Module 4
Module 4
Module 4
STATISTICAL TOOLS
The credibility of the conclusions of a research undertaking greatly depends on
the statistical tools employed in the analysis of research data. There are a lot of
statistical tools developed, but it is the “nature of the data” that governs the method that
is appropriate to interpret the data and the statistical tool that is required to process it.
In agricultural engineering, and land and water resources research, which usually
deal with numerical data, statistics can assist the researcher by indicating the central
point or the spread of the data and by showing the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
1. Frequency Counts (f). This is the number of counts of a data of a given magnitude
or range in magnitude in a data set.
2. Percentage (%). This is the ratio of the frequency count of a data of a given
magnitude or range in magnitude to the total number of data in the data set
multiplied by 100, or in equation form:
where “f” is the frequency count of a certain data of given magnitude or range in
magnitude and “N” is the total number of data in the data set.
4. Arithmetic Mean (Xm). This is the most commonly used measure of central
tendency, which is computed by the formula:
5. Standard Deviation (s). This is the most commonly used measure of dispersion.
This is computed by the formulas:
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
These statistics are used to test relationships, differences and interactions for
their significance. The test procedures employed on this kind of statistics are
categorized into parametric tests and nonparametric tests.
Parametric Tests
These tests are generally used when the variables to be tested are assumed to
be normally distributed and when the data from an engineering experiment are
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measurement data (interval or ratio type). Some examples of measurement data in
engineering experiments are machine capacities, crop yields, soil and moisture losses,
flexural and compressive strength of engineering materials, hydrometeorological data,
electrical resistance, voltage, power consumption, and the like.
1. Student’s “t” Test. A t-Test is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test
statistic has a Student's t distribution if the null hypothesis is true. It is applied when
sample sizes are small enough that using an assumption of normality and the
associated z-test leads to incorrect inference. This is used for testing the difference
of two groups/samples when N is less than 30.
The t statistic was introduced by William Sealy Gosset for cheaply monitoring
the quality of beer brews ("Student" was his pen name). Gosset was a statistician
for the Guinness brewery in Dublin, Ireland, and was hired due to Claude Guinness's
innovative policy of recruiting the best graduates from Oxford and Cambridge to
apply biochemistry and statistics to Guinness' industrial processes. Gosset
published the t test in Biometrika in 1908, but was forced to use a pen name by his
employer who regarded the fact that they were using statistics as a trade secret. In
fact, Gosset's identity was known not only to fellow statisticians but to his employer
— the company insisted on the pseudonym so that it could turn a blind eye to the
breach of its rules.
a. A test of the null hypothesis that the means of two normally distributed
populations are equal. Given two data sets, each characterized by its
mean, standard deviation and number of data points, a “t test” can be used
to determine whether the means are distinct, provided that the underlying
distributions can be assumed to be normal. All such tests are usually
called Student's t tests, though strictly speaking that name should only be
used if the variances of the two populations are also assumed to be equal.
There are different versions of the t test depending on whether the two
samples are:
ii. paired, so that each member of one sample has a unique relationship
with a particular member of the other sample (e.g., the same people
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measured before and after an intervention, or IQ test scores of a
husband and wife).
2. Z Test. This statistical procedure uses the normal curve to test the difference
between the sample mean and population mean when the population standard
deviation is known or to test the difference between means of two samples when the
sample standard deviations are known. A basic requirement for this test is that the
sample size (n) is 30 or more.
In testing the difference between the sample mean (xm) and the population
mean (Xm), the normal deviate (xd) is computed by the equation:
xd = Xm + Z S
In testing the difference between two sample means (xm1, xm2) when the
samples standard deviations (s1, s2) are given, the normal deviate (xd) is computed
by the equation:
xd = Z (s12 + s22)1/2
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a. One-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among two or more
independent groups. Typically, however, the One-way ANOVA is used to
test for differences among three or more groups, with the two-group case
relegated to the T-test (Gossett, 1908), which is a special case of the
ANOVA.
b. One-way ANOVA for repeated measures is used when the subjects are
subjected to repeated measures; this means that the same subjects are
used for each treatment. Note that this method can be subject to carry-
over effects.
d. When one wishes to test two or more independent groups subjecting the
subjects to repeated measures, one may perform a factorial mixed-
design ANOVA, in which one factor is independent and the other is
repeated measures.
4. Regression Analysis. This is a technique used for the modeling and analysis of
numerical data consisting of values of a dependent variable (response variable) and
of one or more independent variables (explanatory variables). The dependent
variable in the regression equation is modeled as a function of the independent
variables, corresponding parameters ("constants"), and an error term. The error
term represents unexplained variation in the dependent variable. The parameters
are estimated so as to give a "best fit" of the data. Most commonly, the best fit is
evaluated by using the least squares method, but other criteria have also been used.
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b. The dependent variable is subject to error. This error is assumed to be a
random variable, with a mean of zero. On the other hand, the independent
variable is error-free.
c. The predictors must be linearly independent, i.e. it must not be possible to
express any predictor as a linear combination of the others.
d. The errors are uncorrelated and they follow a normal distribution. If non-
normal, the generalized linear model should be used. Furthermore, the
variance of the error is constant.
y= +βx
wherein is the intercept of the line on the y-axis and β, the linear
regression coefficient, is the slope of the line or the amount of change
in “y” for each unit of change in “x”.
y = + β1 x1 + 2 x2 + … + n xn
wherein is the intercept (i.e., the value of “y” when all the “x’s” are
zeroes) and β1, 2, …, n, the partial regression coefficient
associated with the independent variables “x1, x2, …, xn”, represent
the amounts of change in “y” for each unit change in “x1, x2, …, xn”,
respectively.
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● a dependent variable (y) to the values of two or more functions of
the independent variable (x) by the straight line:
y = + 1 x + 2 x2 + … + n xn
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which can be linearized by creating “n” new variables: z1, z2, …, zn,
to form a multiple linear equation of the form:
y = + 1 z1 + 2 z2 + … + n zn
where z1 = x, z2 = x2, …, and zn = xn. With this linearized form,
the procedure for multiple linear regression can be directly applied.
A number of different coefficients are used for different situations. The best
known is the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (PMCC), which is
obtained by dividing the covariance of the two variables by the product of their
standard deviations. Despite its name, it was first introduced by Francis Galton. The
Pearson PMCC is also known as the "sample correlation coefficient".
The linear equation that best describes the relationship between “x” and “y”
can be found by linear regression. This equation can be used to "predict" the
value of one measurement from knowledge of the other. That is, for each value
of “x” the equation calculates a value which is the best estimate of the values of
“y” corresponding the specific value.
6. Least Significant Difference Test (LSD Test). This is the simplest and the most
commonly used procedure for making pair comparisons. This procedure provides
for a single LSD value, at a prescribed level of significance, which serves as the
boundary between significant and non-significant differences between any pair of
treatment means. That is, two treatments are declared significantly different at a
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prescribed level of significance if their difference exceeds the computed LSD value;
otherwise, they are not significantly different.
The LSD test is most appropriate for making planned pair comparisons but,
strictly speaking, is not valid for comparing all possible pairs of means, especially
when the number of treatments is large. Thus, avoid the use of the LSD test for
comparison of all possible pairs of means. However, if this must be used, apply it
only when the F test for treatment effect is significant and the number of treatments
is not too large – less than six.
The procedure for the LSD test varies from one experimental design to
another. Please refer to the book entitled “Statistical Procedures for Agricultural
Research (Second Edition) by Gomez and Gomez” for the detailed procedure as this
is not presented in this manual since this is quite lengthy.
7. Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). This the procedure most applicable in
making comparison between all possible pairs of treatment means, especially when
the total number of treatments is large.
The procedure for applying this test is similar to that of the LSD test. This
involves the computations of numerical boundaries that allow for the classification of
the difference between any two treatment means as significant or non-significant.
However, unlike the LSD test in which only a single value is required for any pair
comparison at a prescribed level of significance, the DMT requires computation of a
series of values, each corresponding to a specific set of pair comparisons.
Just like the LSD test, the procedure for the DMRT varies from one
experimental design to another. Please refer to the book entitled “Statistical
Procedures for Agricultural Research (Second Edition) by Gomez and Gomez” for
the detailed procedure as this is not presented in this manual since this is quite
lengthy.
Nonparametric Tests
These are tests generally used when the distribution of the variables to be tested
is assumed to be non-normal and when the data from an agricultural engineering
research study are attribute data (nominal or ordinal type). The most common types of
attribute data are those having two classes, which consist of the presence or absence of
an attribute, such as success or failure, effective or ineffective, mechanized or manual,
dry or wet, high or low, and the like. Examples of attribute data with more than two
classes are mechanization status (full, partial, none), moisture status (flooded,
saturated, moist), grain quality (whole, cracked, broken), size of gravel particles (large,
medium, or small), level of resistance (high, medium, or low), and the like. Furthermore,
the effectivity of a soil erosion control measure may be scored on a scale of 0 to 5
instead of measuring the actual amount of soil loss from the erosion plots.
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b. Most non-parametric tests are generally non-mathematical and are faster to
do than the parametric tests since the former are based on ranking, counting,
addition and subtraction.
c. When the sample sizes are small or moderate, non-parametric tests are faster
than the parametric tests.
d. Non-parametric tests usually require data, at least on the ordinal scale,
though sometimes nominal data can also be used. Parametric tests, on the
other hand, generally require measurements on the interval or ratio scale.
e. As assumptions are fewer with non-parametric tests, they are less susceptible
to violations.
f. When sample sizes are small, say 10 or so, the distribution-free (parametric)
statistics are easier, quicker and only slightly less efficient as compared to
their classical (parametric) equivalents.
a. When dealing with large sample size, non-parametric tests are more time-
consuming and tedious, and, hence, become much less efficient compared to
the parametric tests.
b. Non-parametric tests waste information.
c. They tend to lead to the acceptance of the null hypothesis more often than
they should.
d. They are less efficient than the parametric tests.
The chi-square test is a powerful statistical tool widely applicable for the
analyses of geographical data which are mostly nominal and are based on some sort
of frequency groupings. Introduced in 1900 by Karl Person, this test is the most
important of all distribution-free (non-parametric) tests.
This test is made possible by calculating the value of a quantity called chi-
square (2) which is dependent on the observations between observed and expected
class totals. Thus, the test is a simple technique which works by comparing the
actual frequencies observed with a regular frequency expected.
For the application of the chi-square test, the following requirements should
be satisfied in the data:
a. The data must be in the form of ordinal data and it should be based on the
frequencies or counts obtained in each number of categories. In the data,
percentages or rates per thousand cannot be used.
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b. There must be at least two mutually exclusive categories into which the
observations are placed and they must be independent and random.
c. The total numbers observed must exceed 20 and preferably greater than
40.
d. The expected frequency in any one category for a 2 x 2 problem (2 rows
by 2 columns) must normally not be less than five. However, if there are
five or more categories, then not more than 20% of the expected
frequencies may be less than five and there should be no category with an
expected frequency less than one. It should be noted that this rule is only
for expected frequencies and not for the frequencies actually obtained in
the data which can be of any size.
a. This test enables one to compare the frequency distributions rather than
mean values which most parametric tests can do.
b. As compared to the “t Test”, the chi-square test considers the whole range
of data and not merely the mean and standard deviation.
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The U test is often recommended for situations where the distributions of the
two samples are very different.
This test requires that all the observations under the samples are ranked
together from the smallest to the largest. The sums of the ranks are then computed
for each of the nominal scale categories of the variables and they are designated as
R1, R2, …, Rn. Then, a test statistic H is computed in order to measure the degree to
which the various sum of ranks differ from what could be expected under the null
hypothesis.
However, the limitation of this Kruskal-Wallis Test is that it does not isolate the
pairs that have different means nor, by accepting the null hypothesis, it does not
exclude the possibility that for one pair of samples the null hypothesis could be
rejected by the Wilcoxon test at the same significance level.
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