defines as:

(𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥 100%
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
II. Materials:
1. 3 block of woods of different sizes and variety
2. Glass/pitcher
3. Ruler

III. Procedure:

Set-up 1: Determination of the density of woods

Obtain three sets of different rectangular/square sections made of different types of lumber. Ensure
that the names of the lumber / timber are known. Calculate the density by measuring the mass and volume
of your objects.

1. Measuring the Mass

Measure the mass of your samples using a weighing scale; repeat the measurement three
times and calculate the average. Record your results in the table below.
Trial Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
1
2
3
Avg.

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2. Measuring the Volume

To determine the volume of the three objects, measure and record the length, width and
height using a ruler. Measure the relevant dimensions of your sample and record the reading in the
tables below.

Sample #1
Trial Length (cm) Width (cm) Height (cm)
1
2
3
Avg.
Volume = ____________________________________________________.

Sample #2
Trial
1
2
3
Avg.

Volume = ____________________________________________________.

Sample #3
Trial
1
2
3
Avg.

Volume = ____________________________________________________.

Calculate the Density

Volume Mass Density

Sample (cm3) (grams) (gm/cm3)

Set-up 2: Determination of Specific Gravity of woods

Place water at a graduated cylinder (or any glass with corresponding graduation) provide an
indicator to ensure that changes in the water level are visibly seen. Immerse the three wooden objects one
by one and measure the length of the object submerged in the water and the change in the elevation of the
water. Record the changes as follows:
Initial height of Height of the Change in the
water (defined object submerge water level
water level in the in the water
Sample indicator)

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Calculate the specific gravity of the water using:

𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Sample 𝑆𝐺 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Set-up 3: Determine the Moisture Content of woods

Using the same samples, measure the weight of each samples (already obtained from set-up 1).
After weighing the samples, let the samples exposed to direct heat for two days (from 8:00m-4:00pm). Get
the samples and measure again the weight of the samples. Compute the moisture content using:
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝐶 = 𝑥 100%
Sample Original weight Sun dried weight 𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

IV. Analysis and Discussion

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