Understanding

Language Development
in Early Childhood

Fact File on Language Development

• Research on the brain's functioning suggests that brain development is rapid

and extensive during the first year of life, affected by the environment, and adversely
influenced by stress (Carnegie Corporation, 1994).
• A few thousand words account for 90 percent of the spoken vocabulary anyone

uses or hears on a regular basis (Hayes & Ahrens, 198 8).

• A highly educated adult has a listening/speaking vocabulary of about 10,000

words but likely knows nearly 10 times as many words in reading and writing, or about
100,000 words (Hayes & Ahrens, 1988).

49
50 Part 1\vo • Oml Language W'll'lv. ablongman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • Unde1'Standing Language Development in Em·/y Childhood 51

• In a longitudinal study of 42 infants and toddlers, the average age of saying the • Approximately 15 percent of the total U.S. population is dyslexic, meaning that
first word was 11 months, with a range of 8 to 14 months. The average age at which they experience severe difficulties in learning to read (Hurford, 1998). The fact that a
half of the children's utterances contained recognizable words was 19 months, with child is dyslexic, however, does not necessarily mean that he or she cannot use oral lan­
a range of 15 to 30 months. By age 2, children produced an average of 338 compre­ guage capably (Cruger, 2005). Dyslexia is a problem with mentally processing print,
hensible utterances per hour, but the range was enormous: from 42 to 672. The 2- not with verbal communication or intelligence.
year-olds used approximately 134 different words per hour, with a range of 18 to 286
(Hart & Risley, 1999). Did any of this injo11nation smprise you? If so, 1vhat? Wby? How will you use this
kno·wledge to become an effective teacher of young child1··en?
• Beginning at about age 3, young children learn an estimated 6 to 10 new words

per day (Spodek & Saracho, 1993b).

• Experts report that approximately 70 percent of a spoken message is actually

conveyed through nonverbal means, such as voice, intonation, gesture, and facial What Is Language?
expression.
Of all the characteristics that human beings possess, language is the one that most
• Babies' early speech sounds during the first 6 months of life typically include defines us and differentiates us from other forms of life. The National Cow1cil of
many sounds that are not used in their native language. During the second half of the Teachers of English and the International Reading Association (1996) define language
first year, their babbling begins to sound more like the language or languages spoken broadly, meaning not only mastety of the systems and structures of language but also
in their homes (Trawick-Smith, 2002). how to apply knowledge of various language forms and functions, depending on the
• When a young toddler is learning to speak two or more languages, he or she task at hand. However, the definition of language developed by these two major pro­
commonly chooses one or the other to name or describe objects or concepts. If two fessional organizations goes even beyond the forms and fimctions of oral and written
languages are spoken in the home, it is common for a toddler 18 months or older to language. T heir definition of language includes visual communication in addition to
use both languages and to know which family member uses which language. At times, spoken and written forms of expression.
words from both languages (e.g., "please" in English, "bitte" in German) are com­ If you think about a contemporaty child's life, it makes sense to include visual
bined and used simultaneously (e.g., "bitteplease") (Trawick-Smith, 2002). literacy. Young children are "awash in a cosmic soup of language, numbers, images,
music, and drama. Television, radio, movies, billboards, print media, electronic media,
• Infants who are taught American Sign Language actually go through a babbling
packaging, grocety stores, malls, and restaurants" all require them to become consum­
stage of experimenting with language, using hand signs rather than oral language ers and users of symbol systems, or what researchers call sig11S (Berghoff, 1997, p. 316).
(Pettito & Marentette, 1991). The child of today, more than ever before, is expected to become an expert user of
• Increasingly, experts on language are arguing that literacy is more than familiar­ multiple symbol systems, moving between and among signs when representing ideas,
ity with letters of the alphabet because we live in a world where we are immersed in feelings, and events (Leland & Harste, 1994).
all types of symbols-photographs, icons, signs, letters, logos, information on paper, Children's lives are deeply affected by their literacy learning. Genishi (1988) ex­
diagrams, drawings, information on screen, charts, maps, and combinations of all of plains the influence this way: "As we use language vvith others, it shapes our identities
these (Berghoff, 1997; New London Group, 1996). and social lives. The way our own language sow1ds to listeners leads them to make
judgments about where we are from, what our occupation is, how friendly or clever
• Language affects not only cognitive growth but also social competence (McCabe we are" (p. 78).
& Meller, 2004). Children who learn to speak and interact successfully with others Thus, learning language is much more than an academic achievement. Human
tend to develop more effective learning strategies and literacy skills. Children who language is, first and foremost, a social instrument. Indeed, learning language is per­
fail to develop age-appropriate language skills are at risk for social isolation, reading haps the most social of all types of learning (Fillmore, 1997). vVe know this because
problems, and other academic difficulties in school (Howard, Shaughnessy, Sanger, in horrible examples of deprivation, isolation, and abuse, young children do not learn
& Hux, 1998). to talk. One of the most extreme and publicized cases was that of Genie, a child who
• Most experts agree that knowledge of any language can serve as a jumping­ was kept isolated and confined to a room without any human interaction (Fromkin &
off point for subsequent language learning, since most children apply what they Rodman, 1978). Even though she was obviously intelligent and received extensive lan­
know about their first language (L1) to their second language (L2) (Parke & Drury, guage instruction, Genie never really mastered language at a level that would enable
2001). her to fimction independently in the world. Unlike the character in the movie Nell,
 52 Part Two • Om/ Language www.ablongman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • U71derstflndi11g Lflug1wge Developmem in Eady Childhood 53

this real child who was deprived of language early on was disadvantaged linguistically After conducting a home visit, interviewing the family, and observing Jacob in
and socially throughout life. his home environn1ent, Mr. Conway and the other professionals have determined that
Learning language is a challenge because not only are children ex­ Jacob could benefit immensely from assistive technology. Assistive technology is any ap­
Bilingual Education
pected to learn about language, but they are also expected to learn through paratus or device that is used to support special-needs children as they uy to function
When young children are language (Egan-Robertson & Bloome, 1998). Early childhood is the most more independently and learn. Assistive technology can be low-tech (e.g.,
immersed in a culture where rapid period of language development. If the young child fails to get sup­ a pencil grip) or it can be high-tech (e.g., an elecu·ic wheelchair). The
Brain and Language
one language is associated port as a language learner at this critical time, he or she can experience group investigates the assistive technology with an emphasis on support
with high prestige and social Based on neuroscience, we
lifelong consequences. Yow1g children's confidence and skill as language know that there are "windows for young children's language (B1yant, 2003; Elkind, 2004; Finlayson &
success, development in
their first language may be
learners and users can be damaged by carelessness or the absence of edu­ of opportunities"-times Hammel, 2003; Parette & McMahan, 2002). Jacob needs the high-tech
cational opportwlities. Language difficulties often reverberate throughout when the mind is more recep­ assistive technology of an augmentative and alternative communication
sacrificed (Cummins, 2003;
tive and responsive to certain
Fillmore, 1991; National the child's experience beyond the realm of academic achievement. T he (AAC) system, which is a computer. \iVhen each key/icon on the keyboard
types of input. If, as research­
Association for the Educa­ child who cannot use words to disagree may resort to aggressive behaviors; is pressed, a voice synthesizer pronow1ces the word, and tl1ese words can
ers believe (Diamond &
tion of Young Children,
the child who cannot be understood may withdraw into silence; and the Hopson, 1998; Wolfe, 1998), be combined into messages.
1996). If a child loses a first
language, what are some
child who struggles with reading may give up on pursuing an education. early childhood is the window T here are many different types of systems. The question is, which
possible consequences in For all of these reasons, an early childhood practitioner bears an awesome of opportunity for language, one should be used? T he speech/language pathologist investigates several
what are the implications for
terms of intergenerational responsibility for facilitating every child's language to the maximum extent different systems and arranges a demonstration. After the family decides
communication, individual educators and families?
possible. on a system, there is the issue of cost. The school social worker contacts
and community esteem, and
All existing forms of human language have several features in the university researcher who invented ilie new equipment and works wiili
language ability in general?
common: ilie local Jaycees to raise the money. After ilie equipment arrives, Jacob works indi­
vidually wiili a special educator to learn how to use ilie assistive teclmology.
• Language is communicative. It enables us to both u·ansmit and receive messages. According to Jacob's individualized educational program (IEP) and ilie agree­
These messages include ilioughts, emotions, ideas, and values. ment made witl1 his family (individualized family service plan, IFSP), the major goal
• Lanr;uage is abstract. It consists of signs or symbols that stand for someiliing else, for the year is forJacob to be able to communicate wiili oiliers using his AAC device.
wheilier it is American Sign Language, Farsi, or braille. This goal is furilier broken down into stages, first using single-word icons, ilien two­
• Lanr;uage is ntle governed. Every language has a system of rules that determine icon combinations, and finally sentence-like combinations.
word order, meaning, and the formations of different words. About tl1is experience, Mr. Conway says, "I never realized what a world of differ­
• Language is social. Even before infants can speak words, they can use gestures, ence AAC could make in the lives of children. It provides not only academic support
noises, and crying to communicate. T he main purpose of language is to facilitate but also a mechanism for social and emotional growili. It has helped me too. I have
interaction wiili oilier people. learned from working wiili everyone. Now I really make an effort to keep up on new
• Lanr;uage is ve1-satile. It can be arranged and recombined in limitless ways. It is inventions to help children with special needs."
even possible to use language to communicate about things iliat do not yet exist,
such as a science fiction author who creates a completely imagina1y world.
Contributions and Consequences
Keep tl1ese features of language in mind as you read aboutJacob, a preschooler
with special needs for language support.
• Cont1·ibutions of the teacher: How did the teacher play an active role in this
situation?
• Contributions ofthe family: How did tl1e family support ilie child and get involved
in furiliering tl1e child's literacy growili?
Collaboration with Families and Professionals • Cont�·ibutions ofothe1' pmfessionals: How did professionals in oilier fields cont:J.·ib­
ute to addressing tl1e needs of ilie child and family?
This year, Mr. Conway's preschool class will include Jacob, a 4-year-old • Consequences of collaboration: How might this story have ended differently if ilie
COMPANION WEBSITE who has a birili defect iliat has resulted in an inability to speak. Mr. Con­ adults had not worked together?
Chapter Objectives . way works wiiliJacob's family and three professionals as part of a t:J.·ansdis­
Set a purpose for reading ciplinary team to give Jacob the services iliat he needs. These specialists As you read about the National Association for ilie Education of Young Chil­
by reviewing the chapter
include a speech/language pathologist, tl1e school social worker, and a spe­ dren's statement of ethical responsibilities for teachers, consider how Mr. Conway and
objectives.
cial educator. the team addressed each one.
 54 Part 1\vo • Oml Lrmguage www.ablongman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • Uuderstandiug Lrmguage Development in Early Childhood 55

Katie's behavior illustrates the strides that are made in children's language
Standards to Guide Professional Practice: development in just two years. \Nhen she was a newborn baby, her only means of
NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct communication was ctying. How did she manage to travel dus far in her ability to
commurncate? How will she progress to the conversational ease of a 5-
Teachers' rf'!sponsibilities, according to the National Association for the Education of Infant and Toddler year-old or the complex sentences of a second-grader?
Young Children (NAEY C) Code of Edllcal Conduct, include tl1e following:
Research At some point during your school career, you no doubt studied and
If expressive language delay
learned that the communication process includes a sender, a message, a
in toddlers is defined as
• To be familiar witl1 tl1e knowledge base of early childhood education and to keep medium for conveying that message, a receiver of the message, and a con­
having a vocabulary of fewer
current through continuing education than 30 words and no word text in which that message is transmitted. How does this communication
• To base program practices on current knowledge in tl1e field of child develop- combinations, then approxi­ process apply to the language learning of the young child? Lauren, a 3-
ment and related disciplines and on particular knowledge of each child
mately 9 to 17 percent of year-old who is meeting a couple of her parents' friends for the first time,
24-month-olds are language
• To recognize and respect the uniqueness and potential of each child provides a good example. Lauren hides behind the curtains and then be­
delayed, based on research
• To appreciate the special vulnerability of children hind a visitor's chair. "She's a little shy at first," Lauren's parents explain,
studies (Rescorla, 1989)
• To create and maintain safe and healthy settings tl1at foster children's social, Studies also show that infants "and sometimes difficult to understand." The preschooler comes out from
emotional, intellectual, and physical development and that respect their dignity and toddlers with severe behind the chair and looks admiringly at the woman visitor's necklace.
and contributions
physical impairments rely Then Lauren says witl1 perfect pronunciation and a tone of command in
more on preverbal communi­ her voice, "I want to wear it."
• To support the right of children with special needs to participate, consistent with cation skills (e.g., eye gaze,
their ability, in regular early childhood programs (Feeney & Kipnis, 1992, n.p.) Lauren's behavior illustrates tl1e communicative process. It includes
attention, and gesture) (Rein­
hartsen, 2000). What are the a sender (Lauren), a message ("I want to wear it."), a medium (spoken
implications of this research words), a receiver (the visitor), and a context, botl1 physical (the living
for caregivers' interactions room) and social (verbal interaction with friends of tl1e family who are un­
How Do Children Learn to Communicate? with infants and toddlers? familiar to Lauren). Figure 3.1 is a diagram of the communication process
as it applies to the young child.
Linguistics refers to verbal (oral and written) language and its study. Basically, two vVhen two people are commurncating with one another, tl1e one who sends
means of communication are available to the young child: paralinguistics (nonverbal) the message also expects some response on tl1e part of the receiver. A baby who cries
and linguistics (verbal). Paralinguistics are tl1ose nonverbal means of communication expects someone to appear in the doorway, ready to comfort her or him. T he child
that are related to language, such as facial expressions, gestures, body pos­ who is experimenting with a paper-cup-and-string "telephone" expects the person on
COMPANION WEBSITE tures, and voice intonation (Menyuk, 1988). T hese nonverbal forms of the other end of the line to listen and talk back. The child who sends a letter to her
Practice Test Items commurucation play a significant role in language comprehension, par­ or his grandparents awaits a reply. Thus, human communication is "a person send­
for Chapter 3 ticularly when verbal expression is just developing. In fact, it is possible to ing a message to anotl1er individual witl1 tl1e conscious intent of evoking a response"
Check out the Practice Test
get the essence of a message witl1out any words at all, as when we watch a Gohnson, 1972, p. 11).
Items for Chapter 3 on the
Companion Website.
mime perform or look at a television program with tl1e sound turned off. Scientists have continued to debate the question of whether language is a uniquely
A toddler who has been taught not to touch the CD player, for instance, human characteristic. No one doubts that aillmals can communicate, meaillng tl1at they
might play a mischievous game, whereby she pretends to touch it and then can send messages through any of tl1e sensory perception channels-visual (sight), audi­
looks expectantly at the adult, who responds by nodding "No" and looking solemn. tmy (sound), olfactmy (smell), gustatmy (taste), or tactile (touch). We know that aillmals
Even though no words are spoken by the child, commw1ication occurs. communicate in many different ways, such as a honeybee who shows directions to a field
Let's look at how Katie, a 2-year-old, uses botl1 nonverbal and verbal means of of flowers through a "dance," a mourrung dove who calls to her mate, a newborn kitten
communication. She sees a battety -operated toy that has tl1ree plastic penguins who who finds its mother through smell and taste, and a group of mature female elephants
climb up a staircase, zoom down a sliding board, and tl1en repeat tl1e whole process who comfort a motl1er elephant giving birth by stroking her with their trunks.
all over again, complete witl1 chirping noises. She points to the toy and says "Birdies! Many linguists, tl1e professionals who study language, argue that in order to
Birdies!" while beckoning toward the toy with her fingers. "See it?" she asks in a hope­ qualify as a language, four characteristics must be present:
ful voice. \Nhen the toy is placed witl1in reach, Katie asks, "Touch it?" T he toddler
deftly picks up each penguin, inspects it closely, and then puts it back in place. She 1. Symbolism, meaning that a system of sow1ds, words, gestures, and graphic sym­
is· clearly delighted by tl1is newfow1d ability to intervene in the penguins' rhydunic bols are used to stand for meanings, dUngs, and concepts
climbing and roller-coaster descent. Finally, she pats her chest with her hands and 2. Displacement, the ability to refer not only to objects, events, and situations in the
asks, "Have it?" present but also to tl1e past or future
 56 Part Two • Ot"fll Language ww\v.ablongman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • Uuderstanding Language Development in Emiy Childhood 57

FIG U R E 3.2 Components of Hunzan Language

Dimension/Definition Behaviors of Child

Pragmatics Comprehension of Social Implications of Uttemnces

Mastery of the social Example: Knowing that "Help! Help!" is a way to attract
Intention to transmit message interaction system of attention and get assistance in an emergency.
Expectation of response language
Production of Uttemnces App1·opriate to tbe Social Situation
H()W ()/c/ Example: Learning to say "please" and "thank-you."
y()u?

\"����
�re
Semantics Comprebension ofMeaniugs
Mastery of meaning Example: Associating the words "bye-bye" with departures.

eM - s-sa_g_e /_M_ e_d-i u-m--��

system
Production ofMeaningful Utterances

-- --�
Example: Saying the word "truck" when a truck passes by.
� Syntax Recognition of Stt·uctttre in Utte7"fl77ces
r---
--

I'M th/�
-- ----

� Mastery of grammatical
system
Example: Realizing that plural nouns often end ins.

� � o::ot
P1·oduction of Correctly Stt·ttcttu·ed Utterrmces
M4f1f. . . three Receiver Example: Learning noun/verb order to ask a question: "Vlhy
can't he play?" instead of "Why he can't play?"
Expectation to understand
l looto 'eply
Graphophonics Comprebension of Souuds
Mastery of sound system Example: Hearing the words "You can bring your bear" and
responding appropriately.
P1·oduction of Sounds
Example: Learning to say the word "no. "

Soune: Adapted from Levin, 1983.

FIG U R E 3.1 Diagra11t of the Communication Process

repertoire of symbols is limited. Additionally, Koko finds communicating about the

past and future particularly challenging, and her ability to combine ideas, while im­
3. Reconstruction, or the ability to rearrange and recombine symbols, words, and pressive, has never approached that of a preschooler, even though she is a mature
ideas in nearly limitless ways adult. Furthermore, if she were returned to the wild, her sign language would tend
4. Sustainability, meaning that the language already learned would continue to exist to disappear. So, based on tl1e four criteria of symbolism, displacement, reconstruc­
even in the absence of reinforcement (So, even if you were marooned on a desert tion, and sustainability, Koko's language ability still lags far behind tl1at of a typical
island without the opportunity to talk, you would not forget a language that you 3-year-old human.
know really well.)

Using these four criteria, it would be difficult to argue that animals-even

those animals that have remarkable systems of communication, such as dol­ Components of Language
COMPANION WEBSITE
On the Internet:
phins-are capable of something comparable to human language. Koko,
Language Development a mountain gorilla who was taught American Sign Language and who The young child's acquisition of language is a far more impressive achievement than
For a selective list of Internet has been the subject of many popular children's picture books, is a good parroting back the sounds he or she hears like a trained bird. Actually, there are four
resources on young children's example of the highest level of language mastery that animals evidently equally important dimensions of human language. Simultaneous attention to all four
language development, see
can obtain. Although she is remarkably intelligent and can communicate of these features is what makes the mastery of a language difficult. Figure 3.2 re­
the Companion Website.
complex ideas witl1 her trainer-such as her wish for a pet kitten-her views these four components of language: (1) pragmatic (social context), (2) semantic
 58 Part Two • Oml Lflnguflge www.ablongman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • Uuderstrmdi11g Lflnguflge Development in EfldJ' Cbildboorl 59

(meaning), (3) syntactic (structural), and (4) graphophonic (the alphabetic, ortho­ Semantics
graphic, sound/symbol aspects) (Unran & Ruddell, 2004). Se11tantics, the second c�mponent of language, refers to the meanings of words. How
do children come to understand word meanings?
Pragmatics Consider, for example, the word potato. Three-year-old Lee looks at her dinner
plate and sees a small, white mound. It tastes bland and has a smooth texture. "Do
Pragmatics has to do with the social context for language. It deals with who can speak, you like your potatoes?" her father asks. The next day, her family stops at a restaurant,
to whom they can speak, what they can say, how they should say it, when and where
and she eats some white circles covered with an orange, rubbery substance-potatoes
it is said, and the medium used to communicate (Hymes, 1971). To illusrr·ate how
au gratin. "You like potatoes, huh?" her mother comments. On Saturday, Lee goes to
pragmatics affects language, think about how you would express disagreement with
the grocety store and watches a woman who is handling brown, dirty objects in the
your supervisor, your parent, your classmate, or a preschooler.
produce section. She overhears the woman say, "I think I' ll get a couple pounds of
One of the best ways to assess children's understanding of the social side of lan­
potatoes." Some weeks later, Lee visits relatives and sees her cousins playing a game
guage is by observing them during play. The following play text illustrates pragmatics
they call Hot Potato with a pillow in the living room. Then her aunt says to a group
at work. Two preschool girls are playing with little plastic people; tv10 coffee cans set
of relatives who are watching television, "Time for lunch, you couch potatoes!" The
up like houses with plastic beds, batl1, and kitchen fixtures inside; and a "school" witl1
variety of Lee's experiences with just one word during a few weeks illustrates why
desks. Maria plays the roles of teacher and mother, while Luan plays the parts of the
learning word meanings can be troublesome for beginning language learners.
three children.
Typically, children's difficulties with word meanings, or semantics, fall into
one of three categories: (1) not !mowing the correct word, (2) interpreting words or
Ma·ria (Teacher-in an authoritative voice): "OK children." (She
phrases literally, or (3) mistaking one word for another. Anna's experience illustrates
switches back to her normal voice and says to her playmate, "Pretend they
Group Investigation
not knowing the correct terminology. Anna is playing by her sandbox and calls to her
are talking to each other.") "No chewing gum in school!"
Visit this website with teenage sister, "There's a worm, a big worm. Help me, sissy. I don't want it to get me."
hyperlinks to many different Luan (playing all th·ree children and using a silly voice): "Chomp, "Anna," her sister replies, "worms don't bite. Don't wony about it." "But it's a big
tasks that assess children's chomp, chomp!" "But that's fun!" (Picks up one figure.) "Teacher, I have black worm with a head," Anna continues. "I can see it looking at me." Anna's sister
phonemic awareness: www. to go home now. I don't feel good!" (Moves the figure to the home.) climbs down from the porch, sees a six-foot black snake, and screams, and they both
chapman.edu/soe/faculty/
"Mom, Mom!" (Returns the figure to the school.) "OK, I' m back now!" run inside. Based on this experience, Anna learns the difference between the words
piper/resource/informal.htm.
T hen work in small groups
"I just have a cold, achoo!" (Moves the figure back home again.) "Hi, snake and 7V01'"17t.
to design some informal Mom!" Another common difficulty with language is the literal interpretation of words.
measures appropriate for Ma·ria (switching roles to become Mother): "Take a bath!" Idiomatic exp1·essio11s have figurative, rather than literal, meanings, such as "I' m all tied
children of different ages. Try
Luan (puts figure into tub): "I'm finished, Mom! Achoo, achoo, achoo! up" and "He let the cat out of the bag." \i\Then Nicole's father comments to his friend
out your measures with some
young children in a gamelike Now there's three absent from school." "I see you got a haircut," Nicole looks at the man curiously and whispers to her father,
fashion, and then report on "I think you're wrong, Daddy. He got a whole bunch of hairs cut."
Maria (still playing Mother): "Stay home and stay in your beds."
the results. Children also mistake one word for another. Usually, this happens because they
Luan: "But Mom! Oh Mother, oh Mother, oh Ma Ma Ma Moooother!!" are rrying to make sense out of whatever they hear. Sometimes these misunderstand­
(Clean-up time is announced by the teacher.) ings result in invented forms, or words that children make up based on their effort to
make sense of what they have heard. Four-year-old Anita is at a family reunion picnic
As Luan's and Maria's play reveals, tl1ey have learned many things about the social where cole slaw is being served. She likes it and wants more, except that she refers to
side of communication. it as "cold slop." In some ways, Anita's'label for this food is more descriptive than its
Pragmatics includes such considerations as what is polite or rude, how turns are real name!
taken during a conversation, when silences become uncomfortable, and the efforts
speakers make to repeat or adapt information to make it understandable to their listen­
Syntax
ers. Even nonverbal considerations are included, such as how far we stand apart (e.g.,
when are people invading our space?), the role of eye contact (e.g., looking down is a Syntax refers to tl1e set of rules or the grammar of a language. Mickey, a kindergarrner,
sign of respect in some cultures, but making eye contact shows confidence and honesty knows something about the rules of language. He explains how to form plurals to a
in the United States), how we make gestures (e.g., is it impolite to point?), and whether classmate like this: "Because, Vickie, when you have lots of stuff, like more than one
to�ching is offensive (e.g., when is hugging okay?). stuff, then you put an sat the end."
 60 Part Tivo • Om! Language www.ablongman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • U11dersta11ding Language Development in Early Cbildbood 61

Word order is another syntactical aspect. In English, the noun ·usually precedes garage and pretends to get gas; then he changes his voice to a lower pitch.) I
the verb (e.g., "The boy ran," rather than "Ran the boy"). The use of inflections, or have to get some gas, honey. (Switches to a higher pitch.) OK Billy, buy me some
word endings, is another syntactical rule. Children learn that the past tense of a regu­ gum while you're in there.
lar verb usually is formed by adding -ed. If a child says "We goed to Sea World," that
child has learned the rule. It just happens that go is an irregular verb that has went as its Mark uses words that imitate sounds, imitates the phrases he has heard, and varies tl1e
past tense. The same is true for the formation of plurals that Mickey was explaining to pitch of his voice. When he says "oohh" and "veroom," for example, the resonance
a classmate. If a child says "I need new slippers for my foots," this indicates (amount of vibration in his vocal chords) changes, too. The emotional tone in his
that she or he has learned some of the rules about forming plurals. voice changes when he gives a command or asks himself a question. Mark's
COMPANION WEBSITE
Although these examples might be viewed by adults as mistakes, they language emphasizes some words and includes slight breaks or pauses be­
Links with Literature: COMPANION WEBSITE
are evidence of overregularization in which children apply the rules con­ tween words and sentences. When he says "OK Billy, buy me some gum,"
Books for Infants Observing and
and Toddlers sistently (e.g., "Look at the deers" or "She teached us about animals.") he stresses the word "gum" and there are pauses after the words "OK"
Reflecting: Anecdotal
Learn more about children's The English language is full of irregular forms like these. That is one Records of Children's
and "Billy."
literature for infants and
reason that English is considered to be a difficult language to learn and Language Learning These features of the sound system of language are one reason that
toddlers on the Companion Learn how to write anecdotal a computer voice usually sounds so flat and mechanical in comparison to
another reason that children's mastery of language is such an impressive
Website. records that document
accomplishment. a human voice. Most of us fmd a monotone difficult to listen to because
children's language develop­
our ear for language expects variation. As Mark matures, he will strive to
ment and see examples on
the Companion Website.
match the sound units in his oral language, called phonemes, to the written
Graphophonics units of language, called graphemes. A challenge might be how to represent
The graphophonic system refers to the letters and sounds that constitute a language. a sound like "veroom" in written language.
Most babies are actually more sensitive to slight differences in language sounds than Teachers who consider all four components of language are able to make the
adults. W hen babies are given a specially designed pacifier that records their re­ most significant contributions to children's language growtl1.
sponses, research shows that their sucking slows down to a steady rate as they hear
the same sound repeatedly and that they begin to suck rapidly when a new sound
is introduced. This response is a sign that they have detected the new sound and
are interested again. This heightened speech perception evidently narrows over time Overview of Language Development
(Trawick-Smith, 2 002).
When a child learns anotl1er language during early childhood, he or she usually When does a child officially become a speaker of the native language? The Kaluli in
speaks it without an accent. When an adult acquires a second language, however, he Papua New Guinea believe that a child has started to talk only after he or she can say
or she often has a heavy accent that is characteristic of a native speaker of the same the words for "milk" and "breast" (Schieffelin, 1979). In the United States, we tend to
language. Japanese adults, for example, often have difficulty discriminating between confer the status of a beginning speaker on a child who can say "Mama" and "Dada."
the English sounds land r (e.g., saying "rike" for "like"), whereas Japanese infants can In U.S. society, most children begin to use recognizable words around the time that
detect this difference. they begin to take their first steps, or around 12 months of age. Five young learners of
After children acquire language, they continue to explore the sounds of lan­ language enrolled in a day-care center will help to illustrate the stages through which
guage. Here is a text of 5-year-old Mark's talk as he plays in the blocks corner: typically developing young children progress.
Prelinguistic speech refers to all of tl1e nonword utterances that babies make. Angie
One, two, three. (He counts the blocks as he picks them up.) I wonder if this is a 5-month-old who makes sounds that are similar to syllables. She babbles, making
will fall if I put three more blocks on top? (He is stacking blocks on the roof of consonant/vowel sounds like "rna," "ta," "da," and she coos, making vowel sounds
his garage. As he puts the second block on the stack, he bumps it and it all falls like "uuh." Kaoru, an 11-month-old in her class, is stringing these sounds together in
down.) Oooohhh! What' d ya fall for! (He begins to build it again but doesn't wordlike ways. He uses tl1e intonation and gestures of speech, but no actual words are
stack so many on this time.) That's done. (He finishes it and grabs a toy car.) Are discernible. Basically, Kaoru's vocalizations are English sounding, but no real words
'
you gonna fit? Brrrroom. (He drives his cars around and makes car noises.) Hi, are spoken. This flow of gibberish with speechlike characteristics is referred to as
Sandy! Hi, Bill! Let's go to the ice-cream place. OK. Brrroooom, almost here, expressive jmgon.
eerrrch. Let's get out. I want a biiggg ice cream cone! OK. Hey lady, gimme Figure 3.3 is a timeline of the general sequence for language development.
a five-scoop ice-cream cone. Thanks. Here, Sandy. Now gimme a six-scoop Knowing tl1is information will give you some sense of the way that language pro­
ice-cream cone. Thanks. Let's go. That was good! Verooom. (He drives to the gresses. Such knowledge should not be used to label children as "above average,"
62 Part 1\vo • Om! Lrmguage www.ablongman.com/jalongo4e
Chapter 3 • Uuderstaudiug Lauguage Develop71!ent iu Early Cbildbood 63

FIGURE 3.3 Timeline of Infant/Toddler Language Development

eat my sandwich," and "Me go too" to mean "I want to go outside and play with the
big kids." This type of language, reduced to its most essential elements, is referred to
The first form of communication is crying. There are actually different types of
as telegraphic speech because it is comparable to the way we conmmnicate when we are
cries. A painful cry is often signaled not only by the intensity but also by the number
of pauses or how long the baby holds its breath between cries. aying to save words, as in a telegram. Most of us would not write, for example, "I am
desperately in need of cash. Please send money as soon as you possibly can," when
As babies get older, they make sounds and gestures. At first, babies make the vowel economy of expression is the goal. If text messaging, we might write "HELP! SEND $ ! "
sounds using their mouths (e.g., "ooooh," "aaaah"); by 4 or 5 months, they begin to
The child's telegraphic speech does much the same thing: I t distills the message into
use the back of their throat to make consonant sounds. At around 1 2 months, they
connect vowels and consonants together, a type of utterance called lallation (e.g.,
its essential elements, mostly nouns and verbs.
"mamamama"). These consonant/vowel syllable sequences make up about half of Notice tl1at in all tl1ese cases, tl1e children omit the auxiliaty verbs and verb
babies' noncrying sounds from 6 to 12 months. endings ("Billy cry" instead of "Billy is crying"), the prepositions and articles ("book"
instead of "at the book"), and the pronouns ("Portia" instead of "me" or "I" or "my").
Toddlers' ability to understand language is much more developed than their ability to Gradually, even that telegraphic speech becomes more elaborate, as when a neighbor
produce (expressive) language. B etween 8 months and 1 1h years, babies use expressive
asks a 2 -year-old if she wants to take a walk with her and her daughter. The toddler
jargon, a flow of jibberish with languagelike intonation. At about the same time,
points to her mom and then points to herself and says, "My ask my mommy my
babies begin to use single words (holophrases) that are understandable to others.
' llowed," meaning "I'll ask my mommy if I am allowed to go with you."
Toddlers and 3 -year-olds tend to use telegraphic speech, words linked together As children mature, of course, their speech begins to sound more and more like
without verb endings (e.g., -ed, -ing), articles (e.g., tbe, and), prepositions (e.g., au, that of adults. They use complex sentences, sentences tl1at eventually incorporate all
in), and pronouns (e.g., I, sbe, him). Although children's language varies widely, the
of the things that were omitted in telegraphic speech. Still, language presents many
toddler's receptive (listening) vocabulary is often as much as four times his or her
challenges. Expressions for temporal relations 6'estenlay, ajte 1; tben), causality (if, be ­
expressive (speaking) vocabulary (Griffiths, 1 986). 1\vo-year-olds are just learning
how to converse and typically do not extend a conversation beyond two turns and do
cause), and quantity (jew, less, 111anJ0 are particularly a·oublesome because they require
not sustain a topic for long. sophisticated thinking about sequences, causal relationships, and comparisons or rela­
tive amounts (McCormick, Loeb, & Schiefelbusch, 1997). So, it would not be wmsual
Source: McCormick, Loeb, & Schiefelbusch, 1 997. for a child who can carry on a conversation reasonably well to confuse yesterday with
tomm1·ow, saying, "Is tl1ere a party yesterday?"
Figure 3.4 is intended to give rough estimates of when various language mile­
"average," or "below average," however. The teacher's role is always to support and stones might be achieved in typically developing children, birtl1 through age 8. It
facilitate language development in ways tl1at furtl1er the child's competence, regardless should not be regarded as a set of rigid standards to which every child is expected to
of the age at which particular language behaviors appear. adhere because a child's age does not tell us evetything we need to know about her or
Linguistic speech begins with first words and lasts until maturity. Even though his language development. Altl1ough language behavior informs us about what a child
1 3-month-old Eileen uses expressive jargon, her language is interspersed with a few has learned, it does not explain why or how language learning occurs. That question
sounds tl1at are identifiable as words, including "mama," "dada," "keekot" (kitty cat), has ina·igued people for centuries. Some contemporaty theorists have emphasized
and "buh-bah" (bottle). These one-word utterances are called bolopbmses. By 13 to 1 5 the importance of heredity, some have sa·essed importance of environment, and still
months, most infants have acquired about 10 words. Usually, their first words refer others have suggested it is tl1e interaction of the two.
to things they can experience directly or act on in some way-family members, pets,
favorite foods or toys. Sometimes tl1ey choose action words, such as "up" or "bye­
bye," or engage in social games like Patty Cake. Occasionally, they use modifiers such
as "bad" or "pretty," as well as words tl1at enable them to obtain information (e.g., Theories of Language Acquisition
"whazdat?" for "what is that?"). Children sometimes pronounce words in surpris­
ing ways, something that is responsible for many nicknames-like Christie, who was \iVhetl1er you realize it or not, you already have some tl1eoretical leanings. Com­
called "Crisit" by her baby sister. plete tl1e following sentence stem-"! think tl1at children learn to talk primarily
As children progress through linguistic speech, they begin to link words to­ through . . ."-and then compare your answer with the statements tl1at follow:
gether. If we listened in as 2- and 3-year-olds were playing together, we would hear
many children combining words into tl1e simplest of sentences, such as "Billy cty" to 1 . Children learn to talk primarily through imitation. They make certain sounds
mean "Do something, Teacher. Billy is crying," "Look book" to mean "Please read and are rewarded or reinforced for producing words.
this book to me now," "Portia sammich" to mean "I want to have my lunch now and 2. Children learn to talk because it is part of ilieir normal progression of develop­
ment, which is greatly influenced by heredity.
64 Part 'Rvo • Om! Lrmguage www.ablongman.com/jalongo4e
Chapter 3 • Understanding Language Development in Early Cbildbood 65

FIGURE 3.4 Language Milestones

FIGU R E 3. 4 Continued
Stage 1: Prelinguistic-Speech- Type Sounds but No Words
(appt·oximately birth-1 1 tlwnths) 5 to 6 years Complex, grammatically correct sentences; uses pronouns; uses
Birth past, present, and future verb tenses; average sentence length
Crying is the major way of communicating needs.
per oral sentence increases to 6.8 words.
2 weeks Less crying, more random gestures and vocalizations.
Vocabulmy: Uses approximately 2 , 500 words, understands about
6 weeks Squeals, gurgles, and coos (makes vowel sounds such as "uhh").
6,000, responds to 2 5,000.
2 months Uses smile to communicate.
Social: Child has good control of elements of conversation.
3 months to 6 months Child babbles (makes consonant/vowel syllable sounds like "ma,"
"de," "da"). Stage 5: Using Language Symbolically (reading and writing)
6 months to 9 months Accidentally imitates sounds, more repetition of syllables (such as (approximately 6 years and up)
"ah-ba-ba"); utterances express emotions.
9 months to 1 1 months Deliberately imitates sounds; shows definite signs of 6 to 7 years Uses more complex sentences more adjectives; uses "If . . . then"
understanding some words and simple commands; uses conditional clauses; average number of words per sentence is 7 .6.
exp1'essive jrngon, a flow of gibberish that has the intonation of T7ocabulmy: Speaking vocabulaty of about 3 ,000 words.
real speech. 7 to 8 years Social: Uses adjectival clauses with 1vbicb, more gerunds,
subordinate clauses.
Stages 2 to 4: Linguistic Speech-Uses Language in Increasingly Complex Jififlys
(approximately 1 year and up) Sotn-ces: Dale, 1 976; Loban, 1 976; Maxim, 1 989; McCormick, Loeb, & Schiefelbusch, 1 997; Papalia &
Olds, 1 998.
Stage 2: One- Wot·d Utterances (approximately 1-2 years)
At approximately 1 2 Child uses bolopbmses (one-word utterances); complex meanings
months can underlie one word; vocabulary of three to six words. 3. Children learn to talk because the human brain is "wired" for language. They
1 2 months to 1 8 Intonation is complex and speechlike; extensive use o f nouns. seem to pick up language naturally.
months T7ocnbulmy: 3 to 50 words. 4. Children learn to talk because of the interaction between their emerging abilities
Social: Child does not attempt to convey additional information and their experiences. They are constantly striving to make sense out of tl1eir
or show frustration when not w1derstood. world.
5. Children learn to talk primarily because they need to communicate. Their emo­
Stage 3: Making Words into Phrases (approximately 2-3 yean)
tional and social drives greatly affect tl1e process of language development.
Around 2 years Great strides in receptive language child; uses telegmpbic speecb,
6. Children learn to talk because language is a part of the culture. Through lan­
1:\vo- or three-word utterances.
guage, children learn the social norms and expectations that enable them to
Vocabulm)': 50 to 200 words.
Social: Definite increase in commw1icative efforts; beginnings
participate in society.
of conversation, although toddlers rarely extend conversations
beyond 1:\vo turns or sustain topics. \Vhich of these statements is most closely aligned with your own ideas? Perhaps it was
3 years Often considered to be the most rapid period of language growth difficult to decide. Some of them may sound familiar because they include theoretical
Vocabulmy: Many new words acquired daily; 200- to 3 00-word orientations you have encountered previously. The first statement, as you may have
vocabulaty. guessed, is a behavioral theory. Item 2 reflects a maturational theo1y, 3 a preformationist
Social: Child strives to communicate and shows frustration if not themy, 4 a cognitive developmental theo1y, and 5 and 6 sociocultural learning themy.
w1derstood; the ability of unfamiliar adults to understand the Behaviorists, such as B. F. Skinner, emphasize the influence of the environment
child increases. on language development. The stimulus/response dynamic is the essence of a behav­
ioral theo1y of language acquisition. A 9-month-old pats the family dog while saying
Stage 4: Using Complete Sentences (app1'oximately 4-6 years)
"duh-duh-duh." Her father gets excited and says, "Yes! That's right-it's a doggie. Say
4 years Pronw1ciation and grammar improve.
dog-gie." Then he calls to his wife in the next room: "Hey, honey! Come here. Alison
T7ocabulmy: 1 ,400 to 1 ,600 words.
Social: Child seeks ways to correct misunderstandings; begins to
just said doggie!" This situation offers one possible answer to tl1e question of language
adjust speech to listener's information needs; disputes with peers acquisition. The child makes random sounds, certain sounds are reinforced, and after
can be resolved with words and invitations to play are more thousands of such experiences, the child begins to talk.
common. Maturationists emphasize individual biological readiness. Children's language,
according to a maturational view, gradually w1folds in accordance with the child's
66 Part 1\vo • Om/ Language www. ablongman.com/ja longo4e Chapter 3 • Uuderstrmdiug Lrmgurtge Developme1lt in Eady Cbildbood 67

"inner clock," just as a plant moves predictably from bulb to flower but does not From a sociocultuml perspective, language use and development is an inner
necessarily bloom at the same moment as every other bulb. Individual children may thought process (psychological) and a means of interaction with others (social) that
vary considerably from that timetable without having any language problems. One occurs in a variety of contexts (cultural). Opportunities for social interaction within a
child might talk exceptionally early at 8 months, and another child might not begin particular cultural context are the primary motivation for children to learn language.
talking until 20 months. Despite these initial differences, it is often the case that both For an illustration of this theoretical perspective, let's return to Marjorie. One
children are doing well in school fom years later, and it might be difficult at that point morning, she toddles into the kitchen, points at her face, and says "Fuh-fuh, Mama."
to ascertain who was the first to talk. The conviction that children are on their own Her parents are completely mystified by this statement. What does the white and
schedules, so to speak, is a maturational point of view. furry categmy have to do with her face? Marjorie is attempting to use language for
Innatists or prej01w1ationists believe that the brain is "wired" for language acquisi­ social interaction, but no one can fathom her meaning. The question is answered after
tion. The basic sequence of language acquisition is the same regardless of the specific Marjorie develops an upper-respiratmy problem and tl1e pediat:J.·ician discovers she has
language being learned by the child. Whether a baby learns English, Japanese, or pushed a piece of frayed blanket fuzz into her nostril!
Balinese, the steps in language acquisition tend to move from babbling and cooing, to So even though the toddler has mastered only a handful of words, mostly nouns,
expressive jargon and holophrases, to telegraphic speech, to simple sentences, and to these words are being used for social interaction, not merely as labels. Marjorie is
increasingly complex sentences. For the vast majority of children around the world, st:J.·iving to commwucate, even if adults fail to understand her. Marjorie's behavior also
this task is accomplished during the preschool years, and if it is not accomplished reflects an understanding of the norms of her culture. She has learned tl1at pointing
during that time, language ability often suffers. Even though children do attain these at something is a way of focusing tl1e attention of otl1ers on it, and she has u·ied to
language milestones at their own pace, the markers along the way remain relatively combine this gesture witl1 her vety limited vocabulaty to get her point across.
consistent (Chomsky, 1988). Because sociocultural themy emphasizes the ways tlut humans learn and use
Thus far, you have seen two theories that emphasize heredity (innatist and matu­ language, it emphasizes pragmatics. As discussed earlier in this chapter, pmgmatics
rationist) and one that emphasizes environment (behaviorist). Next are two theories refers to the different types of language that are socially appropriate with different
that emphasize the interaction between heredity and environment. people and social contexts. Young children are just leanung that situations call for
Cognitive developmental tbe01y emphasizes the interaction between heredity and different types of language. They are learning, for example, that although it might be
environment. It assumes that the organism (in this case, the child) both changes the acceptable to teasingly insult a sibling or peer, the same behavior will be frowned on
environment and is changed by the environment. Also essential to the themy is the in an interaction with a great aunt or a clergy member.
understanding that children go through a series of steps or stages in their language In recent years, theorists who regard lang·uage as a cultmal phenomenon have
learning. The basic premise of cognitive developmental theory is constructivism. Ac­ gained greater recognition. Russian theorist Lev Vygotsky (1962) set forth a different
cording to this themy, children do not simply soak up the language around them. perspective on the role of language in thinking and learning. Whereas Jean Piaget (1963),
Rather, they actively build or construct their understandings about the world. a cognitive developmental theorist, argued tl1at thought comes before language, Vygotsky
The behavior of Marjorie, a 12-month-old, will help to illustrate the dual processes argued tl1at the child must first acquire language to have something to think with. An
that are used to construct knowledge about language, assimilation, and accommodation. important aspect of Vygotsky's themy is tl1e zone ofpmximal development (ZPD), or the gap
Marjorie created the word "fuh-fuh," which she used to describe the fox fm collar on between what the child can do independently and what the child cannot yet do. Vygotsky
her mother's coat, a white dog puppet, and a faded yellow blanket. Evidently, this word pointed out that social support from adults and especially from more competent peers can
described a categmy of objects that could be labeled as "white, funy things." In assimi­ enable tl1e child to advance to tl1e next level. From tlus perspective, language develop­
lation, existing mental st:J.uctures keep expanding to include new concepts. If Marjorie ment becomes more than an inner mental activity ; it becomes a cultural phenomenon.
indiscriminately referred to everything as a "fuh-fuh," it would be pure assimilation; her Even tl1ough tl1eorists may disagree about tl1e most important influence on the
mind would operate like one giant file cabinet witl1out any dividers or separate files. In child's language development, most theorists agree on tl1e basic chronology of lan­
accommodation, new mental st:J.·uctures are formed. If Marjorie created a new categmy guage learning and all agree that heredity and environment botl1 play a role. Perhaps
evety time she encountered something unfamiliar, it would be pme accommodation; her tl1e best way of balancing these theoretical orientations is to use Genishi's (1 98 8)
mind would be like a file cabinet with separate dividers for each and every thing. explanation: "Language occurs tl1rough an interaction among genes (which hold in­
For children to form new, useful, and meaningful mental st:J.uctures, assimilation nate tendencies to commmucate and be sociable), environment, and the child's own
and accommodation must work together. Now Marjorie sees a toy horse with a mane thinking abilities" (p. 1).
and tail of white hair. Where does she " file" it-as a "fuh-fuh" or a horse, or does it Language is sometimes categorized as receptive, meaning that language is taken
warrant a whole new categmy? She decides that the features of "horseness" in this in (listening/reading), or expressive, meatung language tl1at is produced (speaking/
particular item supersede its furriness and categorizes it as a horse. From a cognitive writing). Figure 3 . 5 provides an overview of receptive and expressive language activities
developmental perspective, children are, just like Marjorie, actively building their un­ for use witl1 children in elementary school. Similarly, language may be categorized as
derstandings about language. They use language as a tool to think with. oral (speaking and listening), or 1m·itten (reading and writing).
68 Part 'Tivo • Oral Language www. ablon gman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • Understanding Language Development in Early Childhood 69

FIGURE 3.5 Receptive and Expressive Language Strategies Continued

FIG U R E 3.5

Receptive Language Strategies Receptive Language Strategies

Child 's Desired Child's Desired

Behaviors Teacher's Verbal Prompts Classroom Activities Behaviors Teache1· 's Verbal Prompts Classroom Activities

Speaks in "I'm not sure what you • Read aloud literature that contains descriptive Joins in "Ms. wants someone
complex mean. Tell me more." language and complex sentence forms. conversations to teach her children to
sentences "Start with and tell • Perform choral reading/speaking activities so with peers __ . I know you are good
me again." (Give child children can hear and use expressive language. and adults at that. Let's pretend you
appropriate word or phrase Yow1g children can use poems with repetitive (Continued) are teaching this puppet to
with which to start a phrases. Older children can enjoy Paul __ . How would you teach
complex sentence.) Fleischman's Joyful Noise: Poems for Two Voices. this puppet to __ ?"
"Do you mean ? ... • Memorize chants and rhymes. Tap out
__

rhythms to improve fluency. Provides "I don't understand. Can • Have children ask and answer questions
Can you tell me __ ?" more you tell me with different during Author's Chair time, sharing time, or
(Give child appropriate information words?" book discussions.
sentence for repetition.) when asked Have children respond to questions from
"Do you mean __ ?" •

Uses specific "I asked __ [where/ • Role-play situations in which children ask (Requires only yes/no teacher/peers in dialogue journals (written
vocabulaty when/who/how many/etc.] . questions of others. response.) "Do you mean or audiotaped) or during editing activities.
such as Tell me a __ [place/ • Have children generate questions and then __ or __ ?" (Requires Have children explain their strategies and/or
names, time/name/number/etc.] ." interview peers or adults. Tape interviews for child to rephrase original reasoning when giving an answer or comment.
pronouns, "You said he/she. \Vhat later review. statement.) • Encourage questions and answers after oral
possessive person do you mean? Tell • Use cooperative groups to solve mysteries presentations or during sharing time.
markers me his/her name." by connecting clues to answers: who, what, Participates "We are talking about • Class meetings: Use a "turn stick" that children
"Who does that belong to? when, where, and so on. Children can create appropriately in __ [e.g. going to the pass to the person whose turn it is to talk.
Is it Susan's or is it Tom's?" questions for other groups. conversations grocety store] . What can • At the beginning of a discussion, give each
• Encourage dialogue through class meeting, (takes turns, you tell us about that?" child three tokens. A child spends one token
cooperative group work, and literature stays on per turn. Turns are over when all of the
"It's your twn now. Can you
discussion. topic, does tokens have been spent.
tell us ?" (Gain child's
Use a \Vho-vVhat-When-vVhere analysis
__

•
not intenupt attention and repeat question • Cooperative group work: Assign roles of
chart for literature. Young children can chart others) leader, recorder, questioner, etc., to ensure
to prompt memory.)
these with the teacher. that each child has a participatory role.
• Play 20 Questions: Teacher or child thinks • Use round-robin techniques for
of a secret topic. Children can ask up to 20 brainstorming. Drawing names from a holder
yes/no questions to solve the mystery topic. ensures each child an opportunity to speak.
Joins in "Please tell to • Teach bridging phrases such as "I agree with Exp ressive Language Stratgies
conversations __ ." (Give the child Julie because . . . " or "In addition to what
with peers practice approaching and you said, I . . . " to facilitate discussion. Signals when "Show me with your hands: • Seat a child in front row or close to teacher;
and adults speaking to others.) • Have the children respond to each other's information Do you want a lot of help, establish a signal for the child to indicate a
"You're going to be a team stories during Author's Chair time. is not a little help, or no help?" need for help (e.g., tap on teacher's shoe, tug
leader. Who would you like • Teach cooperative group skills. Assign each understood "Show me with your on right ear).
in your group?" (Choose group member a role and task (e.g., leader, hands: Did you understand • Have children paraphrase and repeat directions.
an activity in which the recorder, encourager, presenter) and have all of that, a little of that, • Give incomplete directions: "\Vhat else do you
child succeeds easily; ask children complete a group project. or none of that?" need to know?" Children ask for information.
the child privately to name • Use math manipulatives to develop strategies "Tell me as much as you
• Give incomplete information for an activity:
classmates with whom she/ for problem solving. Have children share can. I'll help if it gets Children work in cooperative groups to
he feels comfortable.) their reasoning with each other. confusing." determine what additional information is
needed.

(contiuued)
70 Part 1\vo • Om! Language www. ablongman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • Understrmding Lrmguage Development in Early Childhood 71

FIG U R E 3.5 Continued FIGURE 3.5 Continued

Exp1·essive Language Strategies Exp1·essive Language Stmtegies

Child 's Desired Cbild's Desired

Behavio1'S Teacher's Ve1·bal Prompts Classroo11t Activities Bebavio1'S Teac/m·'s Verbal Prompts Classroom Activities

Gives "That tells me • Create a concentration game: Match

Recognizes "What did I do differently • Use nonverbal cues such as a bell, music,
appropriate Right now I want to questions and answers to form pairs. With
and adapts to today? What do you think or clapping to signal transition times in the
responses know . Can you nonreaders this can be done on a pocket
subtle changes that means?" classroom.
__

when asked tell me ?" (Credit chart.

in classroom Develop a signal that children can use to
__

•
questions child with answering • Practice peer intenriews for a Meet Your "I changed sometlung this
activities morning. Point to what I help manage the classroom (e.g., a voice­
a question but clarify Classmate book.
changed." level chart, u·affic signal, or bell to signal
desired information; then • Have children keep dialogue journals in
"vVe have a visitor coming when classroom is too noisy.)
repeat/reword original which the teacher responds to children's
today. How should we
• Use signs or other visual cues.
questions.) reflections. In addition, have both teachers
"I can tell you're trying, and children write at least one question per change our schedule?"
but I want to know enuy for the reader to answer.
Read and discuss Mmtha Speaks by Susan Source: Howard, Shaughnessy, Sanger, & Hm ( 1 998). Let's talk! Facilitating language in early elementary
Could you tell me •
classrooms. Youug Cbild1'en, 53(3), pp. 3 7-3 8. Reprinted with permission.
__ ? " (Credit child's Meddaugh, in which Martha the dog gains
effort, clarify, and repeat/ the ability to speak by eating alphabet soup.
reword original question.)
"That's interesting. Teacher Concerns and Basic Strategies
Sounds like you were
reminded of Teachers who talked about clllldren's speech development raised several issues. For
But right now, we're instance, Lisa, a kindergarten teacher, said:
discussing __ . Tell me
__ . " (Credit effort and vVhenever I am working with young clllldren, I find that they sometimes want
association with general
to go on and on telling about something. I hate to cut them off, but sometimes
topic but clarify specific
their comments detract from a story or cause the other children to fidget. vVhat
topic and repeat/rephrase
question.) should I do?

Follows "Tell me what you have to • Have children retell stories in proper This teacher is right to tlllnk that it is not appropriate to disregard children's
multi-step do." sequence. Have children give explanat01y comments. With a younger clllld, you may want to suggest that she or he draw a picture
instructions "Tell me what you will do "how-to" speeches for completing tasks like
to describe the event that was so exciting. With an older clllld, you might gracefully
without first." Have child signal tying shoes, folding origami cranes.
move on, saying sometlllng like "It sounds like you had a ve1y interesting experience.
visual cues or teacher as soon as step • Tell/write narratives of the steps followed to
repetition of get ready for school, make Jello, etc. It would be a good one to write about in your journal" or "Maybe you shouldn' t tell us
is completed. Gradually
directions • Play Simon Says using more than one the end of your story yet. You could save it and write about it tills afternoon."
expand the number of
command (e.g., "Simon says to touch your Charles, who teaches third grade, raised another common concern. He said:
steps child completes
before signaling teacher. toes and wave your hand").
I feel so uncomfortable when the clllldren all begin to talk to me at once. I don't
"Great!" You have already
want to hurt anyone's feelings. I' m never sure how to handle this. vVhen I am
followed the first direction.
Now you have to __ .
teaching, I ask the children to raise their hands. But when the kids are waiting
Tell me what you must for the bus, on the playground, or in the cafeteria, I sometimes don't know who
do now." (Credit partial I should respond to first.
success, repeat next step(s).
Immediately check for Less formal talk situations do sometimes create multiple demands on the teacher's
understanding.) attention. You may want to set aside some special reserved times to talk with individual
 72 Part Tivo • Oml Language www. ablongman.com/jalongo4e Chapter 3 • Understauding Language Development in Early Childbood 73

children. Post a child's name on a helper's board to be your assistant and have your un­ • Combine Sensoty Stimulation with Talk Babies are at Piaget's sensorimotor stage,
divided attention when you are on bus, cafeteria, or playground duty. Another solution a time when they are particularly sensitive to sens01y input. 1iy experiences such as listening
is to use a first-come, first-served approach and gently remind children to take turns. to music while you hold and gently dance witl1 the child, stroking tl1e baby's fingers and toes
Knowing how to approach shy students is also of concern to many teachers. Li, with different textured fabrics, playing Peek-a-Boo, or enjoying action rhymes such as "This
a preschool teacher, commented: Little Piggy."
• Ping-Pong vVhen the infant or toddler makes a sound or says a word, imitate the
I suppose that I have a special bond with children who are shy because I was so shy child's vocalizations, and respond when the child vocalizes.
myself as a young child. I wonder how to help these children express themselves. • Thank-You Games Practice social routines, such as requesting ("Can I hold the
baby doll?") and then giving it back to the child quickly while saying "Thank you."
One thing to remember when drawing out shy young children is to avoid fo­
cusing too much attention on tl1em. If you know that the child is reticent, consider • Name It Provide the child with labels as you do things together-for instance, saying
meeting with the child and parent or family member together. Talk with tl1e parent while dressing the child to go outdoors, "First we'll put on your boots. Now your coat. Here's
your hat. Now one mitten. Now the other mitten."
or family member, instead of talking directly to the child. Talk about things that you
know would interest tl1e child. Usually, if shy children feel secure and have something • Embedded Teaching Experts recommend using familiar contexts as a
to say, they will join in the conversation. It may be a comment whispered to tl1e support for making language more understandable (McMullen, 1 998). For in­
COMPANION WEBSITE
caregiver, but it is participation nevertheless. \iVhen working with shy children, avoid stance, it is more understandable to the child to learn words associated witl1 foods
Teacher Self-Assessment
situations that put children on the spot (e.g., "What color is this?" "Show me how you and meals if they are discussed during snack- or lunchtime.
Visit the Companion Website
can spell.") and that ask them to offer opinions that seem risky (e.g., "Are you ready to to assess your understand­ • Expansions 1iy responding to a child's speech witl1 an elaborated ver­
start school in the fall?" "How do you like your new baby brother?"). Stay calm and ing of the main ideas in this sion of what he or she said. If a toddler says "Dada?" in a way that sounds like a
quiet long enough to get them to enter the conversation. chapter. question when the car pulls in the driveway, you could expand it by saying "You
hear Daddy?"
• Extensions Add information to children's speech. If a toddler says "Me go too," you

I
Classroom Activities to Support could extend tl1at by saying "Oh, you want to go in the car with me and visit Grandma. "
Language Development • Fill-Ins Instead of completing a sentence for the child, leave part of it blank s o that
the child can fill in the rest of tl1e information. A simple example is "This is a "
Long before babies can talk, adults need to interact with tl1em and talk to them (Caulfield, To offer a greater challenge, you could say something more like a riddle. For instance, while
1 995): at the grocety store, you might say "I need sometlung for breakfast. It's something you eat
with maple syrup."
From the moment of birth, infants mutually interact with their caregivers. They are able to
elicit and maintain their caregivers' attention, at first, with a wide array of reflexes, and later,
with intentional social responses. Newborn infants almost invariably elicit an immediate social CONCLUSION
response from adults in the environment. Their cries tend to draw attention to themselves and
bring comfort from their caregivers. (p. 3)
Conn·aty to popular opinion, adults do not "teach children to talk." That phrase
Recent research suggests iliat particular types of adult/child interactions are most likely
implies that the child is a passive repository for adult language or that language is
to increase the prelinguistic communication skills of young children with developmental somehow bequeathed to the child. vVe now know that children are far from being
delays (VVarren, Yoder, Gazdag, Kim, & Jones, 1 993). passive recipients of adult language. Children are the primary agents in the process of
acquiring language. Adults may invite, encourage, or support, but the child still is the
• Talking to Babies and Toddlers VVhen you speak witl1 vety young children, re­ learner who is sn·iving to communicate.
member to simplify sentences, limit vocabulaty, use here-and-now language, and repeat
words and phrases. 'Thlking to a baby during daily routines such as feeding, changing diapers,
and bathing is an excellent way to build vocabulaty and stimulate language growth. Studies RESEARCH-BASED LITERACY STRATEGIES
show that caregivers who communicate well with infants and toddlers raise the pitch of their
voices, exaggerate their facial expressions and speech, are vety animated, and engage the child
in interaction that resembles an "intricate dance" (Bornstein & Lamb, 1 992, p. 440). Havi n g Phonological Awareness and Learning to Recognize Rhymes

• Running Commentary Give a play-by-play description of what tl1e child is doing. Phonological mvm·en ess is the ability to recognize, manipulate, and produce the sounds
You can, for instance, take a narrated walking tour of tl1e home, classroom, center, or yard. in spoken words. For tl1e vety young child, the emphasis is on playing witl1 the sounds
74 Part 'Rvo Oral Language www. ablongman.com/jalongo4e
•
Chapter 3 • Undentanding Language Development in Eady Childhood 75

of language, rather than working with print. Activities such as listening to and chiming For more on using environmental print with young children, see Xu and Rut­
in on nursety rhymes are both ways of building phonological awareness (Byrne, Free­ ledge (2003).
body, & Gates, 1 992; Maclean, Btyant, & Bradley, 1 987; Neuman, 2004). Children's
phonological sensitivity tends to be stable over time and affects later literacy develop­ Using Chi ldren's Names to Foster Language Development
ment. Based on longitudinal data gathered from young children, sensitivity to rhyme
is a good predictor of which children will acquire phonological skills with print later Throughout the world, the naming of children has special significance. In fact, many
on (Anthony & Lanigan, 2004). cultures have particular rituals associated with names, such as a ceremony during
Clusters of words can be used to assess children's ability to detect rhyming words. which the child's name is selected (www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/development.htm).
A teacher might begin by asking children to find the words that "match" and saying Therefore, it is particularly important for teachers to learn each child's name and to
"Tree, bee. Do they sound alike? " "Tree, sock. Do they sound alike? " "T!:ee, duck. Do check with the parents/family to be certain about the correct pronunciation.
they sound alike? " Following some practice with items such as these, clip art can be Even before children know how to read or write other words, they often rec­
used to make matches that can be illustrated (e.g., box/fox, star/em; moon/spoon, bat/cat, ognize and try to write (or have learned to write) their names. Research suggests that
sock/clock, run/sun, pig/wig). children's efforts to write their names is a useful indicator of their literacy acquisition
Another way of fostering phonological awareness is to get children involved in (Bloodgood, 1 999). Toddlers and preschoolers often delight at hearing their names in
acting out nursery rhymes. This helps to build phonological awareness, teach children stories or songs as well. By building on this familiarity, children can begin to under­
the traditional rhymes, support speaking and listening skills, and support creative ex­ stand the functions of print, increase their awareness of sound/symbol correspondence
pression (Roush, 2005). Teachers can achieve multicultural goals and language devel­ in words, and identify letters (Kirk & Clark, 2005).
opment goals simultaneously by incorporating the nursety rhymes of other cultures as Within the classroom, children are motivated to recognize one another's names.
well as those that are familiar from American culture. Because much of the appeal of Flashcards that feature all the children's names can be used to take attendance and cre­
nursery rhymes is the way that they sound in the original language with alliteration, ate a natural, meaningful context for practicing literacy skills. The teacher can hold up
rhythm, rhyme and repetition, they do not translate well. Therefore, when listening a card and ask, "Whose name is this? Is he/she here today? " With practice, children
to nursety rhymes from other cultures, it is best to hear them as they are spoken in will soon begin to recognize their classmates' names, often relying on the first letter
the intended language. Volunteers and tutors who speak the child's first language can or the general word configuration as a cue for guessing. With daily practice, children
share nursery rhymes in this authentic way and point out the words that rhyme. will learn to recognize more and more names of those in the class.
For a discussion of the research on phonemic awareness, visit www.readinga-z. Denton, Parker, and Jasbrouck (2003) suggest reading simple sentences into
com/researchlphonological.htm.J. which the child's name has been inserted, once he or she can recognize it on sight
using the following procedure:
Using Envi ronmental Prin t
1. Introduction. Tell the children that they will read sentences made up of words that
Environmental p1'·int refers to the language and images that are evety where in the child's they know or can sound out.
environment-traffic signs, logos, food wrappers, and so forth. Children often recog­ 2. Teacb tbe sigbt 1vords. Teach the words a, and, tbe, be, sbe, 7Ve, it, was, and is. If the
nize certain items, such as the appearance of a particular fast-food restaurant chain's children don't recognize the word, say the word (in a pleasant voice) and have
billboard, long before they are independent readers (Orellana & Hernandez, 1 999). them say it with you. Practice until they can identify the words quickly and with
Environmental print activities capitalize on these "words that surround us" (Fingon, accuracy.
2005) and encourage children to perform a variety of activities with them. Studies 3. Read tbe sentences. Have the children practice reading the sentence several times
show that providing environmental print is an effective way of supporting emergent until they can read it smoothly.
literacy (see National Council of Teachers of English, 2005). Collages, bulletin boards, 4. Evaluate individual progress. Time each student in reading sentences for one min­
"word walls," and teacher- or child-made books are just a few ways to take inventory ute, subtract any errors made, and record the number of words the child knows
of the environmental print that each child knows. (adapted from Denton et a!., 2003).
For English language learners, environmental print examples can be gathered
in the child's first language as well as in the English language. In addition to merely Eventually, as children become familiar with names, they can begin sending
collecting examples of environmental print, these materials can be made more chal­ drawings and writings to other students in their individual mailboxes. This strategy
lenging for gifted and talented children by turning them into guessing games or al­ makes writing meaningful and developmentally appropriate.
pha�etizing them (Rule, 200 1). Since environmental print activities adapt readily to For more on using children's names as a teaching strategy, see Kirk and Clark
different levels of ability, teachers may want to make one of their learning centers have (2005). A variety of across-the-curriculum teaching activities are posted at www.
an environmental print focus. kinderkorner.com/names.html.