Prologue: Ancient Cosmologies: The Paleolithic And Neolithic Universe:

"The origins of astronomy and cosmology may have a history which extends thousands and
possibly tens of thousands of years into the past. Evidence of this awareness can be found in
ancient caves and underground cathedrals dating from the Paleolithic, in the orientation of
Neolithic monuments, and by the design of temples from ancient India and Egypt."

"What impresses human's soul the most is the night sky above him and the moral law inside
him." (I. Kant)

"Astronomy may be a very ancient science, with a history extending so far into the dim past
that it origins are all but concealed. However, tantalizing clues have been left deep within the
recesses of paleolithic underground cathedrals, caverns which are adorned with symbolic
images of the night sky.

Unlike modern humans, where the night sky is shrouded by reflected artificial light, the stars
above dominated the world view of Paleolithic humans, as the night was a tapestry of starry
light, the meaning of which could only be discerned by their symbolic patterns. Our ancient
ancestors, of even a few centuries ago, and certainly during the Paleolithic, lived in the
'sublunary world', encapsulated into celestial spheres illuminated by patterns of light.

How the ancients may have conceived of the celestial sphere, is unknown to us, and all we
may do is speculate. However, it is clear that the ancient skies were of profound significance,
for the peoples of the Paleolithic reproduced the night sky in their paintings and drawings,
perhaps eve as long ago as 30,000 BP. It is this symbolic 'language of sky' which is of the
primary interest to us here and this language was first written by prehistoric man, who
adorned his underground cathedrals with stars that were filled with life. And not just stars, but
constellations, and perhaps symbolic representations of the solstice and equinox (the sign of
the cross) and an understanding that the moon underwent 13 cycles during the course of a
solar year and that this was correlated with the female menstrual cycle.

[According to Joseph, the cross, painted in bold red ochre upon the entryway to the Chauvet
Cave, and dated to over 30,000 years, could be interpreted as a representation of the solstice
and equinox which marks the shortest and longest days of the year (December and June) and
the beginning of Autumn and Spring and thus an awareness of these solar cycles during the
Paleolithic.]

[There are 13 new moons in a solar year, and females have 13 menstrual cycles in a year.
According to Joseph, the pregnant goddess, the Venus of Laussel, holds the crescent moon in
her hand, and the 13 cuts in the crescent moon represent the 13 menstrual cycles and 13 lunar
cycles during a solar year, thus demonstrating an awareness of this association 20,000 years
ago.]

The correlations between earthly events, in particular periodic changes and astral collective
movements have been noted surely very early, perhaps over 30,000 years ago, and certainly
before as well as during and after the Neolithic. We shall consider here a number of instances
where particular toponyms are coupled with celestial objects, mainly with the most prominent
of them, the stars and Sun."
"Megaliths

Most of the Paleolithic culture has been preserved in the form of cave paintings and
megalithic structures. We shall first consider the issue of extant megalithic sites, with brief
case study of several cases, and then analyze some of the most prominent caves and their
artistic and/or magical contents.

Whatever their original purpose was, megalithic structures are for the modern archeology
considered as messages from our Paleolithic ancestors, a sort of language, just as myths are for
anthropologists and (pre)historians. Two phases may be discerned with regard to the technical
characteristics of these constructions: (i) Stone age period and (ii) Bronze age phase. In the
first undressed stones were used and it was only their mutual positions which were used to
convey their purpose and meaning. With the advent of metallurgy, and production of metal
tools, Neolithic man was able to shape the megaliths and construct more elaborate structures.
It was a sort of historical irony that the metallic tools enable stone as a material to become
dominant element of early civilizations. Metallic tools and artifacts have in the meantime
vanished, due to corrosion, except under exceptional circumstances, as illustrated by
Antikythera mechanism, for instance. We shall briefly analyze a number of the characteristic
cases relevant for the astronomy."

"Stonehenge

This complex structure has attracted great interest from the side of astronomers,
anthropologists, historians etc. And yet, with accumulation of data and even more of
interpretations, our knowledge can hardly be considered advancing. The consensus as to the
original (or otherwise) purpose of this imposing structure has been changed from generation
to generation, at least as our historical records show. The most popular interpretations
appear: (i) religious site, a prehistoric temple; (ii) astronomical observatory, of still unknown
complexity; (iii) medical healing centre, something like Hypocration on Kos. But before we go
on, it must be stressed that one has to distinguish between the purpose (of constructing) and
usage of a ready construction. We are pretty sure today that religious ceremonies like those
ascribed to Druids, had nothing to do with the primary purpose of the structure, in particular
with the Aubrey's holes. Similarly, if the site was used for curing, as the name of Heel stone
(which might well be written as Healstone) might suggest, it could well be a derived usage,
profiting from already high reputation of the site.

For our purpose it is worth noticing that the present-day extant (and modeled) structure had
undergone several phases of construction, which belonged to generations well separated in
time by periods measured by centuries. The question arises: if these consecutive additions had
different purpose with regards to their astronomical use, why they were fixed to the unique,
present-day geographical position? What is so special with the place where Stonehenge was
erected? According to our modern inference into astronomical phenomena, if there is
something special about this location, it must refer to the geographical altitude. We know that
at Stonehenge altitude and only at this one, sighting lines of largest southerly monthly swing of
Moon and midsummer sunrise or sunset appear at right angle. This altitude singularity is
somehow connected with the uniqueness of Stonehenge among known Neolithic sites. It
raises, on the other hand, the question of completeness of our insight into the prehistory,
according to the material remains. Stonehenge appears as unique among other megalith
structures as the abovementioned Antikythera mechanism is an extraordinary relict of the
ancient civilization and technology. Does it mean that both constructions were unique at their
time or they just happened to be persevered up to our time, unlike others from their class?
With single pieces of evidence it would be risky to estimate probability single item to be
preserved by chance, of course."

"Fortunately for Stonehenge there is another prehistoric monument, at Sarmizegetusa, in

southwest Romania, with similar structure.

There the axis of the horseshoe points towards midwinter sunrise, as compared with the same
axis at Stonehenge, which points in the midsummer sunrise direction. No direct connection
between Stonehenge and Sarmizegeusa constructions has been established."

"Neolithic structures can be found all around India and Pakistan. [...] the megalithic stone
circles at Brahmagiri from South India, dated to 900 BC."

"Australia

Wurdi Youang pre-European stone circle, built by the Wathaurung people, with the major axis
pointing East-West. It has been estimated that looking from three prominent waist-high stones
some outlying stones indicate the setting positions of the Sun at the equinoxes and solstices."

"Armenia

At the Zorats Karer is situated a prehistoric site in Syunic Region. A stone circle, dated from
the second millennium BC, was probably used for the astronomical observations. The largest of
the boulders weigh more than 50 tons."

"The Cosmology of Caves

Caves are linked with night sky for obvious reason - they appear filled with darkness. If
heavenly objects are to be reproduced, caves turn out to be the best places to choose. Their
role was at least twofold: (i) as the canvas for paintings and (ii) as container which can 'catch
the sun-beam' at particular yearly instances, like equinoxes or solstices. Usually both instances
used to be combined, so that 'chosen cave' was decorated with figures, which we may
interpret with astronomical or other meaning.

The earliest connections of the prehistoric man with night sky date from the Upper Paleolithic.
At that time, the painted walls caves flourished in several localities, including the North-West
Europe. The principal caves are found at south-east of France, in Vezere and Dordogne Valleys,
as well as in the Cantabria, Spain. Some of them seem to be occupied by man from -35 000
years. (- sign means before present - BP.)

But before discussing the cave paintings, let us mention an artifact dating also from the Stone
Age, the -32 500 old mammoth ivory tablet found 1979 in a cave in Ach Valley in Germany. The
carving of a human figure on the tablet, with legs apart, a sword between legs, and arms
raised, would correspond to the stars of Orion. The proportion of the human figure would
correspond to the pattern of stars of the Orion constellation, representing a part of the
prehistoric Cosmos. (Orion was a hunter in Greek mythology)."

"Lascaux Cave

This is actually a complex of caves near the village of Montignac, in Dordogne. The wall
paintings, estimated -17 000 years old (belonging to the Magdalenien period), consist mainly
of realistic images of large animals, mainly horses, bulls (aurochs) and deers. It is important to
notice that there are no images of reindeers, the principal source of food for contemporary
hunters. Hence the images do not represent hunted animals.

Several wall paintings were related to the night sky by some prehistory researchers. In the Hall
of Bulls there are four black bulls or aurochs (a species of an extinct large wild cattle). The
largest one is over 5 m long. According to the Spanish researcher Luz Antequera Congregado
(doctoral thesis, 1992) the set of painted dots above the shoulder of the bull depicts the
Pleiades cluster and the set of dots on the bull face represents the Hyades constellation.
Similar interpretations, including the correlations with the constellation of Taurus, are due to
Rappenglueck and the American astronomer Frank Edge, as well as to some other researchers.
Rappenglueck has also identified a star map from another painting, in the Shaft of the Dead
Man. The eyes of the lying birdman, the bull and the bird represented on this image would
correspond to the three stars which were prominent in the spring 17 000 years ago. These are
Vega, Deneb and Altair, known as the Summer Triangle, nowadays seen in the middle of the
northern summer. Another idea of Rappenglueck is that some of the animal paintings are
symbolic representations of the phases of the Moon. The old lunar calendar would consist of
groups of dots and squares painted alongside images of bulls, horses and antelopes, depicting
the 29-day cycle of the Moon.

[The prehistoric sky-map from Lascaux cave.]

Lascaux paintings appear another proof that the beginning of the astronomical science dates
before Babylonians (about 5000 BP). French ethno-astronomer, Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez
noticed that the architectural structure of the Hall of Bulls makes an observer feels
encapsulated, as if one watches the night sky motion from a hill. Looking at the various animals
painted on the walls she claims one can recognize the zodiacal constellation of the Paleolithic
sky. Making use of computer programs to reconstitute the map of the Magdalenian sky Jègues-
Wolkiewiez carried out orientation measurements of the sets of dots and lines represented
the painted animals, comparing the archeological and the astronomical data. According to her
one can recognize on the cave walls the stars forming the Capricorn, the Scorpio and the
Taurus constellations. In the last case, the image of a bull was completed with the stars
clusters Pleiades and Hyades. Jègues-Wolkiewiez. finds that the orientation of the cave was of
primary importance. The plan and the section of the Lascaux cave entrance show that before
the landslide blocked the access to the rotunda, at the time of summer solstice the rays of the
setting sun would enter the cave and shine on the walls of the Great Hall of Bulls and on the
axial diverticulum.

During the summer solstice 1999 Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez, and the Lascaux curator Jean-
Michel Geneste, confirmed the above hypothesis: the setting sun illuminated completely the
interior of the rotunda at the time of the creation of the images. This permitted painting under
light during about one hour for several days in the beginning of the summer. Further, Jègues-
Wolkiewiez verified that the similar phenomena occurred in other caves beside Lascaux.
Actually, she found that the sunlight played the same role in 137 other painted caves as in
Lascaux. These caves were aligned with the sunrise or sunset on key days of the year - solstices
or equinoxes. The Paleolithic man could keep track of changing seasons by observing the sun
sliding along the horizon as the months went by. This was important in connection with the
migrations of the large mammal herds that they hunted. The accumulated astronomical
knowledge passed from generation to generation without writing, in the 'mythological'
language of the Paleolithic art. Not only astronomy, but also the mythology and legends of
later periods, in Sumeria, Babylonia, Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations and Egypt were most
likely derived from the Paleolithic proto-types represented in Lascaux paintings."

"Monuments

That the cave orientation choice was not accidental corroborate other extant structures."

"Newgrange

This prehistoric building in Ireland, estimated to be constructed about 3000 BC (i.e. somewhat
before Stonehenge), is oriented to allow the Sun beam on the winter solstice to pass along the
roof elongated space."

"Abu Simbel

This monumental rock-cut temple erected by Ramesses II appears a 'modern' variant of

prehistoric caves. The orientation was chosen with precision allowing the first rays of the rising
Sun to illuminate the innermost halls and the sanctuary of the seated statues of the four gods
twice a year (22 February and 22 October)."

[The rock-cut temple erected by Ramesses II and the illumination of the four gods.]

"To ancient man, the sky was a book to read, to copy, symbolize and translate into monuments
and paintings of living celestial light. Archaeoastronomy, based on observational as
anthropological research, examines the roots of our awareness of the Universe, and these
roots extend deep into human history, from thousands to tens of thousands of years into the
long ago."

Finding Our Place In The Cosmos: The Role Of Astronomy In Ancient Cultures (Juan Antonio
Belmonte):

"Mircea Eliade argued that a single view of the starry celestial vault would be sufficient to
awake a religious experience. This idea is as true today as in the remote past. Hence, the starry
sky has often served as a source of inspiration not just for science, but metaphysics, art, and
the creation of symbols of power and identity. Ancient astronomer priests found that
uncovering their mysteries allowed, through the mapping of heavens, made possible the
development of calendars and navigation. Consequently, astronomy developed as the best
tool for determining an accurate and predictable orientation in time and space. Today, as
yesterday, starry nights are able to awake our imagination and continue to inspire a desire to
discover our place in the cosmos."

"Today as in ancient times, astronomers seeking to observe the heavens have journeyed to the
summits of the highest mountains, because these are the places where conditions are best
suited for astronomical observation. Be it lonely mountain top, or desert, these sites are places
which inspire feelings of awe and majesty; a fitting back drop to admire the wonders of the
universe. Few specialists have not rested at these ancient observational outposts, under the
seemingly endless tapestry of stars, and have not been amazed by their beauty and splendour,
because a single view of the starry celestial vault would be sufficient to awake a religious - I
would rather say spiritual - experience.

Our ancestors also selected high mountains to study the stars, ideal places from where
communication between Earth and Sky was believed possible: the Axes Mundi where feelings
of cosmic reality could be experienced. These stars in their endless cycle, returning again and
again as they circled the heavens, provided a sense of security, inferring by similarity, rebirth
and the transcendence of death. For these and other reasons ancient peoples mapped the
firmament in an attempt to find the order where, only in appearance, chaos reigned.

From the mists of time emerged the fully 'modern' Cro-Magnon people, Homo sapiens
sapiens, with a brain larger on some occasions than modern humans, and the males standing 6
foot tall compared to the shorter Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis with their apparent inability
to produce any semblance of art. Cro-Magnon were burying their dead, and creating 'Venus'
figurines, some representing Earth goddess pregnant with swollen belly, one of them holding a
symbol of what might be the moon in her hand. Joseph has argued that the 13 lines cut in this
presumable lunar symbol may represent an understanding of the link between women and
moon; a woman having nearly 13 menstrual periods and the 13 new-moon cycles in a solar
year.

[The Venus of Laussel is a 1.5 foot high figurine cut in limestone, between 25,000 to 30,000
years in age.]

Thus, we should not be surprised that the rock art in Lascaux (French Dordogne) depict what
may be the oldest drawings of the constellations, created more than 16,000 years ago, with
the ubiquitous Pleiades - the most international asterism of the firmament - already riding on
the back of the great celestial bull.

[The asterism of the Pleiades. Easily observable at naked-eye, this object has been recognized
possibly since the Palaeolithic by every human culture on Earth from Greenland to New
Zealand.]

[The main freeze of the bulls in the Lascaux Cave in Dordogne. There is a group of dots on the
back of the great bull that has seldom and tentatively been identified with the Pleiades. The
bull itself would be the earliest representation of Taurus constellation.]
[General view of the remains of Göbekli Tepe, in Turkish Mesopotamia, the oldest stone
temple ever erected by human hands. Several of the big excavated circles are visible together
with the huge, decorated T-pillars which are most representative of the site.]

Until very recent times, the megalithic monuments in Europe, and in particular Stonehenge,
were believed to be the earliest evidence that ancient peoples of the Neolithic sought to link
the heavens with Earth and to understand the cosmos. However, in the steppes of Southeast
Turkey, on a barren isolated hill called Göbekli Tepe - Hill of the Navel -, a team of German and
Turkish archaeologists have discovered and are excavating a cluster of stone monuments
erected with large pillars in the form of a T and dry-stone walls which suggest that a
completely unknown hunter-gatherer society more than 11,000 years ago also sought to
create monumental structures linked to the heavens. These series of sanctuaries, built
presumably one after the other and even upon one another, may have been used for
centuries, perhaps millennia to chart the heavens. However, for reasons which are unknown,
the constructors deliberately buried the structures, creating conditions which contributed to
their excellent state of preservation in spite of their great antiquity.

These monuments are mostly ellipsoidal in form. Although a favourite orientation may be
established for the monument gates, there is no apparent selected pattern. However, between
the group of monuments, there is one with nearly rectangular walls which were almost
perfectly aligned according to the four cardinal points. These discoveries suggest that over
11,000 years ago, an ancient society had gazed into the heavens and used the sky to guide
them in the appropriate ways of orientation in space and in time.

Although admittedly speculative, the profuse decoration of the T-pillars may represent yet
other astronomical observations, such as the crescent and the star, so common in later
cultures of the Middle East and beyond, and an earlier version of which might appear in the
Venus figurine which may have been carved over 15,000 years earlier. Then there are what
could be interpreted as totemic representations of animals which, if we may continue to
speculate, could symbolize constellations, as Leo, Taurus or Scorpios. Certainly these
constellations were recognized in the skies of other evolved cultures in the region such as the
Sumerians, and their Assyrians and Babylonians heirs, thousands of years later.

However, when analyzing the date of Göbekli Tepe, we are facing a problem: their singularity.
There is no other preserved monument of the same type where data can be contrasted. From
my point of view, scientific research - as jurisprudence, from where the expression is original -
should be guided by the premise testis unus, testis nullus. This rule confirms that a single proof
of something is like a proof of nothing and we must be very cautious of risking in too
adventurous conclusions. Stonehenge was a typical example of this reality. Its singularity made
of it, at the beginning in the 1960s, a Neolithic calculator, a predictor of eclipses, or, in short,
the oldest 'observatory' known. However, more recent archaeological studies carried out on
site, and in other similar planimetry monuments, have forced contemporary researchers to be
much more cautious about their conclusions. Now Stonehenge is interpreted as a funerary
monument which includes astronomical alignments among its design, linked to possible ritual
purposes associated with the cosmovision of its builders.
[A well-preserved kudurru of King Melishipak of Babylon showing several celestial bodies and
some of the earliest unmistakable representations of constellations such as the goat-fish,
ancestor of Capricornus.]

[A beautiful snapshot of the Cueva de Menga, the largest megalithic tomb of Europe.
Topographically aligned to a distant conspicuous peak - perhaps also according to the moon -,
it belongs, however, to a group of monuments with undoubted astronomical orientations.]

Actually, when we look at illiterate, extinct cultures, the only way to get a certain degree of
confidence in our conclusions is when we analyze multiple but similar items - either
monuments or portable objects - within a same archaeological or cultural context, especially
when we are able to find a pattern. In this sense, the earliest unmistakable evidence of an
interest in the local landscape, including the sky, can be found throughout the megalithic
monuments of the Iberian Peninsula, notably in the south-western area. In these regions,
Neolithic settlers built a series of monuments with a very similar architectural structure - they
almost are clones of each other. These are known as Alentejan antas, for the name of the
Portuguese region where they are a majority. They have been dated in the fourth millennium
B.C. Most important, they show a pattern of orientation that clearly speaks to us of a
unmistakable astronomical interest, because all the studied exemplars, without exception
(more than 170), are pointing at sunrise - or moonrise in a naïve alternative interpretation - at
a certain moment in the annual cycle. It is difficult to uniquely establish if the pattern is solar
or lunar, as the only movable elements found in the antas, the 'plaque idols' - small schist
plates with elaborated geometrical decoration -, show patterns illustrating the interest of their
builders in both the sidereal month and the seasonal cycle. Summarizing, Alentejan antas
certainly show a clear, statistically significant, intention for an orientation in space - for
whatever purposes possibly related to an astral eschatology. They also show an orientation to
time - perhaps associated with the existence of a lunisolar calendar.

[The large deer of Laxe dos Carballos in Campo Lameiro. The number of tips in their antlers,
and the way in which they are distributed, could be a sort of astronomical count. For example,
we might postulate a three-year lunisolar cycle (37 lunar months in 3 solar years) if we take
into account the three isolated stripes, close to the top of the right horn.]

The existence of a lunisolar calendar related to prehistoric populations of the west façade of
the Iberian Peninsula has been recently confirmed by the work carried out in the rock
engravings of Galicia, the north-western, Celtic origin, region of Spain. There, among beautiful
representations of abstract figurative elements and animals such as deers of different sizes
and typologies, our team has conducted an extensive investigative analysis. For example, a
collection of large deers, with horns of exceptional proportions with too many tips, suggests
that this could be a symbolic representation of astronomical counts - a sort of lunisolar
calendar -, showing a fairly accurate knowledge of the movements of the Sun and the Moon.
The existence of multiple representations with a similar symbology further supports this
hypothesis. However, the lack of written texts, or any other sort of ethnographic or
ethnohistoric information, prevents us from going much further in our conclusions.

Fortunately, there are cultures where we are lucky enough to have such important
information. In this respect, the partnership between archaeoastronomical fieldwork along
with decades of ethnographic information, collected by anthropologist Edmundo Edwards in
Easter Island, has allowed us to establish, without doubt, the importance of certain asterisms
in the culture of Rapa Nui - singularly Matariki (the Pleiades) or Tautoru (Orion's Belt). This
circumstance would be reflected in the related orientation of some of Rapa Nui's major
ceremonial platforms, the ahus, with their huge statues called moais. The celestial symbolism
of the local art and the creation of a calendar that, both in its sacred and profane character,
came determined by the visibility or invisibility of these celestial bodies at certain epochs of
the year. Part of these conclusions may be nuanced by the chronological difference between
the last ahu constructors, in the 17th century, and their current descendants. Unfortunately,
the original texts in rongorongo tablets, remain undeciphered so that we can not 'speak' to the
own sculptors of the moais.

[The seven moai of Ahu A Kivi facing the sea at the helical setting of Tautoru (Orion's Belt) as
seen c. 1300 A.D. This astronomical event was one of the markers of the New Year starting in
the following new moon of the rapanui calendar.]

[The evocative 'descent of Kukulkan' produced each equinox on one of the steps of American's
most famous pyramid, El Castillo, at Chichen Itza. The monument had to be orientated
accordingly.]

[Three Mayan glyphs representing Star Wars. These were normally related to certain attacks
upon an enemy city when Venus was at a significant position in the sky.]

However, there are a certain number of ancient civilizations, with close ties to sky-watching
practices, which fortunately left written texts that thanks to the expertise of linguists we are
now able to read and understand. Two unique and illustrative cases would be the Mayan
culture and the civilization of ancient Egypt. Based on recently deciphered glyphs, we now
know that the Mayan civilization was obsessed by the concept of and the desire to control
time. Moreover, most of this civilizations sacred buildings follow orientation patterns which
are governed by their most sophisticated calendar system; and these celestial calendars
promoted actions, as the so-called Star Wars, in conjunction with unique events associated
with the movement of planets and stars in the heavens.

[Schematic diagram where we show the astronomical and topographical relationships

between the different monuments erected in the Giza Plateau, notably the Sphinx and the
pyramids, and certain elements of the sky or nearby geography. The topographic relation with
Letopolis and Heliopolis is quite suggestive. However, in this diagram, we additionally relate
the original northern orientation of the pyramids, based on the observation of Meskhetyu's
meridian transit, to the similar name of the province which had Letopolis as capital, the Bull's
Foreleg. Astronomical connections of the Sphinx with equinox sunrise and summer solstice
sunset (behind Akhet Khufu, the Horizon of Khufu) are also stressed. Finally, the alignment of
Khufu's causeway to Wepet Renpet - New Year's Eve - during his reign is emphasized.]

The culture that the author has devoted much of his time seeking to understand and to
research, as reflected in his writing, and which includes several archaeoastronomical missions
in the country, is the Pharaonic civilization of ancient Egypt. Thanks to the texts of the
pyramids - collection of religious literature of the Old Kingdom - it is known that the ancient
Egyptians had already mapped the sky, recognized constellations, asterisms and unique stars,
early in the historic period. Furthermore, they saw these objects as celestial destinations of the
late king in a real paradigm of stellar eschatology. One of these groups of stars was Meskhetyu,
equivalent to the Plough - or Big Dipper - asterism in the constellation Ursa Major. This group
of stars was circumpolar during the Old Kingdom and the ancient Egyptians recognized this
nature by including it among the 'imperishable' stars (the ikhemu sek of the texts) par
excellence. They associated this fact to the transcendence of the afterlife, and to such an
extent that the two interchangeably recognized elements in the asterism (a bull's foreleg or an
adze) were intimately related to certain funerary cult ceremonies such as the 'opening of the
mouth', which was believed to provide immortality for the deceased. Our fieldwork in the
country, particularly in the fields of pyramids, seem to confirm this fact, especially as
Meskhetyu may be the principal celestial object used to align these imposing monuments.
Consequently, the architectural arrangement of the pyramids could be a realization in the land
of the cosmic order prevailing in the sky.

We could continue ad infinitum our tour of the various forms that have been used to link
astronomy and various aspects of culture in the thousands of years of human development.
However, we believe that, already at this point, two basic ideas have clearly been expressed in
the short essay that I would like to stress as arguable conclusions, indeed open to debate. On
the one hand, that the observation of the sky has been, and remains, one of the main
generators of metaphysics in human thought and, on the other hand, that astronomy has
traditionally been the most powerful tool of human beings to reach a proper orientation in
time and space. Therefore, our discipline is certainly one of the best guides that humanity had,
since the dawn of the species, to find our correct place in the cosmos."

Prehistoric Astronomers? Ancient Knowledge Created By Modern Myth (Emília Pásztor):

"Elaborate bone artifacts along with spectacular cave art from the Upper Paleolithic represent
outstanding achievements of modern Homo sapiens. Decorative items, abstract figurines, and
cave art emerge as part of complex symbol systems. It has been argued again and again that
some of these artifacts reveal calendaric notation and as such are proof of our distant
ancestors' sophisticated minds, their artistic talents and scientific knowledge. Several
interdisciplinary works have attempted to identify the Paleolithic origin of certain Greek
constellations."

"Paleolithic people depicted the surrounding world in a variety of forms; these represent the
earliest monuments of art. The significant appearance and spread of the European Paleolithic
works of art can be dated to approximately 30 000 BC. and are considered one of the
achievements of the Upper Paleolithic cognitive revolution. The artifacts are categorized as
cave art or portable works of art. While artistic creations of this type of mobiliary art have also
been brought to light in older contexts [such as Bilzingsleben, Germany; Stránská Skála,
Bohemia; Leonardi, Italy], the Upper-Paleolithic era has the greatest number of them. The
earliest cave paintings were created about 31 000 years ago (La grotte Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc),
the youngest ones about 9000 years ago (La grotte de la Mairie). In addition to being
esthetically pleasing to our modern eyes, European Paleolithic cave art has also motivated
researchers to attempt to 'decipher' the meaning and purpose of the artifacts themselves.
Since the 1970s when Alexander Marshack's investigations first appeared in print, astronomy
has also played significant role in the study of these, often several ten thousand year-old finds.
Although Marshack's arguments concerning the existence of meaningful astronomical
knowledge in the Paleolithic were called into question early on and then contravened ten
years ago, his assumptions had a significant influence on the direction of future research and
still impacts work being carried out today in scientific circles. Therefore, films, scientific books
and articles frequently portray this profound interest in astronomy which has been attributed
to Upper Paleolithic culture."

"The carved-engraved bone plates of mobiliary art were the earliest objects which attracted
the attention of researchers. Alexander Marshack interpreted the various Paleolithic and
Mesolithic, mostly portable, objects that bear engraved or painted series of dots or lines as
accurate lunar observations. His arguments were based not only on counting the signs but on
what he called 'microscopic analysis'. The interpretation of the markings on various artifacts as
notational systems rests on the hypothesis of a slow accumulation of these marks which
correlate with lunar or solar motion. Thus he concluded that these artifacts reflect
nonarithmetic observational astronomical skills and lore. The most well-known depiction
interpreted by him is found on the bone plate about 30 000 years old, from Abri Blanchard
(Dordogne, France) which is said to represent the waxing and waning moon positions in
serpentine form.

Francesco d'Errico and colleagues developed a different type of methodology. Drawing on

experimental archaeology, they compiled a database in an attempt to demonstrate whether
the notches represent notational systems or not. After investigating great number of artifacts
they concluded that there were some objects which might have depicted parts of a series of
complex codes based on the hierarchical organization of information, and using formally
differentiated marks. One of these artifacts might be the find from the cave Taï (Drôme,
France) whose age is about 10 000 years.

After studying Eurasian portable art the Russian investigator B.A. Frolov also became
convinced that these objects were calendars following the monthly motion of the moon
and/or yearly solar path, and claimed they were used by early communities. The most well-
known bone plate interpreted as a lunisolar calendar is from Ma'lta (Irkutskaya Oblast, Russia).

However, not only has the abstract decoration of small objects been interpreted as a type of
calendric notation. On the large, smooth well-worn surface of a rock at Abri de Laussel
(Dordogne, France), faint, fragmentary reliefs of several human characters were discovered
among them that of a curved standing figure of a female holding a bison horn engraved with
13 strokes. This number is assumed to have a relation to the moon and the depiction to the
notion of pregnancy. The creators were supposedly aware of the connection between the
periodicity of the menstrual cycle and the moon.

Alexander Marshack's arguments had an impression even on Hungarian researchers. László

Vértes, the internationally recognized palaeontologist, published a description of a small
artifact made of carved limestone, found in an excavation at Bodrogkeresztúr-Henye, Hungary,
in 1963. He claimed that it represented a uterus with lunar calendric notations. The find can be
dated to the middle part of the Upper Paleolithic Period and is about 27 000 years old.

The possible existence of a notational system is not in itself evidence for the existence and use
of a calendar. According to Francesco d'Errico, Alexander Marshack's classification was based
on Marshack's own intuition and in reporting his results, Marshack manipulated the number of
marks and sequences in order to achieve an accumulation correlated to the motion of the sun
or moon. For calendric purposes, the notational system requires the object to have
recognizable reference points, some visually distinctive marks (signaling a feast, or regularly
occurring phenomena or events taking place during the year, etc.), as is the case with modern
calendar sticks. Thus, a series of undifferentiated notches on a surface is not sufficient. None
of these distinctive features are found on these artifacts. Moreover, since the objects
themselves are quite small, the marks can hardly be differentiated by naked eye. Thus they
would have been rather unsuitable for calendric purposes.

Moreover the following question must also be considered: whether there was a need for the
owners to have a calendar. Previously, researchers assumed that calendars based on
astronomical phenomena were used only by agricultural peoples so that they could know
when to perform important activities such as sowing and harvesting. The example commonly
cited is Hesiod's work titled 'Works and Days', dated to the 7th century BC. It proves the
significant role of the Pleiades' risings and settings in farming. A number of researchers assume
that the western European megalith stone circles (3rd millennia BC) and the even older circular
earthworks of Central Europe (5th millennia BC) also had a calendric function. However, this
has not yet been clearly demonstrated.

Cyclical movements of celestial bodies, together with the seasons and changes in the weather
could have been connected with other periodic changes of importance for hunter-gatherers,
such as the timing of the migration of birds and animals, the collection of fruits, berries, etc.
According to anthropological research, sky phenomena are also associated with the recurring
celebration of important community events. The use of decorative body objects, the increasing
emphasis on the burial of the dead, but, most importantly the high-quality, artistic animal and
human representations attest to the significant cognitive development of Upper Paleolithic
populations. Therefore, it could be argued that during this same period, these human
cognizers who, according to archaeological research, already showed characteristic symbolic
behaviors, might have operated with (simple) calendric systems."

"Cave Paintings and the Constellations

Interest in the sky is as old as human culture. All peoples have populated the sky with mythical
creatures, heroes who played an important role in the life of the community, and figured
prominently in their myths and legends. Researchers interested in Paleolithic sky lore use
different methodological approaches to explore this possibility. The Spanish investigator Luz
Antequera Congregado applies art-history to the study of the paintings; the French researcher
Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez uses complex anthropological methods involving astronomical
measurement and constellation projection. The German archaeoastronomer Michael
Rappenglück approaches the problem with interdisciplinary methodology."
"In their search for Paleolithic constellations, the researchers have been inspired particularly
by the famous paintings of the Hall of Bulls (La Salle des Taureaux) in the Lascaux Cave (age
approx. 15 000 years). Although many of the bison - (and some deer) - representations cover
the ceiling, most of the interest was aroused by an especially large figure of a bull. There are
six dots arranged in two rows above his shoulder and dots can also be seen on his V-form
head. This notational set is generally interpreted as the visualization of the Taurus
constellation in its whole shape, together with the 'six dots' of the Pleiades and the 'spotted' V
head representing the Hyadok star cluster.

In his doctoral dissertation Michael Rappenglück claims that the cave walls reveals not only
constellations but also the full worldview of the Paleolithic shamans that inhabited it,
concretely, in the paintings on the walls of the gallery named 'the Shaft of the Dead Man' (Le
panneau de l'homme blessé) in the depth of the cave itself. The night sky offered a particular
spectacle in the middle of the midsummer night, about 14-15 000 years ago. Three close bright
stars (Vega, Deneb and Altair or Rotanev) as circumpolar stars, forming a triangle revolved
around the North Pole which pointed at [delta] Cygnus lying on the Milky Way. Rappenglück
assumes that all these elements had made such a deep impression on the shaman of the
Paleolithic community that he immortalized the spectacle by incorporating its coordinates in a
drawing of his own body. The eyes of the figures form the Summer Triangle, the standing
shaman figure serves as reference line, whilst the bird-headed 'shaman stick' points to the
North Pole.

Interpreting pictorial elements as star groupings is not confined to the Lascaux cave. One of
the 21 000 year-old drawings of the Tête-du-Lion cave (Ardèche, France) depicts a bison cow
with 21 dots arranged in a curved line. A group of 7 dots can also be found on the animal's
body, not far from a single point. Rappenglück argues that this picture set represents the
Pleiades with the bright star Aldebaran and includes a symbol of the moon cycle.

A number of well-known representations of the Pleiades are actually quite similar to the
group of dots mentioned above. Since it has a rather compact shape, this is a star cluster found
in many cultures, although with different names. Some peoples saw it in oblong shape such as
in the representation of the Mesopotamian boundry stones (kudurru) and seals whilst others
arranged the stars in a circular fashion as is the case of the famous buckskin map of the North
American Skidi Pawnee Indians. Moreover, the six-dot-circular group on the Bronze Age Nebra
disc is also likely to stand for the Pleiades.

At the El Castillo cave in Spain there are human hands painted on the walls. Their age is about
13 000 years. Beside one hand a semicircle of seven points can be seen. According to
Rappenglück's interpretation they represent the Northern Crown constellation (CrB) in lower
culmination. The German researcher claims that the joint depiction of the hand and the dots
signals how to find the position and direction of the North Pole in the sky."

[Cueva di El Castillo, Spain.]

"The investigation of the origin of star groups is one of the most discussed themes in the
history of Western astronomy. Their 'birth' and history can only be examined broadly as it is
difficult for research on this topic to be examined with a narrow geographic focus.
 The first known Greek description of the now classical constellations and among them the
Pleiades was made by Eudoxus of Cnidus around 370 BC. However, his description of the stars
and constellations form the basis of a great poem called Phenomena, written about 270 BC by
Aratus of Soli. Parts of the description are believed to date from at least a thousand years
earlier. This ancient Greek system is assumed to have developed gradually and from multiple
traditions. A well-established Mesopotamian list of stellar constellations, among them the
twelve zodiacal signs and four associated constellations, was taken over by the Greeks as late
as around 500 BC when astrology rapidly started to spread in the Classical World. The Perseus
group associated with a classical legend has been proven to be of clear Greek origin and was
placed in the sky between 1250 and 480 BC.

Some of Eudoxus' constellations have been shown to be of non-Mesopotamian and non-Greek

(or pre-Greek) origin. Among these groups of star figures, there would have been enormous
serpents and bears and giants that were eventually integrated into the classical sky map.

In early prehistoric Europe interest in the night sky might have been stimulated by rites
related to initiation or vision quests to the Upper World. During the initiation rites the
candidates might have looked at and followed the life of cultural heroes, retelling their
exploits, projecting their deeds and stations onto the sky, like in Australia. Each constellation,
representing heroic actions, helped the participants of the rites remember the story-line itself.
So many communities, so many stories, thus 'countless' different constellations populated the
celestial landscape, although there are star groups belonging to different cultures which are
constituted by the same bright stars as their compact formations are easy to recognize. These
include the Great Bear and Orion constellation, the Milky Way and also the Pleiades. However
the latter is not viewed as an independent constellation; it is the part of the Taurus.

The strange creatures of the classical map might have played roles in pan-European Bear
Ceremonialism and were projected onto the sky as the Spirit Animal Guardians of the hero,
while other constellations acted as stations that marked the ritual path of the shaman and/or
initiate's own vision quest to the Upper World. A research project called 'Hunting the
European Sky Bears' has investigated a set of folktales known as 'Bear Son Tales', found in all
the languages of Europe. The results of this project suggest that these orally transmitted tales
along with the related performance art, dances and animal miming still can be found as part of
the cultural and linguistic repertoire of Euskal Herria, the Basque region of the Pyrenees in
Europe. It proposes that the astral counterparts of the half human and half bear hero
Hartzkume ('Bear Son'), who was placed where we now find Hercules, included not only the
circumpolar stars of Draco, Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, but also certain southern
constellations as main characters in the stories. Calculations based on the location of the zone
of evasion indicate that the time period in which the early Europeans were already conscious
of these celestial phenomena can roughly be estimated as between 4000 BC to 2000 BC. The
star groups of Bears with Bootes as a hunter may well be much older, dating to before 10,000
BC when North America was populated by the migration across the Bering Strait as both
Eurasia and North America share the primeval myth of the sky bears.

Naturally, the constellations or rather groups of stars were used for different purposes. In
addition to their use as reference points in establishing the seasons of the year and telling time
at night, another reason for creating them could have been the need to take bearings on land
and at sea. Consequently, members of prehistoric societies would have acquired a certain level
of knowledge and understanding of the celestial landscape.

This was, however, a long process, whose origins reach far back into human history. The
creation of zodiacal constellations in Mesopotamia took several millennia according to
archaeological finds and written sources. Obviously the same can be assumed for the non-
Mesopotamian constellations. This means that one should avoid theories which presuppose a
single place and time for developing the classical sky map as was suggested by Maunder,
Ovenden and Roy. Moreover, in the case of prehistoric Europe there are no written sources
dealing with this process as in Mesopotamia or Egypt. Therefore, methodologically, research
should rely on archaeological features and anthropological observations. Without them no
scientific certainty can be achieved."

"Characteristic of the Identification of Paleolithic 'Astronomical Depictions'

The dating of constellation figures back to the Paleolithic is based on the assumption that the
figures depicted are true representations of the constellations as seen in that time period.
Quite often the position of the different hypothetical astral depictions is also supposed to be
directly equivalent to the real arrangement and the size of the dots represented in the cave
painting. It is even argued that the size of the dots corresponds to the brightness of the
compound stars. In the case the animal or human figures chosen for analysis by researchers
these are ones that have counterparts in the classical star map, which takes for granted both
the Paleolithic origin and cognitive continuity of the constellations in question across many
millennia.

Arguments against such attempts to identify constellations dating back to the Paleolithic are
the followings:

- Many depictions of aurochs are found in cave paintings with dots nearby. Thus the
correspondences identified in the representations selected seem to be coincidental. In the
Lascaux cave, for example, there is another auroch with dots around its eye; in Iberian caves
there are also 'Pleiades' dots.

- There is a several-thousand-year time gap between the classical and the hypothetical
Paleolithic analogue constellations. Moreover, the assertion of cognitive continuity is not
supported since no evidence for similar depictions from the Neolithic/Bronze Age has been
discovered yet.

- The assumed constellation depictions are always torn from their contexts, while the rest of
the figures in the cave painting or mobliary artifact are generally ignored.

- Anthropological research proves that representations of the sky and celestial bodies hardly
follow their true arrangement and alignments; the depictions are generally symbolic, guided
by ritual and controlled by prevailing belief systems. Thus, such portrayals are not scientifically
exact and cannot be used for precise calculations of the actual position of these bodies in the
sky in times past.
 - Systematic contextual studies (hunter-gatherers' ecological background, spiritual life, etc.) in
connection with possible astronomical knowledge have yet to be carried out.

- That equinoxes and solstices were of great importance in the life of prehistoric communities
is taken from granted by the investigators although there is little evidence of this even for the
later Neolithic or Bronze Age."

"Interest in the sky is certainly as old as mankind itself. However, we must exercise caution in
our attempts to reconstruct the cognitive processes that were operating in the minds of our
prehistoric ancestors as they created these artifacts. Until now no research into prehistoric
European cave and mobiliary art has brought about the definitive identification of
astronomical knowledge. Rather the hypotheses put forward to date concerning the existence
of such astronomical knowledge during the European Paleolithic seem to be grounded
primarily on the researchers' enthusiasm and desire to find such correspondences rather than
on the interpretation of genuine, archaeological evidence. Despite this rather negative
assessment, we need to recognize the value of the work carried out to this point for it calls
attention to new methodological approaches and fields of inquiry and in the process,
stimulates others to investigate these questions. This is the path of scientific research.

In conclusion, our inability to give irrefutable proofs for the existence of astronomical
knowledge in cave paintings and mobiliary artifacts does not mean that Paleolithic people
were not interested in the sky. Celestial phenomena might also have had significant influence
on them, like on many other groups and communities around the world. However, it is very
difficult to bring to light such 'hidden' knowledge for to do so requires, quite inevitably, that
interdisciplinary approaches be brought to bear on what is unquestionably a highly complex
interpretative task and one for which astronomical calculations may not provide significant
insights."

The Cosmology Of The Paleolithic (R. Joseph):

"The emergence of cosmological consciousness and its symbolism, is directly linked to the
evolution of the Cro-Magnon peoples who may have developed the first cosmologies, 20,000
to 30,000 years ago. These ancient peoples of the Upper and Middle Paleolithic believed in
spirits and ghosts which dwelled in a heavenly land of dreams, and interned their dead in
sleeping positions and with tools, ornaments and flowers. By 30,000 years ago, and because
they believed souls ascended to the heavens, the people of the Paleolithic searched the
heavens for signs, and between 30,000 to 20,000 years ago, they observed and symbolically
depicted the association between woman's menstrual cycle and the moon, patterns formed by
stars, and the relationship between Earth, the sun, and the four seasons. These include
depictions of 1) the 'cross' which is an ancient symbol of the fours seasons and the
Winter/Summer solstice and Spring/Fall equinox; 2) the constellations of Virgo, Taurus,
Orion/Osiris, the Pleiades, and the star Sirius; 3) and the 13 new moons in a solar year.
Although it is impossible to date these discoveries with precision, it can be concluded that
cosmological consciousness first began to evolve over 30,000 years ago, and this gave birth to
the first heavenly cosmologies over 20,000 years ago."

"When humans first turned their eyes to the sun, moon, and stars to ponder the nature of
existence and the cosmos, is unknown. The Cro-Magnon people were keen observers of the
world around them, which they depicted with artistic majesty. The heavens were part of their
world and they searched the skies for signs and observed the moon, the patterns formed by
clusters of stars, and perhaps the relationship between the Earth, the sun, and the changing
seasons. Although it is impossible to date cave paintings with precision, the first evidence of
this awareness of the cosmic connection between Sun, Moon, Woman, Earth and the changing
seasons are from the Paleolithic; symbolized in the creations of the Cro-Magnon of the
Paleolithic."

"It is the evolution of the frontal lobes which ushered in a cognitive and creative big bang
which gave birth to a technological revolution and complex spiritual rituals and beliefs in
shamans and goddesses and their relationship to the heavens, and thus the moon and the
stars.

It is well established that the frontal lobes enable humans to think symbolically, creatively,
imaginatively, to plan for the future, to consider the consequences of certain acts, to
formulate secondary goals, and to keep one goal in mind even while engaging in other tasks,
so that one may remember and act on those goals at a later time. Selective attention, planning
skills, and the ability to marshal one's intellectual resources so as to to anticipate the future
rather than living in the past, are capacities clearly associated with the frontal lobes.

The frontal lobes are associated with the evolution of 'free will' and the Cro-Magnon were the
first species on this planet to exercise that free will, shattering the bonds of
environmental/genetic determinism by doing what had never been done before: After they
emerged upon the scene over 35,000 years ago, they created and fashioned tools, weapons,
clothing, jewelry, pottery, and musical instruments that had never before been seen. They
created underground Cathedrals of artistry and light, adorned with magnificent multi-colored
paintings ranging from abstract impressionism to the surreal and equal to that of any modern
master. And they used their skills to carve the likeness of their female gods.

Thirty five thousand years ago, Cro-Magnon were painting animals not only on walls but on
ceilings, utilizing rich yellows, reds, and browns in their paintings and employing the actual
shape of the cave walls so as to conform with and give life-like dimensions, including the
illusion of movement to the creature they were depicting. Many of their engraving on bones
and stones also show a complete mastery of geometric awareness and they often used the
natural contours of the cave walls, including protuberances, to create a 3-dimensional effect.

With the evolution of the Cro-Magnon people, the frontal lobes mushroomed in size and
there followed an explosion in creative thought and technological innovation. The Cro-Magnon
were intellectual giants. They were accomplished artists, musicians, craftsmen, sorcerers, and
extremely talented hunters, fishermen, and highly efficient gatherers and herbalists. And they
were the first to contemplate the heavens and the cosmos which they symbolized in art."
[The cosmic clock and some of the constellation symbolized by bulls in the Lascaux Cave in
Dordogne? There is a group of dots on the back of the bull to the far right (Taurus) which may
represent the Pleiades (the seven sisters).]

"GODDESS OF THE MOON

Among the ancients, the Sun and the Moon were of particular importance and the Cro-
Magnon observed the relationship between woman and the lunar cycle. Consider, the
pregnant goddess, the Venus of Laussel, who holds the crescent moon in her hand (though
others say it is a bison's horn). Although the length of a Cro-Magnon woman's menstrual cycle
is unknown, it can be assumed that like modern woman she menstruated once every 28 to 29
days, which corresponds to a lunar month 29 days long, and which averages out to 13
menstrual cycles in a solar year. And not just menstruation, but pregnancy is linked to the
phases of the moon."

"THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE SOLAR CLOCK

When the Cro-Magnon turned their eyes to the heavens, seeking to peer beyond the mystery
that separated this world from the next, they observed the sun. With a brain one third larger
than modern humans, and given their tremendous power of observation, it can be predicted
these ancient people would have associated the movement of the sun with the changing
seasons which effected the behavior of animals, the growth of plants, and the climate and
weather; all of which are directly associated with cyclic alterations in the position of the sun
and the length of a single day over the course of a solar year which is equal to 13 moons.

[The entrance to the underground Upper Paleolithic cathedral. The Chauvet cave. Note the
sign of the cross.]

The four seasons, marked by two solstices and the two equinoxes have been symbolized by
most ancient cultures with the sign of the cross, e.g. the 'four corners' of the world and the
heavens. The 'sign of the cross' generally signifies religious or cosmic significance. The Cro-
Magnon also venerated the sign of the cross, the first evidence of which, an engraved cross, is
at least 60,000 years old. Yet another cross, was painted in bold red ochre upon the entryway
to the Chauvet Cave, dated to over 30,000 years ago.

The illusion of movement of the Sun, from north to south, and then back again, in synchrony
with the waxing and waning of the four seasons, is due to the changing tilt and inclination of
the Earth's axis, as it spins and orbits the sun. Thus over a span of 13 moons, it appears to an
observer that the days become shorter and then longer and then shorter again as the sun
moves from north to south, crosses the equator, and then stops, and heads back north again,
only to stop, and then to again head south, crossing the equator only to again stop and head
north again. The two crossings each year, over the equator (in March and September) are
referred to as equinoxes and refers to the days and nights being of equal length. The two time
periods in which the sun appears to stop its movement, before reversing course (June and
December), are referred to as solstices - the 'sun standing still.'

The sun was recognized by ancient astronomer priests, as a source of light and life-giving heat,
and as a keeper of time, like the hands ticking across the face of a cosmic clock. Because of the
scientific, religious, and cosmological significance of the sun, ancient peoples, in consequence,
often erected and oriented their religious temples to face and point either to the rising sun on
the day of the solstice (that is, in a southwest-northeast axis), or to face the rising sun on the
day of the equinox (an east-west axis). For example, the ancient temples and pyramids in Egypt
were oriented to the solstices, whereas the Temple of Solomon faced the rising sun on the day
of the equinox.

Thus the sign of the cross is linked to the heavens and to the sun. Understanding the heavens
and the sun, has been been a common astronomical method of divining the the will of the
gods, and for navigation, localization, and calculation: these celestial symbols have heavenly
significance.

Regardless of time and culture, from the Aztecs, Mayans, American Indians, Romans, Greeks,
Africans, Christians, Cro-Magnons, Egyptians (the key of life), and so on, the cross consistently
appears in a mystical context, and/or is attributed tremendous cosmic significance. The sign of
the cross was the ideogram of the goddess 'An', the Sumerian giver of all life from which
rained down the seeds of life on all worlds including the worlds of the gods. An of the cross
gave life to the gods, and to woman and man.

[The God Seb supporting the Goddess Nut who represents heaven and possibly the Milky Way
galaxy. Note the repeated depictions of the key of life; i.e. a ring with a cross at the end.]

The symbol of the cross is in fact associated with innumerable gods and goddesses, including
Anu of the ancient Egyptians, the Egyptian God Seb, the Goddess Nut, the God Horus (the
hawk), as well as Christ and the Mayan and Aztec God, Quetzocoatl. For example, like the
Catholics, the Mayas and Aztecs adorned their temples with the sign of the cross. Quetzocoatl,
like Jesus, was a god of the cross.

In China the equilateral cross is represented as within a square which represents the Earth,
the meaning of which is: 'God made the Earth in the form of a cross.' It is noteworthy that the
Chinese cross-in-a-box can also be likened to the swastika - also referred to as the
'gammadion' which is one of the names of the Lord God: 'Tetragammadion.' The cross, in fact
forms a series of boxes when aligned from top to bottom or side by side, and cross-hatchings
such as these were carved on stone over 60,000 years ago.

[Quetzocoatl the Mayan and Aztec god of the cross. The round shield encircling the cross
represents the sun.]

[Ochre etched with crosses, forming a series of cross-hatchings, dating to 77,000 years ago.]

Among the ancient, the sign of the cross, represented the journey of the sun across the four
corners of the heavens. The Cro-Magon adorned the entrance and the walls of their
underground cathedrals with the sign of the cross, which indicates this symbol was of
profound cosmic significance. However, that some of the Cro-Magnon depictions of animal-
headed men have also been found facing the cross, may also pertain to the heavens: the
patterns formed by stars, which today are refereed to as 'constellations.'"
"Here is nothing 'virginal' about the constellation of Virgo. The pattern can be likened to a
woman in lying on her back with an arm behind her head, and this may have been the visage
which stirred the imagination of the Cro-Magnon."

[Cro-Magnon/Paleolithic goddess, depicting the constellation of Virgo. La Magdelain cave.]

"THE CONSTELLATIONS OF OSIRIS

It would be unreasonable to assume that the Cro-Magnon would not have observed the
heavens or the illusory patterns formed by the alignment of various stars. Depictions of the
various constellations, such as Taurus and Orion, and 'mythologies' surrounding them, are of
great antiquity, and it appears that similar patterns were observed by the Cro-Magnon people.

Consider, for example the 'Sorcerers' or 'Shamans' wearing the horns of a bull, and possibly
representing the constellation of Taurus; a symbol which appears repeatedly in Lascaux, the
'Hall of the Bulls' and in the deep recesses of other underground cathedrals dated from 18,000
to 30,000 B.P. And above the back of one of these charging bulls, appears a grouping of dots,
or stars, which many authors believe may represent the Pleiades which is associated with
Taurus. These Paleolithic paintings of the bull appear to be the earliest representation of the
Taurus constellation."

[Ancient shaman attired in animal skins and stag antlers, graces the upper wall directly above
the entrance to the 20,000-25,000 year-old grand gallery at Les Trois-Freres in southern
France. Possibly representing the constellation of Orion.]

[The 'Sorcerer' Trois-Frères cave. (Upper Left/Lower Right) Constellation of Orion/Osiris.]

"THE PLEIADES AND THE CONSTELLATIONS OF TAURUS AND ORION

In the 'modern' sky, the constellation of Orisis/Orion the hunter, faces Taurus, the bull; and
these starry patterns would not have been profoundly different 20,000 to 30,000 years ago. In
ancient Egypt, dating back to the earliest dynasties, Osiris was the god of death and of fertility
and rebirth, who wore a a distinctive crown with two horns (later symbolized as ostrich
feathers at either side). He was the brother and husband of Isis. According to myth, Orisis was
killed by Set (the destroyer) and dismembered. Isis recovered all of his body, except his penis.
After his death she becomes pregnant by Orisis. The Kings of Egypt were believed to ascend to
heaven to join with Osiris in death and thereby inherit eternal life and rebirth, symbolized by
the star Sirius. The Egyptian 'King list' (The Turin King List) goes backward in time, 30,000 years
ago to an age referred to as the 'dynasty of gods' which was followed by a 'dynasty of demi-
gods' and then dynasties of humans.

[The main freeze of the bulls in the Lascaux Cave in Dordogne. There is a group of dots on the
back of the great bull (Taurus) which may represent six of the seven stars of the Pleiades (the
seven sisters). As stars are also in motion, not all would be aligned or as bright or dim today, as
was the case 20,000 to 30,000 years ago.]

Over 20,000 years ago, the 6ft tall Cro-Magnon, with their massive brain one third larger than
modern humans, painted a hunter with two horns who had been killed. And just as the
constellation of Orion the hunter faces Taurus, so too does the dead Cro-Magnon hunter who
has dismembered/disembowled the raging bull. And below and beneath the dead Cro-Magnon
hunter, another bird, symbol of rebirth, and perhaps symbolizing the star Sirius.

The constellation of Osiris (Orion the hunter) in Egyptian mythology is the god of the dead
who was dismembered; but also represents resurrection and eternal life as signified by the
star Sirius. (Upper Right) Constellation of Osiris/Orion and Taurus. (Upper Left) Cave painting.
Lascaux. The dead (bird-headed or two horned) hunter killed by a bull whom he
disemboweled. (Bottom) Constellation of Orion/Osiris in relation to Sirius."

"THE PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC MILKY WAY GALAXY

These peoples of the Paleolithic were capable of experiencing love, fear, and mystical awe,
and they believed in spirits and ghosts which dwelled in a heavenly land of dreams. Because
they believed souls ascended to the heavens, the people of the Paleolithic searched the
heavens for signs. By 30,000 years ago, and with the expansion of the frontal lobes, they
created symbolic rituals to help them understand and gain control over the spiritual realms,
and created signs and symbols which could generate feelings of awe regardless of time or
culture. They observed and symoblically depicted the association between woman and the
moon, patterns formed by stars, and the relationship between Earth, the sun, and the four
seasons.

The Milky Way galaxy can be viewed in the darkness of night, edge-on, snaking in a curving
arc, forming part of a circle. If the peoples of the Paleolithic, through careful observation,
deduced the existence of a spiraling galaxy, of which Earth, and the constellations circled
round, or which circled round forming a cosmic clock, is unknown."

[Quetzalcoatl Maya Galaxy.]

[Ancient Egypt: Osiris atended by the Gemini twins, and above: the Milky Way galaxy, and 12
constellations of the zodiac represented by snakes.]

[Three belt stars of Osiris; Three Pyramids of Giza.]

Neolithic Cosmology: The Equinox And The Spring Full Moon (Cândido Marciano da Silva):

"The Neolithic may have ushered in an intellectual revolution where humans began to develop
cosmic views of the universe. The Neolithic conception of the cosmos may have consisted of
their territory as marked by the 'distant' horizon, of the sky where the heavenly bodies move,
and an awareness of the periodicity of various solar bodies so as to make accurate predictions
about the Sun and Moon. Clues to Neolithic cosmology, perception of the Spring Full Moon in
the Neolithic period, may reveal some measure of abstract thinking capable of suggesting
awareness of the cosmologic order, and of its appropriation by humans. Rather than a
comprehensive discussion of Paleolithic and Neolithic views of the cosmos, the present paper,
analyzing this awareness, is a speculation on the possible development of the concept of
Spring Megalithic Equinox and how it may have provided the Neolithic humans with a
simplified cosmological model. This speculation considers the plausibility of a puzzling
observation involving the values of the elongations of the lunar major standstills at Almendres
in Portugal, Stonehenge in England and Goseck in Germany."

"The use of symbols is probably an early kind of abstract thought dating almost 50,000 years.
Bone and stone carvings from more than 30,000 years ago, including 'The Venus of Laussel'
already involve some degree of data recording, marking for example, what may be the phases
of the moon. The Venus of Laussel is 1.5 foot high limestone bas-relief of a pregnant female
with swollen distended breasts, painted with red ochre. She holds what some believe to be a
bison horn with 13 cuts. Joseph believes the 'horn' might instead represent the crescent moon,
and the 13 cuts a symbol of the relationship between the lunar cycle and the menstrual cycle.
Yet others believe some of the symbolism deep within the recesses of ancient Paleolithic
underground caves and caverns may represent the stars and constellations. Together with
other substantial evidence this clearly seems to document an early observational and
registration stage of the intellectual analysis of nature and astronomy.

[According to Joseph, the cross, painted in bold red ochre upon the entryway to the Chauvet
Cave, and dated to over 30,000 years, could be interpreted as a representation of the solstice
and equinox which marks the shortest and longest days of the year (December and June) and
the beginning of Autumn and Spring and thus an awareness of these solar cycles during the
Paleolithic.]

[Phases of the moon. There are 13 new moons in a solar year, and females have 13 menstrual
cycles in a year. According to Joseph, the pregnant goddess, the Venus of Laussel, signifies her
pregnant belly while holding the crescent moon in her right hand. The 13 cuts in the crescent
moon represent the 13 menstrual cycles and 13 lunar cycles during a solar year, thus
demonstrating an awareness of this association 20,000 years ago.]

The Neolithic may be the first intellectual revolution from which we may aspire to have
glimpses of the earlier cosmic views of the universe (i.e. of the sky and of the celestial bodies),
possibly embedded in the large stone monuments that we can still see today. That landscape
includes symbols of the celestial bodies created 5000 to 10,000 years ago. Analysis of these
creations, suggest that the humans of that period, in their magic religious ritualization of time
and space, tried to incorporate the surrounding cosmic order in their stone monuments.
Possibly these behaviors reflect the belief that this appropriation would confer them some
control over the celestial bodies or the forces of nature.

The Neolithic humans view of the surrounding cosmos may have been composed of their
territory, loosely limited by the 'distant' horizon, and of the sky above. This distant horizon
would separate their world where they could walk, from the sky where they could not, but
where some powerful heavenly bodies seemed to move in some kind of order. The celestial
bodies would emerge and disappear in that unreachable line separating their territory from
the celestial realm. They could not fail to have noticed, long before the Neolithic, that the
activity of these bodies repeats in cycles that seem to find counterparts in their territory.
 Continued observation of the celestial regularities, over centuries, would have provided an
intimate perception of the cycles of the most prominent astral bodies, the Sun and the Moon.
Surviving detailed registration of such regularities by the Babylonians circa 2500BC lead us into
the modern views of the sky.

The geographical orientation of dolmens over vast regions seems to have been made with
reference to the sky, and as based on orientation, the occurrence of eclipses, the Moon seems
to be favored. Thus, we speculate that some of this symbolism and monumental architecture
represents the Equinox about the middle of the up and down swing of the sunrise on the
horizon in a close and intimate relation with Spring.

The present paper is a speculative discussion on the symbolic value of the ritual practice
related to the spring equinox, and on its possible association to the distribution of the major
megalithic sites, from the Sahara to the Artic Circle. The terms, Equinox and Spring are almost
interchangeable in this paper, the first relating to our present day knowledge and the second
to Neolithic ritual symbolic practice. We suggest that intelligent perceptions of nature, in the
Neolithic, may involve second order concepts. In this case, the equinox would not be a result
of a direct observation, e.g. of the sun against the horizon, but rather a method using, for
instance, the count of days or the sunmoon cross over, etc. Also, an imaginary entity in the
center seems to provide a consistent view of the observed cosmos."

"The Equinox

As opposed to the solstices, which are marked by very clear indications in the sky (provided by
the standstills at the extremes of the Sunrise and Moonrise sweep of the horizon) the
equinoxes are not marked by such a simple and direct observation methodology. Very early in
the 1960's Alexander Thom introduced the concept of the Megalithic Equinox. He supported it
with data on particular solar orientations, with declinations close to zero, observed in some
megalithic sites. Thom based this concept on the very simple technique of counting days and
on the possible registration of those counts in the monuments or artifacts. Increased
plausibility was derived from the observation that these data clustered around 0.5ºN from the
East-West direction; a consequence of Earth's slightly elliptical orbit which causes the true
equinoxes to separate the orbit in two halves of unequal length. Therefore the division of the
year in two halves with the same number of sunrises results in the indicated azimuth offset.
This view highlights both the mid-swing ritual importance and the need to resort to a second
order concept to materialize it. Nevertheless the lack of objective and consistent evidence on
equinoctial markers has always been controversial.

An alternative indication of the equinox might have been employed by humans of the
megalithic period. This is based on the observation that, close to the solstices, the full Moon
and Sun, rise in opposite extremes of the swing on the horizon. When the sun is close to the
winter solstice the full Moon rises close to the direction of the summer solstice sunrise, and
vice versa. However, as the sunrise departs from the winter solstice moving north, the full
Moon rise moves south, until they cross close to the equinox. The awareness of the cross over
and of its observation was the basis of the 'Spring Full Moon' concept of Megalithic Equinox in
southwest Iberia and is evident based on data from M. Hoskin. The variability of the azimuth of
the Spring Full Moon rise, i.e. of the first fullmoonrise to pass over the sunrise, exhibits a bell
shaped distribution centered about 9º south of true east. This has been found to be
remarkably compatible with the orientation of the megalithic dolmens in this region, but it can
also be observed in Hoskin data for other parts of the Mediterranean and Brittany. This
analysis reinforced previous observations of astronomical directions between isolated
megalithic monuments and conspicuous hills in the eastern horizon, i.e, as based on particular
directions of stones in the internal architecture of some stone circles in this region, and by the
fact that these stone enclosures are generally set on top of a hill on a slope facing east toward
the rising sun and moon. Some of these astronomical alignment provide equinoctial markers
within 0.5º.

The major monument in southwest Iberia exhibiting these features is the Almendres
enclosure near Évora, which is clearly oriented due east. Since it is set on a gentle slope (6º),
facing east, the observation of the sunset on a truncated monolith situated on the western
apex, can not be made from the axis but rather from a station located at the eastern end of
the northern wing. This is a very accurate alignment (less than 0.5º) for the observation of the
spring equinoctial passage of the sun, and the features of this station suggest that this passage
could be anticipated by two to three weeks and followed day by day. These findings indicate
that people of that period placed great importance on the ritual observation of the passage of
the Sun and of the Moon close to the direction that we now call the equinox and with the
average azimuth of the Spring Full Moon rise. [...] two examples of these orientations about 9º
south of east, the first coinciding within 0.5º with the symmetry axis of the horseshoe
monument and the second using a prominent hill in the landscape to be sighted in that
direction from an isolated menhir.

We may speculate that the neolithic early view of the cosmic order was mostly related to the
passage of these celestial bodies in the horizon rather than the diurnal arch in the sky. Lack of
permanent references would not imprint in the human mind much more than the variation of
the length of the shadows of the sun during the day, i.e. long shadows at the beginning and
end of the day, changing fast, and a shortest shadow around the 'middle' of the day when the
sun is at its highest.

The natural cycles of the horizon crossing by the celestial bodies would have been very clear
and prominent in the case of the Sun, occurring in a fixed interval of the horizon. The Moon
(particularly the Full Moon) would display a similar pattern, sometimes overshooting the Sun
limits, sometimes not quite reaching those limits. Their observations that the astral bodies
most influential in their territory were confined to a narrow strip of the horizon, associated
with the fact that, as the sun approached those limits, life in his territory seemed to become
increasing hard (freezing cold in one of the limits, and boiling hot in the other extreme), might
have imprinted in their minds that life was more comfortable during the periods in which the
sun was closer to the 'center' of his swing in the horizon. We can even speculate that they may
have attributed a magical power to this 'centrality' perception that would retard progressively
the sun as it approached the limits. In their minds this central region in the horizon could
possibly be the home of a mighty force that kept their world stable and under control. They
may then have felt inclined to praise and pray, or even rejoice, when the effect of this 'force'
was seen to to bring the sun back to a more comfortable situation. These events may have
been the beginning of the summer and winter festivities close to the solstices followed by the
spring rebirth of nature, or the welcoming of the autumn close to the equinoxes."

[The Spring Full Moon rise close to the direction Z=099 of the megalithic equinox (Val d'El Rey,
Portugal), observed along the symmetry axis of the horseshoe enclosure (the bush on the left
hides partially the left arm of the "horseshoe").]

"The Monument

The Almendres Cromlech near Évora, Portugal is a megalithic enclosure discovered by H. Pina
in the 1960's. It consists of about 95 stones, many very large and weighing a few tons,
distributed in a layout roughly elliptical. The monument sits on top of a small hill and the 60m
major axis develops along a gentle slope facing East. Since its discovery several measurements
have been performed that confirmed the East-West alignment of the long axis. This is also
clearly a symmetry axis, and no one questions its possible importance as a place of ritual cult
involving the observation of Sunrise or Moonrise close to the Equinox. It is a very large version
of smaller enclosures in the surrounding 100Km region, of a type designated as 'horseshoe'
from its layout. In the case of Almendres the two long arms of the horseshoe almost touch and
seem to embrace the rising sun near the equinox. Detailed analysis of the layout has identified
precise features that may have been dedicated to the the equinoctial transit of the Sun, as
seems common in the surrounding area. A few very precise solstice alignments (within 1º, in
some cases 0.5º) have been identified and measured, as well as lunar major and minor
standstills.

From the Almendres enclosure it is possible to observe a conspicuous hill (Évoramonte) in the
far distant horizon (~20Km), very sharply close to the winter major standstill lunar rise. A hill
that due to its prominence and conspicuous nature seems also to be a precise target to see the
summer solstice sunrise from nearby megalithic sites marked by menhirs (e.g. Caieira) and
enclosures (e.g. P. Mogos). The internal analysis of the layout of stones in the Almendres
enclosure has also suggested that some other internal alignments may be supported,
particularly by the identification of some distribution of stones that seem to materialize
purpose built corridors to provide observation lines of sight, in particular to the Spring Full
Moon.

Although the monument was constructed to be used facing East, it should be mentioned that,
facing west, from the top of the monument (and of the hill) it is possible to identify features in
the horizon that seem relevant to identify the passage of the sun through the equinox, and
also the major and minor winter standstills of the setting Moon. Altogether, it looks like that
the whole layout indicates that the monument was erected in such a place as to satisfy
multiple celestial alignments."

"The (Latitude) Speculative Conjecture.

The lunar major standstill elongation observed over the Évoramonte hill in the winter
standstill moonrise indicates an association between the value computed for the major lunar
standstill elongation (ex. ±38º 36', 2000BC) and the value of the latitude of the implantation of
the Almendres enclosure (38º 33.5'N). This coincidence is within minutes of arc and can be
made exact if very small elevations of the horizon (e.g. <1º) were taken, or by changing the
date used in the calculations. We all know that there is no practical way in which we may
invoke human knowledge of the Earth curvature in that period that could suggest a deliberate
choice of placing the monument at such latitude, and therefore the capability to measure it."

"This interesting coincidence acquired, in this way, the status of an astronomical conjecture in
search for a megalithic explanation, and was reported in earlier publications. With our modern
understanding of the world we seem to be able to speculate on and relate the latitude values
of some megalithic monuments, using the consequences of the spherical model of the earth,
and wonder if this may have been fortuitous."

"The observation and associated importance of the equinox may have provided Neolithic and
even earlier cultures with a cosmology which helped them to understand nature and the
universe. We can only speculate and there are a variety of models which purport to explain the
underlying belief system, including, perhaps attempts at controlling the movements of the sun
and of the moon, and the corresponding events on Earth. The agent of that force being
situated in the horizon close to what we now call the direction of the Equinoxes, i.e. the East-
West line. This view requires no more than just one intellectual concept: that of centrality, in
the sense of Mircea Eliade. Man is always in the center of his territory and this may be divided
in two halves: the one where the sun, the moon and the stars rise, and the other where they
set. These two halves are separated by the smallest shadow of a vertical pole (a representation
of his 'axis-mundi').

The concept of spring (equinox), with its prominent anthropological importance, might have
produced an important artifact, 'the staff' (or pole). We know that when placed vertical at
noon, during the equinox, the geometry of its shadow (i.e. of the right-angled triangle whose
legs are the staff and its shadow) incorporates the latitude. If this was understood 6000 years
ago is unknown. However, this vertical triangle when placed on the ground, by letting the staff
point in the direction of the equinox, would encompass the ranges of sunrises and moonrises
in the horizon (i.e. the hypotenuse would provide a limit to the elongation of the
sunrise/moonrise). This observation might have added to the anthropological value of the
equinox for it provided a method for them to measure, and thus keep control over the
observed cosmological order. As they perceive cycles in time, as the sun rises in the horizon,
the axis of the observers becomes horizontal and the middle point of the swing is just another
form of 'center'. This model becomes dynamical (i.e. non geometrical) as the 'influence' in the
center seems to control the swing. Other particular horizontal directions become important in
this ritual. From the dynamical point of view, i.e. from the perception of a central direction, the
axis in the direction of the equinox may have played the role of a geographical orientation.
Also, the displacement of the sun and of the moon, as they rise in the horizon, could be viewed
as displacements left or right of that direction, sweeping the small range of the horizon where
they occur. It may well have bordered on a mystical experience to see the full Moon rise when
the sun is setting straight opposite relative to the center where the observer stands.

This preference for a direction close to the center of the swing, seems well represented in the
geographical orientation of various groups of funerary megalithic monuments, as a result of
the observation that the full Moon rise and the Sunrise cross over on the horizon close to the
equinoxes, as discussed above. The cross over assumes the role of a Megalithic Equinox and
seems to be very frequent in regions of Brittany, Iberia and parts of the Mediterranean. We
have observed also in the region around Almendres several examples of such orientation, for
instance in the alignment of the horseshoe axis of the Vale d'El Rey enclosure and in
alignments defined by menhirs and prominent hills in the landscape. Other horseshoe
enclosures are not sufficiently preserved, and therefore not so clear, but they seem to align in
the same general direction.

The above analysis assumes that Neolithic monument builders had at best only a rudimentary
understanding of the solstice and equinox, and could not possibly have conceived of a round
Earth or the 365 day periodicity of Earth's orbit around the Sun. It is easy to assume that the
monument builders were not scientists, technicians, or astronomers, but may have based their
beliefs on ritualistic magic and rudimentary observations and perceived coincidences without
any real understanding of the underlying celestial dynamics. Certainly this may have been true
of Neolithic people in general. Yet, at the same time it must be recognized that those who built
these monuments had in fact studied, observed, analyzed, understood these celestial events,
and were able to make extremely precise scientific predictions. They were also able to mobilize
the local population to undertake massive engineering projects resulting in the creation of
monoliths whose orientations have obvious celestial significance. These were not the creations
of a primitive mind, but were the product of very precise scientific observation. Certainly, it
can be said that the monument builders need only walk up or down along the general
direction of the mid day shadow until a match is found and then proceed to build. However,
they had to know what to look for and why."

"We can walk Iberia and France until reaching Brittany always with values of the major lunar
standstill elongation smaller than those provided by the shadow of the pole. However, to find
a clear departure to values of the elongation greater than the latitude it would have been
necessary to come as far south as M'soura in the Sahara, marked by a cromelech with a large
central menhir, or to go as far north as Lituania where a flourishing community worshiped the
sun and the moon in times past. These two sites, however seem to satisfy the requirements of
Eq. 2.1 for a declination of the moon closer to 28º in the major standstill, which could possibly
place them later in time than the previous sites.

It is also interesting to note that the equinoctial marker in Gran Canaria may satisfactorily
share with the Kings Tombs in Sahara the solution where the elongation of the sun standstill
equals the latitude, as may the Finland structures of Kastelli and Raahe at the same latitude of
the Faroe Is. It is however true that it may be possible to find a megalithic monument at any
designated latitude.

At the latitudes derived from Eq. 2.1 we seem to find large Neolithic structures, either
constituted by single monuments of reasonable size, or by large aggregations of smaller
structures in a short geographical area. Also, it is interesting to note that no structures close to
20º and to 70º (the lunar minor standstill solutions) have been discovered. But, if the
anthropological interpretation is correct then, symbolically, we speculate that it might be
sufficient to contain (or control) the major deviations and, particularly, those of the mighty
astral bodies, i.e. those that most influence the events in the territory. This may even be
applicable to other prominent celestial bodies since man is now in the possession of a
'yardstick' that can measure the cosmos and relate it to his own territory. Sirius might have
been an example because this star had an elongation close to the latitude of Abu Simbel for a
few centuries around 2000BC, before the precession of the ecliptic has thrown it out of
alignment.

Translating into magic-symbolic language this might have appeared as a means of

appropriation of the cosmological order. Or, a few Neolithic geniuses may have in fact
understood what they had observed.

If this speculative conjecture finds any support in the role of the equinox then we may
envisage the Neolithic man as master of the universe for he is able to contain the variations of
the sun and of the moon within limits derived from the centre of the celestial swing where the
Spring full Moon rises. The maximum elongation at the solstice standstill, for the sun in
particular, never exceeded the limit given by the equinox mid-day shadow from the level of
Morocco and Tenerife to the level of the Faroe Is. north of Scotland. Beyond those limits life
again was not very comfortable.

Although admittedly the above discussion is highly speculative, and controversial, we consider
that the observed data seem to reveal an interesting conjecture suggesting further analysis."

Astronomy And Psyche In The Classical World: Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Ptolemy (Nicholas
Campion):

"The history of classical astronomy tends to emphasise the development of mathematical

astronomy and the origin of astronomical instrumentation. Religious and philosophical issues
are generally dealt with separately. However, the practice of classical astronomy was
conducted within a context in which the cosmos was permeated with soul, or psyche. This
paper examines the work of Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno, and applies theory of 'psychological
astronomy' to the classical world, so as to provide a context and and understanding of the
motive for the development of mathematical astronomy, concluding with the work of Claudius
Ptolemy."

"We can distinguish at least four schools of theoretical cosmology in the classical Greek world:
the Platonists, Aristotelians, Stoics and Atomists. To this list we might add the religious edifice
of celestial deities evident in written accounts since Hesiod's Theogony, but in this paper the
focus is on the four philosophical schools in view of their body of speculative literature. Of
these four, the first three, the Platonists, Aristotelians and Stoics, regarded the cosmos, in their
various ways, as meaningful, purposeful or characterised by the connection of all things, either
psychically, physically or through networks of causation; only the Atomists inhabited a
directionless, meaningless cosmos and, I would argue, theirs' was very much a minority view.
In spite of their substantial differences, Platonists, Aristotelians and Stoics all agreed that the
entire cosmos, in both its terrestrial and celestial parts, was bound together by psyche. From
an individual perspective, the cosmos therefore possessed an interior aspect as much as an
external one, and astronomy was a psychological practice as well as an observational or
mathematical one, the evidence for which is scattered throughout the philosophical literature
of the classical world. At the heart of all these models was the notion of the cosmos either as
divine or as a path to the divine."

"Plato: the Soul Mainly Transcendent

The conventional structure of the classical world finds its earliest extant form in Plato's works,
in which we encounter a geocentric cosmos with the earth at the centre, surrounded by
crystalline spheres on which planets rotated, with the fixed stars at the outermost limit.
However, the concern here is with the moral structure of the universe was based on the
premise that the world emanated from the mind of God and was permeated by soul. The initial
phase in the Platonic creation myth involved the development of the world soul, out of which
matter itself was created. In spatial terms, the cosmos, though inherently perfect, therefore
became ever more degenerate as it became more distant from the creator. The fixed stars,
whose appearance never changed were most divine, being closest to God, while the planets
become steadily less divine as the crystal spheres on which they revolved moved closer to the
earth in the order Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Venus the sun and, lastly, the moon, whose
rapidly changing appearance was proof of its profound imperfection. Eventually we arrive on
the earth which is round and held at the centre of the universe by the whole system. Plato
defined the planets as gods in the sense that they are beings borne of the same living, divine
material as the rest of the cosmos, but the individual human soul was to have a direct
relationship with the fixed stars, its location between incarnations in material form.

The concept of the relationship between soul and stars finds its fullest expression in Plato's
psychological theory - his view on the nature and function of psyche - which, in turn needs to
be understood in terms of his theory of the soul's origin in the stars and classification into
different functions. As Bartel van der Waerden argued, Plato's theory of soul takes us to the
heart of the development of this particular feature of Greek astronomy: 'The soul comes from
the heavens', he wrote, 'where it partook of the circulation of the stars. It unites itself with a
body and forms with it a living being. This explains how human character comes to be
determined by the heavens.' Each soul, Plato wrote in Timaeus, has its own star. He was, of
course, speaking metaphorically but, in his view, metaphor was often the most effective
means of revealing truth.

Plato set out his theory of the soul's origin in the stars in Timaeus and elaborated it in the
Republic in which the precise mechanics of the soul's incarnation into human form were set
out: it originates in the sphere of the fixed stars, to which it later returns, following a descent
and ascent through the planetary spheres. Plato's text gives an account of the means by which
the soul selects a possible life and then descends through the planetary spheres to the Earth, a
process during which its future fate is determined. From the cosmogony which is so carefully
set out in Timaeus, we can draw two significant conclusions. The first is that soul pervades the
entire cosmos. The second is that soul takes priority over matter. Plato was most emphatic on
this point. 'God', he wrote, 'constructed Soul to be older than Body and prior in birth and
excellence, since she was to be the mistress and ruler'. 'Soul', he wrote in Phaedrus, 'has the
care of all that is soulless'. It exists independently of body and may incarnate - or may not. The
Cosmos, for Plato, was a 'Living Creature endowed with soul and reason owing to the
Providence of God'. The concept of the entire universe as alive and resting in soul, or psyche,
also enabled Plato to see the cosmos as psychological in the modern sense, as having
personality, driven by manners, habits, opinions, desires, pleasures, pains and fears.

Plato's ideas on the soul evolved throughout his various writings. However, as with his
cosmology, we can generalise. The divine unfolded in stages, first through soul and mind, and
finally through its self-realisation in physical form. Human beings, Plato believed, consisted of
four different parts; on the one hand, the body and, on the other a soul divided into three.

In Phaedrus he represented this three-fold structure as a charioteer and his two horses. The
highest part, as he explained in Timaeus, was the charioteer himself, the rational soul, mind or
intellect, which discerns what is true, judges what is real and makes rational decisions. Next
was the spirited soul, the active part, the will, whose function was to carry out what reason
has decided. Last, and lowest, was the appetitive soul, the seat of emotion and desire, which
needed to be restrained by the higher, rational, soul if the individual was to be saved from self-
destructive behaviour. Sometimes these three souls are regarded as distinct, separate entities,
but it is better to see them as functions which exist on a smooth spectrum from the rational to
the emotional, an extension of the emanationist principle of Platonic cosmogony, in which all
existence emerges in a continuous flow from the creator. There is no firm dividing line
between the human and the divine in Platonic theory and, significantly for the understanding
of Plato's astronomy, none between humanity and the stars: all are embedded in the world
soul, of which individual souls are a part.

We might view Plato's model of the soul's relationship with the stars as leading, variously, to
enlightenment or salvation, in which respect he issued the following inspirational advice: 'we
ought to fly away from earth to heaven as quickly as we can; and to fly away is to become like
God, as far as this is possible; and to become like him, is to become holy, just, and wise'. The
consequence of engagement with the stars might, for Plato, be psychological transformation.
God himself was rational and it was the very act of observing the motions of the stars and
planets which enhanced rational powers in the observer and drew him or her close to God, the
source of reason, of thought and goal of all intellectual inquiry. Theology and psychology are
therefore, in Plato's terms, inseparable. The theme was taken up from a Stoic perspective by
Marcus Manilius, one of the few classical astrologers to have written in Latin. In his
Astronomica, composed probably at the end of the first century BCE, Manilius drew attention
to the rational soul's role in astronomy:

Who could know heaven save by heaven's gift and discover God save one who shares himself
in the divine? Who could discern and compass in his narrow mind the vastness of this vaulted
infinite, the dances of the stars, the blazing dome of heaven... had not nature endowed our
minds with divine vision, had turned to herself a kindred intelligence...? Who, unless there
came from heaven a power which calls us heavenward to the sacred fellowship of nature?

The belief that to engage with the stars in a contemplative manner might benefit one's soul
proved an enduring feature of the deep Platonic strain in classical cosmology. Typical was the
Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, who was deeply influenced by both Plato and the Stoics, and
who prescribed the following remedy for world-weariness in the second century CE.: 'Survey
the circling stars as though you yourself were in mid-course with them. Often picture the
changing and re-changing dance of the elements. Visions of this kind purge away the dross of
our earth-bound life.' One's soul, the emperor believed, might be cleansed by means of an
imaginative union with the stars."

"Aristotle: the Soul Partly Embedded in Matter

Aristotle's theories parallel Plato's in his use of a tripartite division, but differ in his emphasis
on the embodiment of psyche in matter; whereas, for Plato, soul was both immanent and
transcendent, in matter and above it, Aristotle seriously restricted its transcendent portion.
The Aristotelian soul, like the Platonic, is a kind of animating force, without which the natural
world could not operate. 'Soul', Aristotle wrote, 'is substance in the sense of being the form of
a natural body, which potentially has life. And substance in this sense is actuality. The soul,
then, is the actuality of the kind of body we have described.' That is, it is soul, exactly as in the
Platonic sense, which allows matter to live and turns human beings into individuals. Soul is the
'cause' of the body, and so, in a sense, has priority over it.

Like Plato, Aristotle also employed a tripartite division of the soul into three levels, which
were arranged hierarchically, in ascending order from the lowest, the 'nutritive' (possessed by
plants, animals and people), to the sensitive (possessed by animals and people, but not plants)
and, finally, the highest, the intellectual (possessed by people alone). Aristotle's descriptions of
the lower two souls differ slightly from Plato's equivalents. For example, Aristotle's sensitive
soul is that which allows individuals to use their senses, such as sight and touch, and cope with
the desires, pains and pleasures which the senses arouse; the sensitive soul has to deal with
the consequences of physical desire.

Although, unlike Plato, Aristotle did not explicitly relate the soul to the stars, he did
presuppose a world in which the entire terrestrial realm is connected to the celestial spheres
and the soul-star connection is therefore implicit. Even though Aristotle proposed that the
physical composition of the cosmos in the sublunary realm, consisting of the four elements,
differed from that above, which was composed of ether, but he also postulated a fundamental
unity which connected stars to earth, and hence, implicitly, to the soul:

The whole terrestrial region then is compounded of these four bodies [fire, earth air, water]
and it is the conditions which affect them which, we have said, are the subject of our inquiry.
This region must be continuous with the motions of the heavens, which therefore regulate its
whole capacity for movement. For the celestial element as source of all motion, must be
regarded as first cause.

For Aristotle, the soul's relationship with celestial motions may not have been explicit, but it
was implicit: the soul is moved by the heavens which are themselves, animate. 'The fact is' he
wrote, 'that we are inclined to think of the stars as mere bodies or units, occurring in a certain
order but completely lifeless; whereas we ought to think of them as partaking of life and
initiative. Once we do this, the events will no longer be surprising.' The cosmos, therefore was
alive and purposeful. Moreover, with the exception of a fragment of the intellectual soul, the
'agent' or 'active' intellect, the Aristotelian soul was entirely embedded in the material world."
"Zeno of Citium: The Soul Entirely Embedded in Nature

The naturalistic perspective was adapted and emphasised by the Stoics, founded by Zeno of
Citium (c.334-262 BCE). Zeno shared much with Plato, in particular the concept of an
intelligent, reasoning cosmos. However, whereas Plato insisted that psyche, as intangible
consciousness was the source of the material world, Zeno insisted that matter, rather than
soul, was the origin of everything. Indeed, for the Stoics, there was nothing in this cosmos
which could not have physical form. Even 'voice', Zeno claimed, was a 'body'.

Zeno's concept of the soul bears comparison with Aristotle's: his work on the soul is lost but
we have an account of his ideas from the summary by Diogenes Laertius in the third/fourth
centuries CE. 'They believe', Diogenes Laertius wrote of the Stoics, 'that... soul is a nature
capable of sense-perception. And this soul is the inborn pneuma in us... by this means we live
and breathe and by this we are moved.' The Stoics shared with Plato the notion of a cosmos
which was permeated by the world soul and in which all things, including emotions, thoughts
and bodies, were intimately connected. For the Stoics such connections operated through
webs of 'sympathy' and, being universal, connected stars to people."

" The development of the term 'psychological astronomy' to describe the psychological
application of astronomy recommended by Plato, is derived from various commentaries on
Aristotelian cosmology. In particular, Christopher Shields considered what he called the
'psychological' applications of Aristotle's hylomorphism. Hugh Lawson-Tancred spotted the
potential importance of Aristotle's theories for modern psychology when he asked of
Aristotle's intentions, 'is he not directly anticipating the Physicalist theories so dominant in
contemporary philosophy of psychology?' Thus, it is argued, that the Platonic, Aristotelian and
Stoic models of astronomy contains a psychological strand and carry psychological
consequences and applications."

"The theoretical cosmic psychologies proposed by Plato, Aristotle and Zeno found their
practical application in the work of Claudius Ptolemy, the last of the great astronomers of the
classical world. Ptolemy has a claim to being the most influential of classical astronomers on
account of the respect with which his encyclopaedic work on mathematical astronomy, the
Syntaxis, or Almagest, was held, first in the Islamic world, and then in Medieval European
culture. While the Almagest, is usually the centre of attention when Ptolemy's astronomy is
examined, if his cosmology is to be understood on its own terms, its purpose cannot be
understood independently of two of his other works, the Harmonics and the Tetrabiblos, in
both of which he raised the soul's relationship with the stars.

Ptolemy appears to have drawn his philosophical influences from Platonists, Aristotelians and
Stoics. Sambursky, for example, identified the origin of Ptolemy's regard for the independence
of planetary motions in Platonic notions of the living cosmos. However, as Robbins noted, he
also appears to have been deeply attracted to Aristotle's philosophical naturalism. Liba Taub,
meanwhile, drew attention to the discussion of possible Stoic influences on Ptolemy. However,
rather than adhering to one philosophical school, Ptolemy was typical of philosophical thought
in the second century CE in which 'pure' forms of earlier philosophical schools had been
replaced by syncretism in which facets of each could be combined in various forms. We would
therefore expect to see him drawing on all earlier notions of soul.
 Ptolemy divided the work of the astronomer into two phases: the first was concerned with the
measurement of celestial positions, which we find in the Almagest, the second with the
measurement of their effects, which he discussed in the Tetrabiblos , and which is one of the
foundations of western astrology. Those effects might be felt in the natural world but also in
the psychological, the realm of the soul. Ptolemy's psychological astronomy can be divided into
two forms, the contemplative and the analytical. The first was devoted to the contemplation of
the cosmos with a view to attaining personal peace and harmony, and clearly draws him into
the Platonic orbit. The second which is set out Tetrabiblos, required the use of planetary
motions to analyse the condition of the individual soul. The two forms of psychology come
together in that the latter, by providing foreknowledge of predetermined events, calms the
soul; by knowing that the future is inevitable, one accepts it with grace. As the Stoic
philosophers had claimed, the virtue which encourages a calm soul and cautious action comes
from a knowledge of what one must do. And, as Plato argued, a knowledge of philosophy, in
which he included astronomy, leads to happiness.

In the Stoic conception, which was undoubtedly an influence on Ptolemy, animals were
compelled to action by a movement in the soul/psyche called the hormê - an impulse or drive.
There is a kind of celestial mechanics at work here, in which the movement of a planet is
connected to a disturbance in the individual soul, and with a consequent tendency to action. In
the Tetrabiblos, though, Ptolemy is concerned with the symptoms of such motions - their
manifestation in the psychology of the individual, rather than the mechanics by which the stars
and planets act as causes. The planets' psychic or psychological, and physical functions were
related to the essential nature of the cosmos, as well as to humanity, a system in which person
and planet, mind and body, were absolutely interrelated.

Ptolemy's preferred model of the soul appears to have been a version of the Platonic-
Aristotelian three-fold division arranged in hierarchical order, in the Platonic sense, as rational,
emotional and 'cupidinous'. Whether his principal source for the tripartite division was Plato or
Aristotle (the distinctions resemble the Platonic rather than the Aristotelian, but his naturalism
is closer to Aristotle than to Plato), in his Platonist and Stoic personas he would have believed
that self-control of the lower two parts of the soul was necessary if the rational-intellectual
part was to achieve its full potential. He also divided the rational soul into seven qualities all of
which are varieties of sharp, critical thinking, experience and wisdom, in an apparent - but
undefined - analogy with the planets, which are not, though, mentioned explicitly. Ptolemy's
purpose was to describe the soul's life within nature.

According to Stoic teachings, the natural world was something to accept gracefully, not an
arena of suffering from which to escape. The soul was then embedded, in Pythagorean style, in
a series of mathematical formulae and musical scales related to the zodiac signs and planets.
The rising of Mercury and Venus, for example, related to a particular sound, a harmony which,
if one could hear it, would represent the perfect contemplation of the divine.

Ptolemy set out his detailed rules for identifying the condition of the soul, or psyche, in the
Tetrabiblos, composed around 120 CE, although there he appears to have been concerned
only with two levels of the soul, rather than, as in the Harmonics, three. He compressed the
three levels of soul, for astrological purposes, into two, the 'rational' and 'irrational'. Also,
whereas Plato had written of the soul's descent through the planetary spheres, but retained its
primary theoretical relationship for the stars, Ptolemy identified the positions of the planets as
sources of the soul's quality. In Ptolemy's view the higher of the two souls was the 'rational'
the character of which, he claimed, was determined by the placing of Mercury. The lower part,
the 'irrational', was characterised by the Moon and its associated stars. Ptolemy had taken
Plato's system, in which the descent through planetary spheres infers a relationship between
planet and soul. Also, apparently relying on Aristotle's scheme, he associated the intellectual,
or rational, soul with Mercury and both the nutritive and sensitive souls to the Moon, writing
that

Of the qualities of the soul, those which concern the reason and the mind are apprehended by
means of the condition of Mercury... and the qualities of the sensory and irrational part are
discovered from the one of the luminaries which is the more corporeal, that is, the moon.

From these simple rules the classical astronomer - and astrologer - might then construct a
simple psychological analysis. Mercury and the Moon located sympathetically might denote a
pleasing character but, if in a difficult relationship according to the rules Ptolemy set out, the
personality would be beset by difficulties. We know that this system was still in use by the time
that Galileo cast the horoscopes for his daughters."

"An understanding of classical astronomy, and of the history of western astronomy in general,
should take into account the context provided by conceptions of the cosmos within which
mathematical models of planetary and stellar motion were situated. However, the widespread
belief that soul pervaded the material universe provided one such context, even though
Platonic, Aristotelian and Stoic versions of the relationship between soul, nature and stars,
differed. The the term and concept of 'psychological astronomy' has been developed in order
make a contrast with mathematical astronomy.

Claudius Ptolemy's work provides a key example of the practical application of psychological
astronomy, which can be divided into forms: psychological astronomy of the contemplative
variety provided the overall motive within which Ptolemy's analytical psychological astronomy
and his mathematical astronomy can be understood. The significance of contemplative
psychology for his mathematical astronomy is set out in the opening passage of the Almagest
in which, as a Platonist, Ptolemy recognised that divinity stood at the heart of his cosmology.
What he imagined, in his cautious way, as divinity, was described in Aristotelian terms as the
'first cause of the first motion of the universe', impersonal and remote, like an 'invisible and
motionless deity'. His goal, he wrote, was to 'strive for a noble and disciplined disposition... to
devote most of our time to intellectual matters, and especially those to which the epithet
'mathematical' is particularly applied'.

In words which both Plato and Marcus Aurelius would have recognised, Ptolemy defined the
purpose of astronomy as to increase 'the love of the contemplation of the eternal and
unchanging', the divine source of all life in the cosmos. In his short poem, the Anthologia
Palatin he imagined his soul - his psyche - extending to the stars. 'I know that I am mortal, the
creature of one day. But when I explore the winding courses of the stars, I no longer touch
with my feet the Earth: I am standing near Zeus himself drinking my fill of Ambrosia, the food
of the Gods.'"
"Let There Be Light!" The Genesis Of Biblical Cosmology (William P. Brown):

"Genesis 1:1-2:3 is the most 'natural' and carefully crafted account of creation in the Hebrew
Bible. This 'report' proceeds methodically to outline a sophisticated cosmology whose
chronological framework reflects the structural features of a typical Syro-Palestinian temple in
antiquity and whose spatial contours suggest a three-tiered astrodome. The account begins
not with God creating ex nihilo, as is commonly assumed, but with the deity working with
undifferentiated matter, a cosmic mishmash. Primordial light, the first act of creation, is
distinguished temporally from the light transmitted by the sun and stars. As a whole, the
Genesis account charts the progressive differentiation of the cosmos from a formless chaos to
an intricate structure that supports the diversity of life."

"Written in the 6th century BCE, Genesis 1:1-2:3 (hereafter referred to as 'Genesis 1') is the
most cosmically oriented and carefully crafted text of the Hebrew Bible. It is also the Bible's
closest thing to a 'natural' account of creation. Compared to the rough-and-tumble drama of
the Babylonian myth of creation, the Enuma Elish (late 2nd millennium BCE), Genesis 1 reads
like a dispassionate treatise. Through the near-monotonous repetition of literary motifs and
structural devices, the Bible's first account of creation resembles more a report than a story,
more an itemized list than a flowing narrative. It reflects a literary austerity, an abstractness
that rigorously avoids the fray of mythic conflict, on the one hand, and eschews the pathos of
ancient poetry, on the other. Its closest intellectual cousins are found among the cuneiform
astronomical diaries of ancient Mesopotamia. This would include the Sumerian and Akkadian
versions of the Enuma Anu Enlil (usually dated around the mid-second millennium BCE), a vast
compendium of omens that includes precise astronomical observations, as well as the later
MUL.APIN ('Plow Star'), around the beginning of the first millennium BCE.

In this brief essay, I examine the ancient cosmology of Genesis 1, the best known, but by no
means the only, creation account in the Bible. I do so not to argue for its relevance for
contemporary readers of science. As a biblical scholar, I fully acknowledge the religious, indeed
mythic, dimensions of this ancient account. Genesis is not science. Rather, I examine this
cosmogonic text in the hope that scientists, and particularly historians of science, continue to
hold an abiding interest in how the ancients accounted for the origins of the universe."

"Primordial Soup

In Genesis 1, the curtain rises to reveal a cosmic mishmash. I offer my own translation of the
Hebrew the first two verses. 1:1 When God began to create the heavens and the earth, 1:2 the
earth was void and vacuum, and darkness was upon the surface of the deep while the breath
of God hovered over the watery surface.

This initial state of creation is described in verse 2 as tohû wabohû, here translated as 'void
and vacuum,' but typically rendered as 'formless void' (so NRSV). The Hebrew, however, is
more vivid. The phrase is what grammarians call a 'farrago,' an alliterative meshing of words or
syllables whose overall semantic sense transcends its individual components, such as in 'topsy-
turvy,' 'vice versa,' 'mishmash,' or 'hodgepodge.' In fact, the French Le tohu-bohu, meaning
'hubbub,' is a Hebrew loanword that captures well the biblical sense, a dynamic
undifferentiated condition that lacks both substance and form. Such was the 'soupy' state of
the universe in the beginning according to the biblical cosmologist. One could call it chaos, but
not in any mythically threatening sense. Darkness, water, and emptiness do not make a
monster. Neither do they constitute mere 'nothing' (nihil). To find the deity creating from
nothing (ex nihilo), one must look elsewhere in the biblical tradition (e.g., 2 Maccabees 7:28).
The chaos described in Genesis 1:2 designates a state of dynamic disorder poised for order. For
whatever reason, the ancient cosmologists surmised that creation commenced in extremis,
amid the 'chaos' of turbulent tohû wabohû, a state of cosmic potential or readiness for
creation. God's breath suspended over the dark waters sets the stage for a generative
fluctuation of astronomical or (I can't resist) biblical proportions."

"The Temple and the Astrodome

So begins the Genesis report. The text recounts God's fashioning form out of formlessness.
The end result is a cosmos replete with variety and structure, a fully differentiated universe. To
achieve this, God goes about 'separating out' creation: light from darkness (1:4), waters above
from waters below (vv. 6-7), day from night (vv. 14, 18). The cosmos began in 'chaotic' unity
and proceeded to be structured in the course of creation. Through separation, discrete
domains are established during the first three 'days': light, water, sky, and land, each
accommodating various entities, living and otherwise. In the course of the Genesis narration,
both the domains and the 'members' of these domains reveal an overarching symmetry.

According to their thematic correspondences, the first six days of creation line up to form two
parallel columns. Their chronological ordering gives rise to a thematic symmetry. Days 1-3
establish the cosmic domains, which are subsequently populated by various entities or
agencies (Days 4-6). Read vertically, the two columns address the two abject conditions of lack
described in Genesis 1:2, formlessness and emptiness. The left column (Days 1-3) gives form to
creation, with Day 3 climactically depicting the growth of vegetation. This concluding act
vividly changes the earth's primordial condition from its formless state of barrenness: the
earth is no longer a 'void' (tohû) but a fructified land, providing the means for sustaining life on
the land. Covering Days 4-6, the right column reports the filling of these domains with their
respective inhabitants, from the celestial bodies, which 'rule' both day and night, to human
bodies, who exercise 'dominion.' The creative acts on Days 5 and 6 specifically change
creation's primordial condition from 'vacuum' or emptiness (bohû) to fullness. Genesis 1, in
short, describes the systematic differentiation of the cosmos that accommodates and sustains
the plethora of life.

While the six-day schema exhibits a well-calibrated correspondence, the symmetry is not
perfect. Within its literary patterning, Genesis 1 features a number of 'nonpredictable
variations'. Vegetation, for example, occurs on the third day, concluding the left column, even
though plants, like the animals, populate the land. The sixth day would have been a better fit
for the creation of plants. Days 5 and 6, moreover, are one-sidedly weighted with the language
of blessing (see verses 22, 28), which bears no correspondence to Days 2 and 3. Structurally,
certain literary building blocks such as the fulfillment report ('God made ...') and the transition
formula ('and it was so') either do not appear in a consistent order or, in certain cases, are
entirely absent. Finally, of all the days enumerated in the account, only 'the sixth day' and 'the
seventh day' bear definite articles in Hebrew. The text, in short, manifests an overarching
symmetry that allows for and accommodates variation. These small variations, however, pale
in comparison to the most significant case of dissymmetry in the text, namely, Day 7. Having
no corresponding partner, the seventh day is unique. By its presence, the tight six-day
symmetry of the Genesis account is broken. Nevertheless, this distinctly odd day does establish
a vertical correspondence to creation's initial condition, as described in 1:2, which one could
call paradoxically 'Day 0.' Together these two 'days' form a subtle correspondence, the static
'day' of non-creation and the 'theo-static' seventh day. The timeless character of 'Day 0' shares
an implicit affinity with Day 7: the final day lacks the temporal formula 'evening came and then
morning.' It, too, is a day somehow suspended above temporal regularities. Yet these two
'days' could not be more different: 'Day 0' refers to creation's empty formlessness; Day 7
marks creation formed and filled (2:1). The final day serves as the capstone for the entire
structure, for it shares something of God's holiness.

Without this symmetry-breaking seventh day, the creation pattern would lose a distinction
that remains hidden to modern readers not acquainted with the ancient architecture of sacred
space. Many temples of the ancient Near East, particularly in the Syro-Palestinian region,
exhibited a threefold or tripartite structure, which can also be found in the literary symmetry
of the Genesis text.

For example, Solomon's temple as described in 1 Kings 6 consists of three parts: an outer
vestibule or portico, the nave or main room, and an inner sanctuary or holy of holies (debîr).

This threefold arrangement of sacred space corresponds to the way in which the various days
of creation are distributed both chronologically and thematically. The first six days, by virtue of
their correspondence, establish the architectural boundaries of sacred space. The last day,
given its uniqueness, is lodged in the most holy space.

The universe, it turns out, is a cosmic temple in time. Its 'entrance' is demarcated by Days 1
and 4, together designating the creation of light and lights, respectively. Not coincidentally, the
Solomonic Temple in Jerusalem faced eastward to welcome the rising sun.

Such is the temporal ordering of the cosmos according to Genesis. On the spatial level, the
world according to Genesis is a three-tiered universe: the celestial waters above are held aloft
by a dome or 'firmament' (1:6-8), constituting the sky, and the waters below are bounded by
the land (1:9-10). The stars interspersed across the celestial vault on the fourth day transmit
the primordial light created on the first day. In between the firmament above and the waters
below lies a band of space within which terrestrial life flourishes. What we call the
atmosphere, the ancients viewed as a protective vault, a sort of glass ceiling that separates the
transcendent realm from down-to-earth creation.

There are, thus, two complementary frameworks that characterize creation in Genesis 1: the
temple framework that defines the chronological contours of creation and the 'astrodome'
model that characterizes creation's spatial structure. Both serve as templates that highlight the
critical significance of creation's primordial beginnings, particularly the 'creation' of light, the
first act of creation."

"The Big Flash

Among the various acts of creation described in Genesis, the 'creation' of light is special: light
is only spoken into being (1:3). More typically, throughout Genesis 1 creation involves the
pairing of God's speech and act (see 1:14-16, 20-21, 24-25, 26-27). The 'creation' of light marks
the first day:

1:3 Then God said, 'Let there be light.' And there was light. 1:4 And God saw that the light was
good, and God divided between the light and the darkness. 1:5 God named the light 'Day,' and
the darkness he named 'Night.' Evening came and then morning, day one.

The distinctive feature of this exclusively verbal creation could suggest that the genesis of light
according to Genesis 1 was not a matter of creation at all but that of light 'emerging out of the
darkness'. As a parallel creation account, Psalm 104 depicts light as the deity's clothing, and
thus as uncreated (verses 1-2). One could also cite a passage from 4 Ezra (dated ca. 100 CE),
which depicts God commanding 'that a ray of light be brought forth from your treasuries, so
that your works might then appear' (6:40). Could it be that, according to the Genesis
cosmogony, God commanded pre-existent light to separate itself from the darkness?

Perhaps, but doubtful. Verse 4 makes such a separation explicit, but only as a subsequent act.
'Let there be light' refers within the larger narrative to a prior moment in which the
appearance of light is called forth, and thus created, amid the darkness. But whether
generated or emergent, light in Genesis 1:3 is unique among the other elements of creation.
As the product of God's first creative act, light bears a certain kinship to the divine. The
ambiguity of light's genesis reflects its mysterious yet primary role within the larger creation
account. It is under the gleam of such light that everything else is created, including the
celestial bodies (Day 4). The light of Day 1 is not reducible to the light emitted by the sun,
moon, and the constellations, for they only transmit or reflect such light. By divine light, God
'sees' all that is and declares it 'very good' (1:31). Such light is, moreover, associated with the
temple, wherein the lamp stands are symbolic of God's eyes (Zechariah 4:2, 10).

'[T]he most obvious and fundamental medium of our connection to the universe is light,'
according to physicist Lee Smolin. More than a medium, the light of Day 1 in Genesis, like land
on Day 3, is considered the primary domain of the cosmic temple. With the creation of light,
and its subsequent separation from the darkness (verse 4), space itself is defined. So also time:
evening and morning mark the first day (verse 5). By virtue of their common origin, Genesis
regards space and time as fundamentally related; they are the foundational constituents of
physical reality, hence their priority in cosmic history.

Remarkably, the biblical author(s) of Genesis discerned a significant temporal separation

between the creation of primordial light (Day 1) and the light emitted by the stars ( Day 4).
Modern cosmology also discerns at least a half-billion-year gap between the Big Bang and the
formation of the first generation of stars. Absorbing visual and ultraviolet light, the growing
dominance of neutral hydrogen gas engulfed the nascent cosmos in visual darkness in less
than a million years after t=0. Visible light returned only through the widespread re-ionization
of the universe nearly a billion years later. For the author(s) of Genesis 1, the realm of
primordial light was created first, and it lay inaccessibly beyond the firmament or cosmic vault
fashioned on the second day. Such transcendent light was transmitted, the ancients
concluded, by the astral bodies that God set in the firmament, but not until the fourth day.
'There was light,' but only thereafter - three 'days' according to Genesis but actually a billion
years - did stars make their luminous appearance to the naked eye.

The author(s) of Genesis regarded the celestial luminaries as agents serving a specific
function: to establish special times throughout the year. In addition to regulating the rhythm
of day and night as well as the seasons, the celestial bodies also determined the 'appointed
times' or 'signs' for various religious festivals (1:14). The theo-logic is clear: by transmitting
primordial light, the celestial luminaries bore the preeminent role of establishing the rhythm of
worship on Earth."

"To state the obvious, the Genesis account of creation is theological to the core. It begins with
God creating (1:1) and concludes with God completing (2:1-3). Nevertheless, there is a certain
naturalism that pervades the account. Between the preface and the conclusion, the account
proceeds methodically and incrementally as cosmic domains are established and various forms
of agency come to fill these domains: the stars populate the domain of light, aviary life fills the
sky, the seas team with marine life, and the land is populated by animals, including human.
The elements and agencies of nature lack any hint of deification, and yet they are recognized
as active and productive. Water and land, for example, have a hand in the production of life
(1:12, 20-21, 24). As 'members' of the primordial domain of light, the astral bodies of the
fourth day are analogous to the life forms that populate the domains of land and sea. Though
not divine, the sun, moon, and the stars have their active roles to play in determining the times
of worship but not as the objects of worship. Finally, the intricately wrought, symmetrical
structure of the Genesis account reflects the integrity of creation as the ancients viewed it: a
vibrant, intricately ordered world endowed with the natural capacities to bear life. From seeds
(1:11-12) to reproduction (1:22, 28), creation's temple is a living cosmos."

The Cosmic Landscape In The Age Of The Pyramids (Giulio Magli):

"The pyramids of Egypt are to be counted among the most outstanding works of architecture
in the whole of human history. The sites for their construction were chosen in accordance with
topographical criteria which, while taking practical needs into account, were also profoundly
and intimately connected with Maat, the cosmic order. As a consequence, the pyramid's fields
are criss-crossed by geometrical axes which were - and partially still are - easily perceptible on
the ground. In the 4th and the 5th dynasty, such axes ideally connected the monuments with
the temple of Heliopolis on the opposite bank of the Nile, while during the 6th dynasty new
pyramids were ideally connected with older ones by means of meridian - south to north -
alignments. In recent years, the present author attempted to provide a comprehensive
analysis of this sacred landscape, and of its astronomical and symbolical interpretation in
terms of the 'cosmovision' of the ancient Egyptians."

"In Egyptian history, the so-called Old Kingdom (2686 BC - 2181 BC circa) is distinctive for what
we might call the Age of the Pyramids, a short, intense burst in human history during which
the most amazing funerary monuments of humanity were created.

Pyramid-building commenced with king Djoser - around 2630 BC, according to Baines and
Malek chronology - who built the so-called Step Pyramid in Saqqara, and was to continue up to
the reign of Pepi II (2278 BC). The pyramids were built on the edge of the desert, just above
the floodplain on the west bank of the Nile. With the single exception of Meidum, all the royal
pyramids tend to be concentrated in 'clusters' (Giza, Abusir, Saqqara, Saqqara South) along a
relatively short line which goes from Abu Roash down to Dashour, less than 30 Kilometres to
the south.

It is known from the end of the 19th century that an interesting feature exists in the layout of
the 4th dynasty 'cluster' of pyramids at Giza: the presence of a main topographical axis. This
axis governed the placement of the subsequent buildings, connecting the south-east corners of
Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure's pyramids. A similar axis exists in Abusir, the pyramid field of the
kings of the 5th dynasty, connecting in this case the north-west corners of the pyramids of
Sahure, Neferirkare and Neferefre; a somewhat similar feature can be seen at Saqqara as well.

[Giza. A view from the east of the Great Pyramid of Khufu, looking south-west. The main axis of
the Giza Necropolis, touching the south-east corners of Khufu (foreground) Khafre (in the
middle) and Menkaure (in the background) pyramids is clearly perceptible.]

In recent years, the author investigated on such topographical features in order to put in
evidence their underlying symbolic meaning. In the course of this work, several interesting
points emerged; for instance, new hints at the possibility that the two main pyramids of Giza
belong to a single project initiated by Khufu, the likely existence of further 'axes' at Abusir and
Saqqara south and a proposal for the location of a long-sought pyramid, that of king Userkare.
From a general point of view, it turned out that the alignments of the pyramid's have nothing
to do with utilitarian purposes; on the contrary, in some cases, the desire to align monuments
in harmony with pre-existing axes involved enormous technical difficulties, as, for instance, in
the Unas project in Saqqara. In order to understand the underlying reasons which moved the
ancient Egyptians to such huge efforts, Archaeoastronomy must be used in its broad, modern
sense of 'science of the ancient sky and landscape'. It is, indeed, necessary to consider the
ancient Egyptian concept of Maat, the 'cosmic order' on which the power of the pharaohs was
founded. It was a complex interplay between a solar-stellar religion and the contemporary
presence of the living God, the pharaoh himself. The king was the keeper of the cosmic order
on the earth and was later doomed to live in eternity - as well as his dynastic ancestors before
him - together with the circumpolar stars and the Sun God. As a consequence, astronomy
played a key role for the builders of the pyramids. These monuments were indeed the maximal
expression of art, ideology, and power during the Old Kingdom, and were designed and placed
with the aim to show such 'cosmographical' principles. The result is that the pyramid's fields
are magnificent examples of sacred landscapes, conceived in accordance with the Cosmic
Order as 'applied' on the ground; the role of the alignments is to recall explicitly this idea.
[Abusir. A view from the summit of the south wall of the Neferefre monument, looking north-
east. The pit of the unfinished pyramid is visible in the foreground. In the background, the
huge mole of the Neferirkare pyramid covers Sahure's monument. The main axis of the Abusir
necropolis passes to the extreme left of the picture and points to the outcrop of the Cairo
citadel (and to Heliopolis straight behind) on the other bank of the Nile.]

[Saqqara. A view taken from the south of Unas pyramid (foreground) looking north-east. The
Saqqara axis connecting Unas' base diagonal with the south-east corners of the Step (middle)
and Userkaf (background) pyramids can still be perceived today, in spite of the ruined state of
the monuments.]

It is the aim of the present paper to give a brief but systematic overview of all these
alignments and of their interpretation. To this end, I shall classify the alignments into three
'families': a 'Heliopolitan' family, a 'quarter-cardinal' family, and a 'meridian' family. Of course,
we are talking about very small families: each one contains very few lines and each line
contains very few monuments per line. However, the reader should bear in mind that to give
concrete form to such lines it was necessary to build some of the most magnificent examples
of architecture ever produced by humanity.

The first - or 'Heliopolitan' - family is composed by axes which run straight from the pyramid's
fields of Abu Roash, Giza, and Abu-Gorab/Abusir to the Sun temple of Heliopolis, on the other
bank of the Nile (Section 2). Their principal meaning is, therefore, symbolic: they call attention
to a direct ascendance of the pharaohs from the Sun God. Interestingly, two of these lines
correspond to pyramids that had a 'stellar' name; further, Heliopolis (whose Egyptian name
was Iunu - pillar) besides being the most important religious center of that period, was a place
were astronomy was practiced. This raises the possibility that, further to the 'solar' character
of being oriented towards the Sun temple, these lines might also have a 'stellar' character, and
therefore that astronomy may have influenced the choice of the sites. Indeed, at the time of
the construction of the pyramids, all the azimuths of the pyramid's fields as seen from
Heliopolis can be associated to the setting of Decanal stars, i.e. those stars used to (ritually)
count the hours of the night.

The second family can be defined as 'quarter-cardinal' (Section 3). It probably originated as an
imitation of the most important of the Heliopolitan axes, that of Giza, which, besides being
aligned to Heliopolis, is directed along the north-east/south-west axis; this was also the
azimuth of the setting of the brightest part of the Milky Way during the pyramid age. Finally,
the third family is composed by 'meridian' (i.e. north-south) alignments (Section 3). Here, the
interplay between astronomy and power becomes even clearer. There is indeed no doubt that
astronomy was practiced in Egypt, at least at the site today called Nabta Playa, since the
Neolithic period, and therefore already in pre-dynastic times. Later in the age of the pyramids,
the planners of the king's monuments were skilled skywatchers. Determination of true north
using precise observations of stars' motion is indeed a key component of the architecture of
the pyramids from Meidum onward; in particular, the two giant pyramids of Giza were
oriented with an astonishing accuracy (3 arc minutes for Khufu and 6 arc minutes for Khafre).
Such an accuracy was probably obtained with nocturnal observations aimed at the transit of
'imperishable' stars, i.e. either circumpolar or, at any rate, sufficiently close to the north pole
to be visible every night of the year. Besides their practical function, these stars play a
fundamental role in the Pyramid Texts, i.e. those texts aimed to assure the 'rebirth' of the king
which are carved in the funerary chambers of all the 6th dynasty pyramids belonging to the
meridian family. As an example, a famous passage of these texts can be mentioned:'I will cross
to that side on which are the Imperishable Stars, that I may be among them' (Pyramid Texts
520, §1223).

In the present overview, I will thus put the accent on the astronomical-symbolical features of
such topographical choices, which were operational during the relatively short - about 300
years - 'Age of the Pyramids'. The main inspiring criteria were the sky, on the one hand, and
the pre-existing monuments - the 'dynastic' element - on the other. In spite of the existence of
persistent claims to the contrary in scores of 'fringe' books and websites, no 'pre-ordained' or
'universal' plan comes to light. I cannot stress strongly enough, therefore, that from the
comprehensive study I will briefly outline here, no 'hidden', arcane or esoteric legacy emerges
from the Architecture of the Old Kingdom; quite the reverse - as we shall see, the pharaohs
wished to make their ideas and the origins of their power as explicit and concrete as possible
in the planning of their funerary complexes."

"The 'Heliopolitan' Family

Topographical alignments first appear with the 4th dynasty at Giza. As mentioned above, the
'Giza axis' connects the south-east corners of the main pyramids (as well as other features,
such as the diagonal of the first subsidiary pyramid of Khufu). It points north-east (43° north of
east) towards the area where the temple of the sun of Heliopolis once stood, on the opposite
bank of the Nile. This area is quite far from Giza (about 24 km) and today there is no possibility
of seeing the pyramids from there. Yet a simple calculation shows that, in spite of earth's
curvature, a sign-post - say 20 meters tall - placed in Heliopolis would have been visible from
Giza, and of course the reverse was true for the pyramids when viewed from Heliopolis. Khufu
- the first king to choose Giza - must thus have wished to emphasize the importance of the
Heliopolitan temple. According to authoritative scholars such as Stadelmann and Hawass
Khufu depicted himself as the incarnation of the Sun God Ra. If this is true, then it appears
quite natural that his building location and those of his descendants were chosen in such a way
as to be visible from Heliopolis. In this way the kings could declare their 'affinity' with the Sun
God in their funerary complexes. Moreover, as a consequence of the alignment, when looking
from Heliopolis, the images of the Giza pyramids created a perspective effect, a sort of mirage:
they 'contracted' on each other, merging into that of the Great Pyramid. The axis was
therefore also meant to give a visual, explicit representation of the lineage of the subsequent
Pharaohs and thus of the divine ascendance of their power.

[A satellite image of the Giza pyramids with the Giza axis highlighted. 1-Pyramid of Khufu 2-
Pyramid of Khafre 3-Pyramid of Menkaure (image courtesy of Google Earth.]

A similar effect was present also at Abu Roash, a site some 5 km north of Giza, where Khufu's
son Djedefre built his pyramid. Indeed, the line which connects Heliopolis with Djedefre
pyramid's south-west corner crosses the south-west corner of a second Abu Roash pyramid
(Lepsius 1), which probably dates from between the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the
4th dynasties. The two pyramids thus form a 'Abu Roash axis' again pointing to Heliopolis.
 At the end of the 4th dynasty - around 2472 BC - a break in the funerary traditions occurred: in
fact Shepsekaf preferred to build a sort of giant Mastaba at Saqqara South. The monument
was located in an area quite far from both the two pre-existing necropolises of Saqqara and
Dashour, and its placement probably aimed at establishing a visual, perspective connection
with the two pre-existing pyramids of Snefru, Khufu's father.

The successor of Shepsekaf, Userkaf, devised a building program aimed at a return to old
traditions: to show his affinity with the 3rd dynasty he built his pyramid as close as possible to
that of Djoser in Saqqara. To demonstrate explicitly his connection with Heliopolis and the
'solarised kings', he chose to erect a completely new monument, the first of the so-called sun
temples, in Abu Gorab. Interestingly, the temple was constructed very near the southernmost
available point of the west bank of the Nile from which Heliopolis is still visible. With Userkaf's
successor, Sahure - whose name means 'Close to Re' - kingship definitively returned to the
solar tradition. The natural choice for Sahure's pyramid building site would surely have been
Giza, to the south west of Menkaure along the 'Giza axis'. However, building a pyramid
complex so far away in the desert would have been nonsensical. Thus, the architects had to
come up with a new way of allowing the monument of their king to fit in with both the solar
and the dynastic lineage. It has been suggested by the present author that this was the reason
for placing the pyramid in the first available location in the south of Giza from which Heliopolis
is not visible: Abusir, some 500 meters further south in relation to Abu Gorab. Approaching
Heliopolis from the north and looking west, an observer would indeed have seen the king's
pyramid - called 'Sahure's soul shines' - disappear on the horizon and merge with the profile of
the rocky outcrop today occupied by the Cairo citadel, while the shining golden apex of the
Userkaf sun temple remained in view, to testify to the solar character of the king's bloodline.

Once a new Necropolis had been inaugurated by Sahure at Abusir, the successors Neferirkare
and Neferefre aligned their pyramids in such a way as to create the 'Abusir axis' mentioned
above.

To summarize, then, the Heliopolitan axes are three ideal lines which, originating from
Heliopolis, align three clusters of pyramids: two pyramids at Abu Roash and three pyramids at
Giza and Abusir. A further line from Heliopolis can conveniently be traced up to the pyramid
field of Zawiet el Arian, where a huge but unfinished monument of the 4th dynasty -
supposedly belonging to an obscure king called Nebka - is located.

[To summarize, then, the Heliopolitan axes are three ideal lines which, originating from
Heliopolis, align three clusters of pyramids: two pyramids at Abu Roash and three pyramids at
Giza and Abusir. A further line from Heliopolis can conveniently be traced up to the pyramid
field of Zawiet el Arian, where a huge but unfinished monument of the 4th dynasty -
supposedly belonging to an obscure king called Nebka - is located.]

Each royal pyramid had a 'name' aimed at glorifying his owner, and two of the Heliopolitan
lines correspond to pyramids that had a 'stellar' name ('Djedefre is a shining star' and 'Nebka is
a star'). This raises the possibility that, further to the 'solar' character of being oriented
towards the Sun temple in Heliopolis (this topographical feature being certain and proved
without any doubt) these lines might also have a 'stellar' character, which may have influenced
the choice of the sites. Such 'stellar' alignments actually exist, although the reader must be
warned that the will of the builders in obtaining them is difficult to prove. Looking at the
azimuths of the pyramids from north to south as measured from Heliopolis, one can easily see
that they start with the azimuth of the winter solstice sunset (~26° south of west)
corresponding to the Abu Roash axis. This means that the Abu Roash axis acts as a boundary:
the sun can never be seen setting on any other pyramid from Heliopolis. At the time of the
construction of the pyramid, however, this azimuth was close also to that of the setting of
Sirius, the first of the Decans, the stars used for the (ritual) count of the hours of the night.
Actually, it turns out that all the azimuths of the pyramid's fields as seen from Heliopolis can all
be associated to the setting of Decanal stars, and that these stars had heliacal setting in
successive periods of the year. From north to south we have the following associations: Sirius-
Abu Roash, Rigil-Giza, Fomalhaut-Zawiet el Arian, Canopus-Abu Sir."

"The Inter-Cardinal Family

In the Age of the Pyramids the brightest part of the Milky Way - to which the star Rigil belongs
- set at azimuths close to 45° south of west (and accordingly, with a flat horizon, rose 45° south
of east). As a matter of fact, there exist in the pyramid fields several topographical axes aligned
closely to such 'inter-cardinal' directions; the Giza axis might be considered as the first
member of this family.

The first to inaugurate new quarter-cardinal axes was the 'solar' king Niuserre. He reigned
after Neferefre (the pyramid of the intermediate king Shepseskare has not been identified with
any degree of certainty), and so the place destined for him was to the south-west of Neferefre
along the Abusir axis, unquestionably too far off in the desert. Consequently, the planners of
his monument had to find another way to exhibit the lineage of the king and his solar
ascendance. The solution they came up with was to split the dynastic and the solar content
inaugurating two new, different axes. The king's pyramid is in fact located to the east side of
that of his father Neferirkare in such a way that a 'dynastic' line (oriented ~41° north of east)
connects the south-east corner of the pyramid with that of Neferefre to the south and of
Neferirkare to the north. In this way, the dynastic problem was solved; naturally, however, the
line does not point to Heliopolis. Perhaps it was for this very reason that Niuserre was inspired
to construct his own Sun Temple, located at Abu Gorab, north-west of the Userkaf's one and
therefore in plain view of Heliopolis. What remained to be done was to connect the project of
the temple with that of the funerary complex: to achieve this goal Niuserre's architects
planned the temple in such a way that another inter-cardinal axis (this time ~45° south of east)
connects the base of the obelisk of the temple, the south-east corner of Userkaf's temple and
the apex of the Niuserre pyramid. If the line is extended further to the north-west, it intersects
with the south-west corner of a 3rd dynasty pyramid in Zawiet el Arian and appears to end at
the centre of the unfinished pyramid in the same site (whether such an alignment was
deliberate or not is a moot point and requires further study).

Yet another 'quarter cardinal' axis was inaugurated with the project of king Unas, the last king
of the 5th dynasty. The pyramid of Unas is located near the south-west corner of the precinct
of Djoser's Step Pyramid, quite a distance from the Nile floodplain. The likely reason for this
inauspicious choice is symbolic: for in this way the king instituted a 'Saqqara axis'. The Saqqara
axis is again a line oriented roughly NE-SW (~39° east of north), which connects the south-east
corner of Userkaf's pyramid with the south-east corner of Djoser's pyramid and then crosses
over Unas' base diagonal, ending at the north-west corner of the (unfinished) 3rd dynasty
pyramid of Sekhemkhet. The result is that, after the building of Unas' monument, the
placement of the three pyramids of the Saqqara central field resembles that of the three
pyramids of Giza. Clearly, the axis does not point to Heliopolis, and therefore this similarity has
to be construed as an ideal relationship with the pre-existing Giza monuments, perhaps first
conceived of by Userkaf.

If extended north-west, the Saqqara axis touches the north west corner of Teti's pyramid. Teti
was Unas' successor, and therefore the 'natural' position for his pyramid would have been to
the south-west of Unas. For the third time, however, (after Menkaure at Giza and Neferefre at
Abusir), it proved impossible to place a new pyramid to the south west along an existing line,
and a new idea was needed. Teti evidently elected to put his pyramid 'at the beginning' of the
line. Probably to respect the 'dynastic' perspective of the pre-existing axis, it is the north-west
corner of the pyramid which lies on the line.

At Teti's death an obscure king called Userkare succeeded to the throne. We do not know
where it was planned to position Userkare's pyramid. His successors Pepi I, Merenre and Pepi
II chose an area to the south of the Saqqara central field, where there stood only the pyramid
of the 5th dynasty king Djedkare. The Merenre project was located to the south-west of Pepi I,
in such a way as to place the pyramid along the diagonal of the latter. We thus have a new
quarter-cardinal axis initiated at Saqqara south, oriented ~41° east of north and therefore
roughly parallel to the Saqqara one. The monument of Pepi II does not lie on this axis, though.
The 'natural' position of his pyramid to the south-west of Merenre would actually have been in
a wadi (dried river): building a pyramid there would have inadvisable. And so the king's tomb
was constructed to the immediate south of this area, near Shepsekaf's monument. To sum up
,then, the 'quarter-cardinal' family is made up of the Giza axis, the two Niuserre axes, the
Saqqara axis and the Pepi I-Merenre diagonal alignment."

"The Meridian Family

In the planning of the 6th dynasty pyramids a new kind of topographical pattern also emerges.
In fact, the positions of the three monuments appear to have been selected according to
'meridian' axes. Such lines run from south to north, in the sense that each new monument has
been constructed due south of an existing one. To be precise, the apex of Pepi I aligns with
that of Userkaf and the apex of Merenre aligns with that of Unas; furthermore, the apex of
Pepi II aligns with the apex of the last pyramid of the Saqqara axis, that of Sekhemkhet.
Curiously, the position in meridian alignment with the Djoser pyramid is vacant, and I have
therefore proposed that the - unfinished - monument of Userkare might still be lying under the
sand right there.

As discussed in the introduction, to interpret the meridian alignments it should be recalled

that determination of true north is a key component of the architecture of the pyramids. It
was probably carried out with nocturnal observations aimed at the transit of 'imperishable'
stars, i.e. those stars to which the 'rebirth' of the pharaoh is closely connected by the Pyramid
Texts. These invisible meridian lines crossing the desert and connecting pairs of monuments
are therefore, and again, clearly conceived in such a way to harmonize the human-built
landscape with the pre-existing one on the earth and with the sky above."

"The choice of the pyramid construction sites had to take various practical factors into
consideration. Nevertheless, at least in many cases, no one such practical factors can be
deemed decisive. In particular, three clamorous examples can be cited, where a different
mechanism, clearly of symbolic - as opposed to utilitarian - nature must have had a role. These
are the three pyramids which were constructed 'far in the desert' along south-west/north-east
axes, namely Menkaure at Giza, Neferefre at Abusir, Unas at Saqqara. A clear willingness is also
shown by the meridian alignments of the 6th dynasty pyramids with those of the Saqqara
central field.

Of course, the problem of the interpretation of these evidences in absence of specific, written
sources is actually doomed to remain, at least in part, at the speculative level. However, as
discussed at length in previous works, it can be backed up by a series of clues pointing to the
close relationship between astronomy and power during the Old Kingdom. A full discussion of
this topic requires a careful chronological analysis king after king and monument after
monument, and is given elsewhere. As a fundamental step, however, we can concur with the
Egyptologist George Goyon who observed that alignments between new and previously
constructed monuments where aimed to express connection to an ancestor or to sacred sites;
a similar viewpoint inspired Goedicke analysis of Saqqara. Further, the connection with the cult
of Ra, the Sun god, helps in explaining the fact that attention is called towards Heliopolis,
starting with Giza and therefore with the first 'solar' pharaoh, Khufu. Finally, it is worth
mentioning again the fundamental role played by the northern stars in the rebirth 'procedures'
described in the Pyramid Texts, which were written in the funerary chambers starting from
Unas and are present in all the 6th dynasty pyramids which are in meridian alignment with
those of the Saqqara central field.

The alignments discussed here were plainly visible in antiquity: each king chose his site and
planned his monument in accordance with pre-existing ones, with the aim of preserving the
cosmic order - Maat - in the sacred landscape where his embalmed body was to rest for
eternity. The pharaohs spelled out this message so plainly that, even though more than 4,300
years have passed, their burning desire to express their profound connection with their
ancestors in stone, and their hope to live forever amid the imperishable stars, can still be
clearly perceived today."

"The existence and willingness of the topographical alignments we have discussed in the
present paper is attested beyond any doubt. Most of them were repeatedly noticed since the
19th century and then documented in the authoritative surveys made by Egyptologists Mark
Lehner, Miroslav Verner and George Goyon at Giza, Abusir and Saqqara respectively. Further,
the present author has taken many direct measures, from which the data given in the text are
taken. On field measures have been taken with a precision magnetic compass and corrected
for magnetic declination. The nominal accuracy of the instrument is ½ °; magnetic anomalies
have not to be expected in Egypt, however it is perhaps safer to assume a precision of ±1°. All
data have also been cross-checked with topographical maps whenever available, and by using
the Google-earth program. The satellite mapping of Egypt and Nubia provided by this program
is quite accurate, to the point that a comprehensive archaeoastronomical research on the
Egyptian monuments of Sudan has been recently carried out using this program. Further, 3D
rendering distortion effects, which are the major source of errors for this program, are
negligible in the case of the flat-desert pyramids plateaus.

The possible astronomical alignments to Heliopolis proposed at the end of section 2 requires
instead a delicate discussion. First of all, it involves the problem of dating the monuments.
Indeed, of course, stellar alignments depend strongly on precession, while the precise dates of
construction are unknown. Actually, different chronologies may differ for as much as 80 years.
What has been done here is to take as a working framework one reliable chronology for the
Old Kingdom, that given by Baines and Malek. From such a chronology the dates of accession
of the king who 'inaugurated' the alignment were extracted, since pyramid construction likely
commenced immediately after accession (the king Nebka is not documented in the royal
annals, and therefore as a reference date 2500 BC has been assumed).

Then, the sky in correspondence of the alignments' azimuths were investigated around such
dates, searching for the setting of bright stars. Several effects have to be taken into account
here. First of all, the horizon, which is however flat from Abu Roash down to the azimuth of
Abu Gorab/Abusir, where the Cairo citadel blocks the view but also defines the last line of
visibility of interest here. Second, the atmospheric effects have to be taken into account to
estimate the minimal altitude of visibility. Refraction is negligible at Cairo latitude, while
extinction may have a considerable effect. This effect may vary in dependance of the value of
the visual extinction coefficient. In optimal conditions however, and considering only very
bright stars, extinction is negligible for stars with negative magnitudes and can be assumed
equal to 1° for stars with magnitude around 1."

Was There A Ptolemaic Revolution In Ancient Egyptian Astronomy? Souls, Stars & Cosmology
(Nicholas Campion):

"This paper will consider developments in astronomy in Hellenistic Egypt, during the Ptolemaic
period, applying a wider historiographical model, the concept of scientific revolutions. It
argues that the combination of traditional cultural-astronomical beliefs, such as the notion of
the soul's journey to the stars, with Greek and Mesopotamian concepts, led to the codification
of divinatory and theological models of the cosmos into two forms. These were, firstly, the
horoscope, which should be seen as a technology for analysing the soul's fate through the
disposition of the stars and planets and, secondly, the literature of the Corpus Hermeticum,
which may be considered as a technology for salvation from fate, enabling the soul to return to
the stars. These ideas were so important for subsequent developments in astronomy that,
following the notion of the 'Copernican Revolution', it will be suggested that we can refer to an
'Egyptian' or, more properly, a 'Ptolemaic Astronomical Revolution'. I make a distinction,
drawn from Mesopotamian astronomy, between mathematical astronomy and non-
mathematical astronomy. The paper summarises theories concerning Babylonian, Greek and
Egyptian notions of the soul and the stars in order to provide a foundation for the hypothesis.
My purpose is to draw a neglected area of the history of astronomy and encourage further
debate."

"Introduction: Astronomical Revolutions

The notion of an astronomical revolution, which was initiated with the publication of
Copernicus' De Revolutionibus in 1543 and concluded with the publication of Newton's
Principia in 1687, is an accepted part of the history of western science. The concept was put
into colourful prose by Colin Ronan, who wrote of the sixteenth century that 'We come now to
a period in which modern science was finally launched and set out on its unprecedented
voyage of conquest'. However, popular as the idea of the astronomical revolution is, its nature
has been seriously questioned, in a process initiated by Thomas Kuhn. Later detractors such
Kusukawa and Maclean wrote of the so-called 'astronomical revolution'', calling it 'an
historiographically somewhat dodgy concept'. The revisionists' primary objection is not to the
notion of change. Rather, they question two ideas often associated with revolutions: first, they
reject the concept of a complete break with the past and, second, they recognise profound
elements of philosophical continuity between pre- and post-revolutionary periods. For
example, in relation to the supposed revolution of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
Charles Webster does not challenge the innovatory consequences of Newton's cosmology, but
does argue that Newton's philosophy as a whole is better understood if the ideological
connections between his theories and those of sixteenth century Hermeticists and alchemists,
are accepted rather than ignored, the latter being the fashion amongst what Schaffer defined
as eighteenth and nineteenth century Newtonians. The recent volume by Osler therefore
retains the name and concept of the 'revolution', but reframes it as a complex, diverse
phenomenon. Osler wrote 'What we customarily refer to as science in the seventeenth century
was not a single thing, and neither was the Scientific Revolution'.

It is therefore necessary to appreciate that the use of the word revolution in relation to the
history of science is entirely different to its application to political upheavals. A revolution in
science does not therefore require the dramatic overthrow of an existing order as in a political
revolution, but rather a period of identifiable change which may last for a century or more, as
in the one-and-half centuries which separated the publication Copernicus' De Revolutionibus
of 1543, and concluded with Newton's Principia in 1687. Like political revolutions, though, a
scientific revolution may consist of different, not necessarily compatible, strands of inquiry.

The conclusion of such debates has been the recognition that there was not just one
'astronomical', or 'scientific' revolution in the history of science, but many, following Cohen's
redefinition of 'Scientific Revolution' as a generic rather than specific category.

The hypothesis presented in this paper is that, first, developments in non-mathematical

Ptolemaic astronomy were so substantial as to constitute the possible title of 'revolution' and,
second, that an important component of this revolution, namely the incorporation of a
transcendent soul into astronomy, was Egyptian in origin. In addition, the proposed revolution
was, to borrow terminology from Mesopotamian astronomy, not in works on mathematical
astronomy, but was in what is now recognised as non-mathematical astronomy. The
distinction between the two types of text was recognised by Neugebauer. David Brown
defined them as Mathematical Astronomical-Astronomical Texts (MAATs) and Non-
Mathematical Astronomical-Astronomical Texts (NMAATs), respetively. We can then refer to
non-mathematical astronomy-astrology as NMAA."

"The Mesopotamian Astronomical Revolution

The notion of an astronomical revolution, in Cohen's generic sense, has been applied to
Mesopotamian culture by David Brown. The dating, though, is even wider than that for the
European revolution, and cuneiform scholars locate the critical changes in a wide span of time
between the eighth century and the fourth centuries BCE. The period commenced with the
beginning of the systematic collation of astronomical omens in the Enuma Anu Enlil and the
collection both of eclipse data and of the astronomical, meteorological and economic
information which, Herman Hunger has argued, constituted an attempt to place astronomical
omenology onto an empirical basis. The conclusion of this Mesopotamian revolution included
the development of the birth-chart (the observation of astronomical patterns based on the
date of birth), and the invention of codified techniques for interpretation of these patterns
which no longer required direct observation of the sky. The Babylonian birth-charts are
conventionally known by the term horoscope.

The earliest two examples of the Babylonian horoscope genre are both dated to 410 BC,
followed by a third from 298 BCE, the gap of over a century indicating the shortage of
documentary sources. The interpretative component of the surviving examples is minimal but,
what there is, either in the texts themselves or in the supporting works, the so-called 'nativity
omens', does not indicate any concept of transcendent 'soul', only of relative good or bad
fortune. There is some slight indication of psychological qualities in the modern sense, in the
use of such terms as 'brave', but the overwhelming emphasis of the surviving texts is on
external matters."

"The Ptolemaic Astronomical Revolution

A scientific revolution may therefore build on the past and have significant connections with
it. Such continuity is, it will be argued, a principal characteristic of what I shall suggest, is the
Egyptian, or Ptolemaic, astronomical revolution of the last two centuries BCE in Hellenistic
Egypt. An essential feature of this period was the further codification of Babylonian omen-
astronomy. This codification took two forms. The first was the development of a complex
technical form, based on the Babylonian birth-chart, later known by the word horoscope, in
order to analyse astronomical meanings in terms of individual existence. The second was the
development of a theoretical system by which such destiny might be transcended. I call this
second form soteriological on the grounds that its purpose was salvation.

Greenbaum and Ross argue that Hellenistic astrology remained Greek in that Greek was its
language of transmission, yet consider that its application to individual destiny consisted of a
reworking of Mesopotamian practices to incorporate Egyptian traditions. The argument
developed in this paper is that these Egyptian traditions was less technical than metaphysical,
and that the Egyptian contribution to Hellenistic astronomy was focused on the inclusion of
the soul. It must be acknowledged that there is some debate concerning the relation between
Greek and Egyptian communities in Hellenistic Egypt. For example, Bingen observed that the
Greeks tended to prefer an urban, rather than a rural, environment. Bowman has argued that,
although the interaction between Greek and Egyptian in the period of Ptolemaic rule was
complex and, even though it was possible to identify each culture as distinct, there is also
evidence of considerable inter-action. Fowden concluded that such uncertainties introduce a
complication into our understanding of the relationship between Greek and Egyptian religion:
he noted that syncretism was encouraged by bi-lingual Egyptian priests translating their texts
into Greek on the one hand, yet Greek communities often remained resistant to Egyptian
customs on the other. Nevertheless, it is clear that there was considerable religious syncretism
and, for example, both Egyptians and Greeks appeared to agree on the identification of the
Egyptian god Thoth with the Greek Hermes."

"Mathematical Astronomy in the Ptolemaic Period

The accomplishments in mathematical astronomy in the Ptolemaic period are wellknown.

Notably, Eratosthenes (c.285/80-c.194 BCE), the second librarian at Alexandria measured, with
remarkable accuracy, the circumference of the earth, while Hypsicles (c. 190 BCE - c. 120 BCE)
is known for calculating the exact degree of the zodiac sign ascending over the eastern
horizon. While John Steele has argued that astronomy for its own sake did exist in the ancient
near east in the later first millennium BCE, generally it was designed to serve practical
functions, whether navigation, calculation of the calendar or the identification of divine
intentions, as in Mesopotamian omen-astronomy. The concern of this paper is with the latter,
with NMAA in Brown's typology."

"Non-Mathematical Astronomy in the Ptolemaic Period

The concept of the Ptolemaic revolution depends, as already stated, on two applications of
non-mathematical astronomical technology in Ptolemaic Egypt, for both of which I will use the
word [...], or techné, in its Hellenistic form, meaning craft. The first of these is the horoscope,
technically the rising degree of the zodiac, but in a looser sense, a birthchart, in which the
rising degree plays a critical role in interpretation. In relation to the use of the word techné,
Claudius Ptolemy, in post-Ptolemaic second century CE Alexandria, referred to what would
now be called astrology, but which he described as the analysis of astronomical effects, as a
stochastic techné, that is, a craft dealing with probability and conjecture. The second
astronomical techné which was documented in Ptolemaic Egypt, was the soteriological form
which was designed to prepare the soul for its journey to the stars, and found its textual
expression in the body of literature known as the Corpus Hermeticum. The astronomical texts
were produced in Hellenistic Egypt in both genres were designed to serve the existential needs
of the individual should be classed, and so should be classed as NMAATs.

The use of the word 'astrology' to describe Ptolemy's work in the Tetrabiblos can be seen as
anachronistic; he himself did not use it. The words astronomy and astrology were not firmly
distinguished until the seventeenth century. In the thirteenth century Thomas Aquinas
referred to astrologers as astronomers while in the early seventeenth century Shakespeare, in
King Lear I.2, used the term 'sectary astronomical'. Nevertheless, astrology is the term in
common use, so we must use it. I shall also use the term omen-astronomy, though, in order to
reinforce the point that a prime function of astronomy was the reading of warnings in the sky.
Whatever the terms we use, it has been argued elsewhere that the final purpose of Ptolemy's
astronomy was not the measurement of celestial positions, but the analysis of the soul's
incarnation in flesh and this, it is argued further, was a concern which arises out of millennia of
Egyptian theology.

Both Hellenistic astrological genres, horoscopic and soteriological, were to be central to the
practice of astrology in medieval and Renaissance Europe, a cultural phenomenon which
reached a crisis during the scientific revolution, to use the phase, of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries."

"Egyptian Astronomy

From Mesopotamia, let us turn to the question of the Egyptian contribution to astronomy.
The Egyptians possessed an extraordinarily rich astral theology in which the entire universe
was a single 'cosmic state', a term adapted from Thorkild Jacobsen's analysis of political
astronomy in Mesopotamia, in which the function of astronomy was to assist in the mutual
harmonisation of celestial and terrestrial realms. However, the Egyptian contribution to
astronomy tends to be underplayed, largely due to Neugebauer's denial that the Egyptians
possessed an exact mathematical astronomy. Neugebauer's statement has permeated the
literature on Egyptian culture. For example Lloyd has nothing to say about astronomy in the
Ptolemaic period. Neither do recent general texts such as that by Bingen. Taub has identified
the problem and proposed that due attention be paid to Hellenistic Egyptian astronoy owm its
own terms.

The sources for Egyptian cosmology in the wider sense describe a world in which there was a
belief in a universal order, in which the human relationship with the cosmos was essentially
participatory and spiritual. The cosmos was also moral, the evidence for which, as Wilson
pointed out, is found in the belief in the judgment of the dead. The primary task of Egyptian
astronomy, though, was regulation of, and harmonisation of the state with, the sacred
calendar, timing religious rituals precisely according to, for example, the rising of the sun or of
particular stars. Egyptian astronomy was primarily observational in practice and religious in
intent: the motions of the stars were the movements of the gods and goddesses: by watching
the sky the priests were both the observers of a divine drama - and, through their rituals -
active participants in it. Of equal importance is the persistent, almost obsessive role, played by
the rituals surrounding death and the soul's subsequent fortunes, in Egyptian religion."

"The Soul in Egypt

The literature on the Egyptian soul is complex, perhaps because the texts on which it is based,
such as the Book of the Dead, are vague, impressionistic and concerned with general varieties
of experience rather than with precise ontological classifications. In general, the soul in Egypt
should be seen as a form of animating 'life-force'. It was divided into various forms but we
should not imagine that these are necessarily entirely distinct. Nevertheless the ren is an
individual's name, the sheut their shadow and the ib the heart. However, while ka is often
translated as spirit, it is the ba which is normally considered to most closely resemble 'soul'.
The distinction is a fine one and, whereas the ka, as a universal life-force, leaves the body at
death, it is the ba which possesses some chance of transcendental immortality. The ba is
sometimes said to be responsible for human individuality, and is described by Smith as the
'whole person', but also the part of the individual which enables travel between the earth and
the sky.

There is a persistent argument that initially, in the Old Kingdom, only the king, god and
goddesses possessed a ba, and that, as Morenz argued, the 'concept of heaven... was at first
accessible only the deceased king, but then, either late in the Old Kingdom, or in the New
Kingdom, became 'democratrized' as it were, and opened up to commoners'. Questions of
chronology aside, there is a general assumption that, by the New Kingdom, there was an
assumption that there was an immortal soul which might journey to a celestial afterlife.
However, this hypothesis is questioned by Mark Smith, who argues that the ba, with its ability
to reach a celestial heaven, was always accessible to commoners. There has been some
discussion of whether the ba resembled other ancient concepts of soul. Stilwell claims that it is
not the same as the Platonic soul. Zabkar has cautioned against an identification of the ba with
the Christian soul in the grounds that what the modern west (but not the ancient Egyptians)
would regard as inanimate objects, could also possess ba. Such niceties, though, are less
important than the observation that the ba was immortal and might go where it liked,
including the stars.

Some commentators have traced an evolution in the Egyptian astral afterlife arguing, for
example, that an early belief that the soul dwelt amongst the circumpolar stars was replaced in
the Pyramid age by the notion that it joined the sun. However, for the current argument, the
important consideration is confirmation of the soul's ability to travel to the stars.

The Pyramid Texts, which first occur in the fifth dynasty pyramids, indicate that the king
mounted to heaven on the rays of the sun. For example, Pyramid Text Utterance 508 reads 'I
have trodden those thy rays as a ramp under my feet whereon I mount up to that my mother,
the living Uraeus on the brow of Re' and Utterance 523 tells us that 'May the sky make the
sunlight strong for you, may you rise up to the sky as the Eye of Re'.

The ascent to heaven was associated with the cosmology of Heliopolis, and are a counterpart
to Osiris' dominion over the dead. There is, though, some debate as to the whereabouts of
heaven, or the realm of the dead, due to the variable meanings of the duat, which generally
belongs to the upper regions, but can mean 'twilight zone' or 'nocturnal sky'. There is little
specific about the destination of the soul except for generalised instructions as in the tomb of
one of daughters of the pharaoh Akhenaten, that the ba will 'view the sun and move freely
among the 'lords of eternity'. That said, the ba of the god Amon was in heaven, while his body
in the realm of the dead and his image in the temple, and heaven was raised high for the ba of
Osiris. The pyramid texts talk of the double-doors of heaven opening, and Nut instructs the
king to 'open up your place in the sky among the stars of the sky, for you are the Lone star'.
The ba of the God and the ba of the king both belonged in the sky. But there was also a
descent: the ba of the god may descend from heaven and enter its image.

However, such debates on the antiquity of the idea of the ba as a property of any individual,
or the location of heaven, are less important to the current argument than the Egyptians'
acceptance, well before the rise of classical Greek culture, that a general property of being
human was possession of a soul which could travel between earth and stars."
"The Soul in Mesopotamia

In contrast the Mesopotamians, who had such a decisive influence on the astronomy of
Hellenistic Egypt, appear to have been unconcerned with any concept of an immortal soul. In
their cosmology humanity was made out of matter, flesh and bone, completely different in
nature to the intangible, immaterial beings, the gods and goddesses. True, the evidence of the
story of Inanna's descent to the underworld in search of her dead lover, Dumuzi, suggests the
possibility of survival after death, and there is some evidence of the possibility of an ascent to
the sky in the Gilgamesh epic. There is also some scholarly speculation that the
Mesopotamians might have had a concept of a soul, but the discussion is vague and
unconvincing. In addition, in complete contrast to Egypt, notions of immortality feature little in
both myth and ritual (with the exception of the annual re-enactment of Dumuzi's resurrection)
and the prevailing Mesopotamian attitude to death was essentially pragmatic: one lives, then
one dies. The current evidence indicates that no concern with an invisible, transcendent soul
was transferred to Egypt with Babylonian astrology."

"The Soul in Classical Greece

The third component of Ptolemaic NMAA, along with the Egyptian and Babylonian, was Greek.
While the notion of a transcendent soul which can survive the body and travel to the stars, was
central to Greek philosophy from the fifth century BCE onwards, evidence from the eighth
century BCE indicates that the earlier Greek version of survival after death was somewhat
different. The Homeric personality was made up of different entities, the body soul, or souls,
active when a person is awake, and the free soul, active after a loss of consciousness or death;
the psyche was generally the breath of life that escaped at death and went to Hades. The
account of Odysseus's visit to Hades in Homer's Odyssey suggests that the standard model in
the eighth century BCE held that the psyche survived in a miserable troglodytic condition in the
ground; the Homeric soul had nothing to look forward to except an eternity bound to the
earth.

The notion of a transcendent soul is thought to have appeared in Greek culture via
Pythagorean and Orphic teachings, perhaps in the sixth century BCE. The substantial literary
evidence, however, dates only the early fourth century: Plato claimed that 'certain priests'
believed in transmigration of souls. Such details aside, the point is that the concept does not
appear in the major works of classical literature, those of Hesiod and Homer in the eighth
century BCE, so was introduced sometime between then and the fourth century, from when
the first literary records survive.

The concept of a transcendental soul was, then, to be fundamental to Greek cosmology from
the fifth century BCE onwards, and in western cosmology until the seventeenth century. This
was largely as a result of the influence of Plato, together with Aristotle, both of whom
emphasised the soul's immortality and relationship with the stars. Plato divided the soul's
functions into three, one of which dealt with the body, one the emotions and the other, the
rational soul, with access to divine wisdom, and taught that each soul is connected with a star
and that, as outlined in the so-called Myth of Er, that it descends from the sphere of the stars
at birth, returning via the planetary spheres after death. Like the ba, Plato's rational soul was
immortal, transcendent and could travel between earth and stars.
 In general, unlike Plato, Aristotle argued that the soul died with the body, but he allowed for
one part, later known as the Active Intellect, to be immortal. Aristotle himself did not
specifically relate the soul to the stars but did describe a cosmos in which the whole terrestrial
realm was animated and moved by the stars in their role as 'secondary' causes. In each case,
mainly in the Platonic, but to a lesser extent in the Aristotelian, soul is an integral part of the
nature and function of the cosmos, and is therefore of vital importance for an understanding
of the history of astronomy.

The Greek soul possessed certain similarities to the Egyptian, along with differences. Both
cultures possessed the concept of the weighing of the soul and a leader of souls. Stilwell's
argument that the notion of the Orphic- Platonic soul as imprisoned in a corrupt body would
have been abhorent to the Egyptians, with their reverence for the body, is initially persuasive,
but not if the Platonists regarded the body more as the protector of the soul than its gaolor.
Was the Greek Belief in an Immortal Soul Borrowed from Egypt?

The question, in view of the lack of evidence for its existence in the eighth century, is whether
the Greek belief in a transcendent soul was indigenous or imported. The strongest testimony
for an imported origin is Herodotus' view, regarded as controversial by many scholars, that the
belief in an immortal soul was imported into Greece from Egypt. The Egyptians, Herodotus
wrote, 'were... the first people to put forward the doctrine of the immortality of the soul'. A
series of modern scholars have lined up to claim that Herodotus must be wrong, in spite of his
claims, perhaps that he never even visited Egypt in order to obtain such first-hand testimony.
Zabkar used Herodotus' apparent lack of familiarity with certain complexities of Egyptian
beliefs on the afterlife to shed doubt on his account. Some scholars, such as Guthrie, who
discussed the possible role of Herodotus as a bridge between Egyptian and Orphic beliefs,
remain neutral. Jane Harrison took a middle way, arguing that the Greeks 'need not have
borrowed [the immortality of the soul] from Egypt, and yet it is probable that the influence of
Egypt... helped out the doctrine'. Others have dismissed the doubters, including Thomas
McEvilley, who is both sceptical of such arguments and regards them as an attempt to
preserve Greek purity from oriental pollution.

Contrary to Zabkar, Herodotus did not need to understand the details of Egyptian
classifications of the soul, and neither did any Greeks, in order for them to have been inspired
by Egyptian notions of immortality; much could have been lost in the process of borrowing. As
far as the eastern Mediterranean is concerned, then, a strong argument can be made that the
idea of an immortal, transcendent soul, originated in Egypt. A similar controversy surround the
Eleusinian mysteries, with some scholars claiming they are 'Egyptian by execution and
intention' as Stilwell put it, others denying it. Such arguments can be understood through
Pingree's concept of Hellenophilia, love of all things Greek, which holds that no worthwhile
feature of Greek culture could have been the result of foreign influence. Thus, in Pingree's
modl, critics of Herodotus' claim do so on a priori grounds, and offer neither evidence for their
scepticism, nor alternative explanation for the development of the Greek idea of a
transcendent soul."

"Hellenistic Non-Mathematical Astronomy

 The extensive influence of Babylonian mathematical astronomy on Greek is not open to
doubt, and has been well argued by Otto Neugebauer and, more recently by Alexander Jones
and Pingree. Babylonian astrology began to penetrate Greek culture in the fifth and fourth
centuries BCE, and the earliest explicit, and very brief discussion of it, was Plato's in the
Timaeus, composed around 360 BCE. The earliest surviving possible documentary evidence of
Greek use of astrology actually dates from half a century later; a cuneiform birth chart cast for
an infant named Aristokrates, who was born on the morning of 3 June 235 BC. The formal
teaching of Babylonian omen-astronomy to Greeks was initiated sometime around, or shortly
after, 300 BCE, when Berossus, a priest of Bel, or Marduk (the Babylonian Jupiter), established
a school on the Aegean island of Kos, the site both of Hippocrates' medical school and the
Asclepion, a healing sanctuary sacred to Asclepios, son of Apollo. Politically, Kos had been
organised as part of the 'Islander's league', a federation of Aegean islands, by Antigonos
Monophthalmos in 315/314 BCE, but came under the control of the Ptolemaic kings of Egypt
by 'the late 290's or early 280's'. Berossus' school, therefore, was both based in a historic
centre of learning and directly tied to the emerging intellectual hub in Egypt.

The evidence suggests that Babylon remained a centre of activity and innovation until the first
century. Yet the focus of astronomical innovation shifted to Alexandria in the second century
BCE. The familiar reason was the creation of the great library of Alexandria, a project initiated
by Ptolemy I (323-283), and fully operational under his son, Ptolemy II (283-246). The
coincidence of timing between the library's foundation and Berossus' arrival on Kos may itself
be significant. The library's first superintendent was Zenodotus, himself a student of the
scholar and poet Philetas of Kos (c. 340-285 BCE), tutor to the young prince, the future
Ptolemy II. It made sense for there to be close connections between Kos and Alexandria, and
hence a possible direct channel of omen-astronomy material to Alexandria. There is certain
evidence for this assumption, or for other direct channels from Babylon to Alexandria. For
example, Hypsicles' work was derived from Babylonian systems which had themselves been
wellestablished by the previous century, even though he did not acknowledge Babylonian
astronomers in his text, the Anaphorikos.

Berossus' mission to the Greek world met with a receptive audience. According to later
accounts Theophrastus (c.370-c. 285 BCE) the head of Aristotle's school, apparently admired
his skill in predicting the weather and both public and private affairs. The literary result of
Berossus' teaching was the beginning of the composition of astrological manuals in Greek, all
of which are now lost. The astrological work apparently written by Hipparchus (c.190-c.126
BCE) has disappeared without trace, although it was used up to the fourth century CE, at least.
The five books on divination written by the Stoic Posidonius (c.135-50 BCE), who is credited
with taking astrology to Rome, have also been lost. The critical developments, then, in the
development of western astrology occurred in Hellenistic Egypt between Berossus' move to
Kos and the composition of the extant first and second century CE texts by Manilius, Valens,
Dorotheus and Ptolemy, and it is these which linked the Babylonian original to the full-fledged
classical version. It is accepted that the astrology which is known from the classical world, from
the 1st c CE onwards, took place in Hellenistic Egypt. The most significant texts of these texts,
though, like those of Hipparchus and Posidonius, are lost and known only in fragments.
 The first was a lost work attributed to the seventh century BCE pharaoh Nechepso and the
fourth century priest Petosiris, but now assumed to have been composed sometime around
150 BCE. Another work, consisting of a series of 72 images, is only known by its name, the
Salmeschoiniaka, a word which may be translated roughly as 'Pictures', or 'Images', or 'Images
of the Seal Bearers'. Greenbaum and Ross are prepared to date Nechepso-Petosiris to the
seventh century BCE, but the technical development of the horoscope/birth-chart would still
fall in the third or fourth centuries BCE at the earliest, as the origination of the form in Babylon
in the fifth century BCE is not questioned."

"Soteriological Astronomy in Ptolemaic Egypt

While the technical manuals of Ptolemaic omen astronomy are lost, the Corpus Hermeticum,
the literary origins of which, like Nechepso-Petosiris and the Salmeschoiniaka, in the second
century BCE, survived intact: Fowden) argues that the earliest Hermetic texts were 'in
circulation in the first century BC, and perhaps earlier'. It's in these texts that we find for the
first time a detailed codification of the overt and persistent concern with the soul and its
return to the stars which lay at the heart of much Greek cosmology, especially those schools
influenced by Plato. The divine powers which bind the Hermetic cosmos together may be
spoken of in terms of light and derived from the sun, together with the less celestial bodies,
the planets and stars. Thus, in Hermetic philosophy, everything is in God, he is in everything
and the sun is the primary vehicle for the transmission of his divine intent to the earth. In the
words of the first century Roman natural philosopher, Pliny the Elder, the Sun is 'the soul, or
more precisely the mind, of the whole world... glorious and pre-eminent, all-seeing and even
all-hearing'. Hermeticism's abiding concern with the sun's role as the spiritual centre of the
cosmos, and with the soul's ascent to the stars represented, in turn, a structural description of
the cosmos and a profound view of its function; to facilitate the soul's return to its celestial
home. The universe was structured in three main divisions. There was one supreme God, the
'Father of all', the supreme creator who, 'in making all things, makes himself'. From God the
entire universe emanated first the 'intelligible' world of ideas and then the 'sensible' world -
the material, visible world accessible to our senses. God's benevolent powers flow through
these worlds to the sun, the Demiurge ('craftsman'), the creator of our world, 'a mighty deity...
who is posted in the midst of the universe and watches over all things done on earth by men'
without whom there would be no physical life. The Demiurge then operated through the
Kosmos, the eight spheres on which the stars and planets rotated, the planet-gods and the
daemons they ruled. Men were, in turn subject to the daemons, 'who mould all things on
earth'.

This left humanity in an ambivalent position, both distant from God and separated from him
by the daemons and planet-gods, yet, in that everything that God makes is itself God, all
creation is an inseparable part of him. This problem of simultaneous intimacy and alienation
was resolved by the simple formula that it is the physical body, together with those parts of
the soul which are subject to physical desires, that are dominated by daemons and gods.
Meanwhile, the rational soul, if the individual makes the right choices, is in direct contact with
God. Elaborating Plato's Myth of Er, the Corpus Hermeticum relates how,
 The planets replace one another from moment to moment; they do not go on working
without change, but succeed one another in rotation. These daemons then make their way
through the body, and enter the two irrational parts of the soul; and each daemon perverts
the soul in a different way, according to his special mode of action. But the rational part of the
soul remains free from the dominion of the daemons, and fit to receive God in itself. If then
the rational part of a man's soul is illumined by a ray of light from God, for that [in] man the
working of the daemons is brought to nought; for no daemon and no god has power against a
single ray of the light of God.

This passage, whose message is mirrored elsewhere throughout the rest of the Hermetic
texts, is of absolutely critical importance in the development of western cosmology. Plato's
benevolent daemons are converted into the malicious demons of Christianity. The planets
occupy a double role. On the one hand, through their responsibility for the daemons, they are
co-opted into the essentially oppressive system and release, via the rational soul, is only
possible through the light of God. On the other, in that they surround the sun, through which
God's light is transmitted, they partake in his glory.

Hermeticism offered an essentially Platonic path to salvation, recognising the inner divine and
the possibility of a return to the Light via the planetary spheres; the Pharaonic ascent to the
stars was now structured via the nested planetary spheres of Platonic cosmology. The
emphasis was on active engagement with the cosmos. The set of instructions by which
salvation might be achieved were quite explicit; the devotee was told: look 'at what you
yourself have in you; for in you too, the word is son, and the mind is father of the word... now
fix your thought upon the Light... and learn to know it'. Such statements are reminiscent of the
Pharaoh's ascent to the sun. Further, 'He who has recognised himself', that is, acknowledged
the divinity within, then 'enters into the Good'. The key to cosmological salvation lay in self-
understanding. However, it seems that not everyone was capable of achieving self-knowledge
which is why, the twin technologies of horoscopic interpretation and Hermetic salvation
theology; the former identified one's current destiny, the latter enabled one to act to
transcend or escape it.

For those virtuous individuals who are blessed with Nous (divine reason) the way back to God
is through the planetary spheres. The soul's shedding of seven human qualities at each
planetary sphere may be the origin of the seven cardinal sins. At any rate, at each one, the
vices associated with that planet are shed, in a pastiche of Inanna's shedding of her jewellery
and clothing on her descent to the underworld. As the soul passes the moon it sheds growth
and decay, Mercury trickery, Venus deceit, the sun the qualities of being a ruler, Mars daring
and recklessness, Jupiter greed and Saturn falsehood. At the eighth sphere, that of the stars,
the soul beings to praise God, and is encouraged by the sound of voices from the higher levels.
Finally the soul ascends to God and, in the logical climax of Platonic theology, it is reunited
with God. In fact, it becomes God."

"The Horoscopic Texts

The rules underlying the horoscopic texts themselves are highly technical and, as recorded in
the extant classical texts of the first and second centuries, are apparently concerned with
externals such as one's parents. However, the apparent overwhelming concern with the
mundane details of daily life should not be taken at face value. Rather the notion of such
externals as the outer manifestation of the soul's current incarnation is a given. For example,
Vettius Valens (120-c.175), who may have been from Syria but studied in Egypt, opened his the
entire work with the explicitly Hermetic statement that 'The all-seeing Sun, then, being truly
fire-like (is) the light of the mind, the organ of perception of the soul'. The apparently trivial
and highly detailed interpretations of the significance of astronomical motion in individual life
can therefore only be understood within a context in which the Hermetic concept of an
ensouled, spiritually heliocentric cosmos, is taken for granted.

One of the most influential of the early classical astrological authors, Claudius Ptolemy,
attempted to locate the soul's relationship with the stars in two of his works, the Harmonics
and the Tetrabiblos, providing the philosophical motive and context for his, to historians of
astronomy, better known work in the Almagest. If we turn to the Tetrabiblos we find the
following statement, intended to allow the astronomer to identify the condition of the soul,
using Plato's classification into rational and emotional, in each individual by working the
planetary positions from their time, date and place of birth: 'Of the qualities of the soul, those
which concern the reason and the mind are apprehended by means of the condition of
Mercury... and the qualities of the sensory and irrational part are discovered from the one of
the luminaries which is the more corporeal, that is, the moon'. Ptolemy's concern was partly
with the horoscopic techné, but he was also partly inspired by notions of the ascent to the
stars, 'Mortal as I am', he wrote, 'I know that I am born for a day, but when I follow the serried
multitude of the stars in their circular course, my feet no longer touch the earth; I ascend to
Zeus himself to feast me on ambrosia, the food of the gods'."

"There has been, in recent years, a tendency to re-evaluate the Egyptian contribution to
astrology. Conman has argued for an Old Kingdom origin of the Babylonian bit nisirti,
significant zodiacal locations for the planets. Bohleke is cautious but nevertheless insistent in
developing the debate, arguing that 'if not the originator of horoscopic astrology, Egypt
developed the craft into an art, having a significant effect on the Roman world'. He notes that
Ptolemaic Egypt witnessed 'a concerted attempt to translate Egyptian texts into Greek',
incorporating indigenous wisdom into the Hellenistic worldview. Greenbaum and Ross argue
for a combination of Egyptian and Babylonian input into the astrology of Hellenistic Egypt, but
nevertheless emphasise the Egyptian contribution more than has often been the case.

The argument for the indigenous Egyptian contribution to astronomy is based partly on the
syncretism which occurred during the Hellenistic period, in which Greek and Babylonian
contributions were combined with Greek. However, if a substantial contribution from Greece
was a refined notion of the relationship between and immortal soul and the stars, and if this
concept was borrowed from Egypt sometime between the eight and fourth centuries BCE, the
Egyptian contribution is seen to be far more significant.

Herodotus' claim that the Greeks borrowed notions of the immortality of the soul from Egypt
are unconfirmed but persuasive, even if they were combined with theories that the Greeks
themselves were developing. Theories of the soul's ascent to the stars were refined by Plato
and Aristotle and re-exported to Egypt in the Ptolemaic period. We may therefore argue that
there were two routes for Egyptian concepts of the soul to enter Ptolemaic astronomy, both
directly and via classical Greece.

The Babylonians had prepared the schematic foundation for the horoscopic techné, but their
concern was purely with material fortune in this life; the concern with the soul was a Ptolemaic
contribution. The horoscopic texts themselves are highly technical but, as both Valens and
Ptolemy make clear, the apparent overwhelming concern with the mundane details of daily life
should not be taken at face value. Rather, the notion of such externals as the outer
manifestation of the soul's current incarnation is a given.

The Babylonians had prepared the schematic foundation for the horoscopic techné, but their
concern was purely with material fortune in this life; the concern with the soul was a Ptolemaic
contribution. The horoscopic texts themselves are highly technical but, as both Valens and
Ptolemy make clear, the apparent overwhelming concern with the mundane details of daily life
should not be taken at face value. Rather, the notion of such externals as the outer
manifestation of the soul's current incarnation is a given."

Ancient Cosmologies: Understanding Ancient Skywatchers, Mayas, And Their Worldviews

(Stanislaw Iwaniszewski):

"Ancient and pre-modern worldviews of the cosmos originated in practical lifeworld structures
and experiences and therefore cannot be analyzed in the same manner as modern
cosmologies are. Being embedded in everyday activities, worldview categories received
ontological statuses, in contrast to socially and culturally disembedded cosmologies relying on
specific epistemological frameworks. Uaxactunian Group E astronomical alignments are
discussed to show that both approaches, the ontological and epistemological ones are equally
important within the cultural astronomical paradigm."

"Since the beginning of humankind, the fascination with the celestial vault has been regarded
as an important element in human life, their future, and history. Regularities in the perceived
motions of celestial objects provided the necessary context upon which specific cultural
patterns were created to regulate human activities. The correlation of terrestrial and celestial
events and processes allowed peoples around the world to move both in space and time and
to plan and make predictions with accuracy. Skywatching was associated with calendar making
and homogenous time reckoning, freeing humankind from the regime of irregular and
unpredictable fluctuations of different environmental cycles, such as when to plant or harvest
and the migratory patterns of animals. In addition, the order either perceived in the sky or
imposed by the rotating heavens, gave the structure to the ways with which peoples perceived
their realm as a structurally ordered entity, so they conceptually organized the universe in the
form of cosmographies, worldviews, and cosmologies."

"THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: FROM LIFEWORLD TO WORLDVIEW

 Generations of stargazers and skywatchers carefully tracked the motions of celestial objects in
order to understand how to conduct the affairs of human life on earth. From the starry sky,
and from naked eye observations, they gained practical knowledge of their natural
environment transforming physical surroundings into meaningful lifeworlds, or 'familiar worlds
of everyday life'. The celestial phenomena perceived in the sky were rendered as meaningful
and socially relevant and like all other components of human lifeworld, were understood or
interpreted within the specific conceptual framework based on taken-for-granted or common-
sense categories. Lifeworld structures enabled human societies to interact more effectively
with their environment and to shape their worldviews, or 'culturally organized systems of
knowledge'.

The notion of lifeworld evokes the description of an environment in terms of meaningful

patterns that are relevant within the context of some activity. Viewed from this perspective,
activities such as skywatching and stargazing should to be articulated within all other human
activities performed in order to perceive, explain and/or interpret the world around it.
Phenomenological notions of 'being-in-the-world' proposed by Ingold imply that celestial lore,
like other types of cultural knowledge, is acquired, altered, represented and shared in the
process of dwelling-in-the-world. Since acting in the environment is the peoples' way of
knowing it, then the different worldview categories should be embodied in their practical
engagement with the world, in their practical actions, functional uses, symbolic
representations, and the collective and shared acting in-the-world. It may be expected that the
celestial lore was instrumental in creating people's structural relationship to their lifeworld
(and after world), and was embodied in their daily activities, and ritual practices, in the
negotiation of social roles and in symbolic representations and classifications of the world and
the rules which governed the heavens. Celestial patterns were explained in terms of the same
conceptual categories as those relating to the human body and its functions, to the house and
its elements, to the village and its parts, etc. (such as the notions of male, female, right, left,
top, bottom, light, darkness, and the like). Ancient celestial lore often relied on existential
(ontological, embedded, local) rather than logic (epistemological, universal) meanings, though
this was not always the case in all ancient societies.

In contrast to modern cosmologies, ancient conventional worldviews were not always abstract
and formalized bodies of specialized knowledge subjected to systematical examination and
testing supported by reason and logic; though there are notable exception (e.g. ancient India,
Egypt, Babylon). Furthermore, because of not being separated from everyday activities,
ancient worldviews were not always able to transcend specific cultural and social barriers.
Rather, they were often embedded in lifeworld structures, in people's social frameworks and
practical actions.

When it comes to the ancient conventional celestial lore, a good deal of the interpretation of
the motions perceived in the sky was made in terms of taken-for-granted and familiar
categories. Prehistoric and non Western peoples often conceived their lifeworld as an
extension of their own bodies, so when they observed the sky, the perceived patterns were
often explained in terms of metaphors, analogies and symbols derived from the conceptual
systems grounded in the familiar events, processes and objects that were present in everyday
life. It must be recognized, of course, that many ancient cosmologists guarded their wisdom,
and often communicated that knowledge through metaphors; and not uncommonly these
simplified concepts were communicated to the people in terms they could most easily
understand and apply to their own lives and that of their rulers.

Relationships between significant parts of their lifeworld were often represented in mythical
narratives, and emphasized and transmitted through cyclic rituals and recurrent practices,
leading to the idea of converting patterns perceived in the sky into effective tools for
understanding the world.

This needs to be emphasized because some astronomers, in their eagerness to describe the
ancient roots of their discipline sometimes define astronomy as the oldest of all sciences.
Needless to say, historians of science usually define the observations made either by
prehistoric skywatchers or by ancient astronomer-priests as insufficiently scientific at most.
However, these claims are also based on the evidence available, and not that which may have
been destroyed, lost, or purposefully disguised so that this knowledge was shared only among
the ancient scientific elite.

Naturally, the differences between ancient skywatching and modern astronomy may be
studied from different standpoints, but the enormous intellectual gap that emerged in 16th-
17th centuries in Europe, separated these two domains of human knowledge forever. The
modern astronomy that was born of the Copernican Revolution and Galilean geometrical
space was not a natural continuation of ancient pre-telescopic astronomy, as is often
supposed, but involved a systematic repudiation and almost a total abandonment of an earlier
celestial lore. The rise of modern astronomy, symbolized by the declaration of the
International Year of Astronomy, constituted a revolutionary change in peoples' approach to
understanding the world; for the first time scientific explanation had little to do with
commonsense or taken-for-granted statements.

This last fact has a tremendous impact on cultural astronomical studies. It is misleading to
think of the practices of sunwatching or stargazing in terms of fixed bodies of knowledge
consisting of systematic observations in the same way as today we think of modern science.
Furthermore, the attitudes like presentism or whiggism that enable some astronomers to
claim or deny that ancient skywatchers were behaving like modern astronomers, tend to
ignore the social and cultural context within which they acted. Celestial lore is a culture-
dependant phenomenon, so the knowledge of context is absolutely critical to modern
interpretations as it puts limits to the extent of scientific analysis. It is important to distinguish
between scientific inquiry that satisfies human need for explaining or interpreting the world in
rational and logic terms from the human spirit of inquiry, a kind of human intellectual response
to the need of living a life within the meaningful and understandable lifeworld. In attempts to
avoid any interpretative pitfalls resulting from the ethnocentric attitudes, celestial lore and
astronomical observations should be should be elicited within the context they functioned."

"The so-called Group E architectural complex from Uaxactun, Guatemala, has often been
described as one of the oldest Mesoamerican astronomical observatories. The complex
consists of the three west-facing small temples (called E-1, E-2, and E-3, respectively) built atop
the elongated terraced artificial platform (E-16), a radial stepped pyramid (E-7) occupying the
western side of the Group, and a ceremonial plaza extended between them. Group E was
located in the easternmost extreme of Uaxactun and separated by built-in water reservoirs,
called aguadas, from other upland architectural assemblages, known as A, B and D Groups. Its
architectural features were continuously modified during the Late Formative and Early Classic
Periods (roughly 300 BCE-550 CE). Even though the construction activity at Group E seemed to
have been interrupted after the Early Classic Period, the place was used for ceremonial
purposes during the rest of the Classic Period, till c.a. 889 CE when the whole site was
abandoned following the fate of other Central Petén Maya city-states.

The spatial relationship between the pyramid and the east elongated platform constitutes one
of the most known and earliest examples of astronomically defined alignments. As Aveni and
Hartung showed, the platform which is approximately East-West aligned, extends in such a
manner that its southern and northern corners, as seen from a staircase atop the pyramid,
match the positions of the sun at solstices. Furthermore, any observer located in this place
could have observed that the upper level of the platform had been elevated to the height of
the more distant skyline. It seems therefore that the builders of Group E deliberately
transferred solstitial points from a skyline behind to the artificial horizon line in front. During
the Early Classic (250-550 CE) three temples were placed atop the platform in positions to fit
the places where the sunrise was observed at solstices and equinoxes. This, of course,
obstructed direct sights towards the sun, making the whole arrangement astronomically non-
functional. Today, no distant landscape features can be seen beyond the immediate setting."

"Astronomically significant events might have been discovered at this spot in the distant past
and a series of rounded platforms (Structures E, F and G) erected during the Middle Formative
Period (600-300 BCE) could have been connected to this fact. Archaeoastronomical
interpretations of Group E alignments can be traced back to the phase 2 of Late Formative
(300-100 BCE) when the earliest versions of pyramid E-7sub-1 and of East Platform E-16-1
were erected. In providing a clear material barrier between the plaza and the bajos, the
elongated and high platform also served to replace the natural horizon with the built one."

"The structure received huge plastered masks displayed on all four sides and flanking the
stairs. They were disposed in three levels, however the masks placed on the third and highest
level were only attached to the balustrade of the stairs leading up to the temple, on the
eastern side. According to current research, the masks were used to transform the pyramid
into the image of Snake Mountain, the mythical place where the gods travelled to pick up
maize for the first human beings. The masks attached to the bottom body of the structure
depict snake heads, in reference to Snake Mountain, the masks in the middle level maize-
mountain monsters in reference to Sustenance Mountain and the masks on the eastern façade
depict the Principal Bird Deity or Itzam-Ye mythical bird.

All this suggests that the sculptural program associated with E-7sub 2 referred to the origins of
the social and cosmic order. Metaphorically, the structure represented a mythical place of
origin, called Snake Mountain, carefully positioned in order to be placed in the center of the
world. Considered as a nawal of Itzamna, Itzam Ye, or the long beaked bird, was associated
with acts of sorcery and shamanic trance, while the figure of Itzamna was connected to
divination, esoteric lore and writing. This provides meaningful contexts for the kinds of
ceremonies performed.
 The extension and shape of the plaza between the pyramid and the platform together with its
unobstructed entrances suggests that it was intended as a public space. Scholars have already
emphasized that this part of Group E was intended to enable ceremonies with a participation
of a large group of commoners. Archaeological research in Group E provided enough evidence
(e.g. burials and caches) to suggest that the plaza was associated with the performance of
rituals related to the cult of ancestors. At the same time this complex was clearly associated
with the observations of the sun's annual movements, implying that rituals were performed at
astronomically defined temporal cycles, possibly being related with important agricultural
dates. By assuming that potentially important and meaningful ritual loci could have also
existed in contemporary Groups A and D, the suppression of the natural horizon at Group E
and its replacement with a new architectural feature (Platform E-16-1) may be indicative of the
efforts of getting separate families or family groups together within the framework of a single
and coherent worldview. It should be emphasized that during the time when the complex was
astronomically functional (300-100 BCE), the first rulers of Uaxactun built their residence in the
southern part of Group E, suggesting that the efforts to create a shared identity were made
under the supervision of the elite in power.

Some minutes after a (winter solstice, summer solstice) sunrise, the rising sun dispersed the
mists over the bajos and shone directly onto the pyramid masks illuminating the ritual
performers, while a large number of commoners remained in shadow cast by a 4 meters high
platform. It may be speculated that commoners stayed in shadow observing how iconographic
symbols related to shared mythological narratives located in the center of their Universe,
together with elite members engaged in public rituals, became illuminated by the rays of the
rising sun. Therefore, the purpose of Group E arrangements was to produce an effect of the
ruling elite members as individuals standing at the center of the world, mediating between the
supernatural world and the humans.

Group E arrangement provides a means to produce the shared worldview pattern and the
new context appropriate for the creation of meaningful and controlled communal rituals. With
the suppression of local skylines associated with the histories of particular groups or families,
both the elites and commoners were able to develop collective representations of time and
space attached to the solstitial directions created by Group E alignments. In due course, with
the emergence of a local ruling family, a new program of directional symbolism was created to
legitimize its political aspirations.

In contrast to modern observatories, ancient and non-Western skywatching locations

functioned as places. In anthropology a place is the particular location which constitutes a
physical means and conditions for practices of a particular discourse. Drawing on his proposal,
a sky/sun/moonwatching place may be defined as the location created by the virtue of
observing the celestial vault, in a way in which a fraction of the sky (eastern, western horizon,
solstices, equinoxes, heliacal risings of a single object) becomes meaningful within some social
activity (basic subsistence activities, rituals, divination, time-keeping, political or military
events, etc.). It provides an observer with a limited perspective on the sky, a perspective which
is partial, concrete, and local.
 To conclude, it is observed that when the object of inquiry is lifted out of the context in which
it functions and analyzed in terms of modern astronomy, Group E is typically described as an
(astronomical) observatory. The same Group E remaining embedded in its proper time-space,
is seen as a type of monumental architecture that served as a big arena for rituals attracting
dispersed and competing families to promote shared values and worldviews and to legitimate
political aspirations of a ruling elite. It was part of the process leading to the emergence of
royal families in the Classic Period. The role of Cultural Astronomy is to have a balanced view
of both interpretations at the same time."

Astronomy In Ancient Mesoamerica (Ivan Šrajc):

"The observation of the sky was of considerable imortance to the Maya, Aztecs and other
prehispanic peoples of Mesoamerica. Their familiarity with the regularities of the aparent
motion of the Sun, the Moon and bright planets is attested in a large amount of astronomical
data contained in codices and monumental hieroglyhic inscritions. The study of architectural
alignments has also disclosed that civic and ceremonial buildings were largely oriented on
astronomical grounds, mostly to sunrises and sunsets on certain dates, allowing the use of
observational calendars that facilitated a proper scheduling of agricultural and the associated
ritual activities in the yearly cycle. Both accurate knowledge and other astronomically-derived
concepts reveal that the significance attributed to certain celestial events by the ancient
Mesoamericans can be explained largely in terms of the relationship of these phenomena with
specific environmental and cultural facts, such as seasonal climatic changes and subsistence
strategies. It was particularly due to its practical utility that astronomy, intertwined with
religious ideas and practices, had such an important lace in the worldview and, consequently,
in the cosmologically substantiated political ideology of Mesoamerican societies."

"Mesoamerica is a culturally defined geograhical area corresponding to central and southern

arts of modern Mexico and the northern art of Central America. The term refers to the
territory on which civilizations, with common cultural traits, flourished since the 2nd
millennium B.C., when the first complex societies emerged, until the Spanish conquest in the
early 16th century A.D. The history of Mesoamerica is traditionally divided into three main
periods or evolutionary stages: the preclassic (ca. 2000 B.C. - A.D. 250), Classic (250-900) and
postclassic (900-1519). The earliest urban societies apeared during the preclassic along the
southern art of the Mexican Gulf Coast, in central Mexico and in the Maya area in the
Mesoamerican southeast. The greatest splendor, particularly notable in fine arts, architectural
achievements and writing systems, was reached during the Classic, whereas the postclassic
period was characterized by intensified migrations, pronounced militarization and, articularly
in the Maya area, by increased political fragmentation.

The antiquity of astronomy and its imortance in all ancient civilizations can be accounted for
by its practical uses. Celestial motions allow orientation in both time and space. Seasonal
changes in natural environment coincide with various cyclical events observable in the sky.
However, since the periodicity of the latter is much more stable and exact, the observation of
these regularities allowed ancient societies to redict annual changes in their environments and
to regulate their activities in time. The need for astronomical observations increased notably
with the origin of agriculture as farming requires an orderly scheduling of labors in the yearly
cycle such as planting and harvesting. Since astronomical knowledge offered adaptive
advantages to the societies possessing better specialists in this field, it acquired great
imortance in early states, contributing to the legitimation of power of the ruling class.

Astronomical observations resulted, on the one hand, in a corpus of exact and practically
useful knowledge. On the other hand, the celestial order, aparently invariable and perfect,
came to be considered superior to the terrestrial and human order, and this notion gave rise to
an enormous variety of myths and beliefs which explained why and how events on Earth
depended on celestial phenomena observed in the heavens."

"MESOAMERICAN ARCHAEOASTRONOMY

In any particular social group, the exact concepts and those defined in terms of our current
knowledge as 'non-scientific' are normally intertwined and integrated in a relatively coherent
worldview, which can be properly understood only if examined as a whole and in the light of
the specific natural, social and historical context; both correct and false ideas can shed
considerable light on the society being studied. This holistic aproach has been adopted by
archaeoastronomy, a relatively new anthropological discipline focused not only on exact
knowledge but rather on all astronomically derived concets and related cultural
manifestations. Taking into account specific environmental peculiarities, subsistence
strategies, sociopolitical structure and historical antecedents of the society under study,
archaeoastronomy searches for answers to a number of questions: Why did certain
astronomical phenomena acquire a revailing importance? What were the social functions of
astronomical knowledge? Which were the observational bases of the concets embedded in
myths, iconograhy, attributes of gods, etc.? In its attempts to solve problems of this kind,
archaeoastronomy particiates in common efforts of anthropological disciplines and contributes
to a more comprehensive understanding of ancient societies, as well as of general processes of
cultural evolution.

Mesoamerican archaeoastronomy relies on a variety of sources. Astronomical concepts and

practices are referred to in the iconograhy and hieroglyhic texts in prehispanic manuscrits or
codices, monumental inscritions, mural paintings, reliefs and other archaeological objects.

Complementary information is contained in early colonial documents and, considering that

fragments of prehispanic cultural heritage survive in modern indigenous communities, even in
the ethnograhic material. Furthermore, relevant data on prehispanic astronomy are
embedded in spatial distribution of archaeological vestiges, particularly in architectural
orientations and other alignments detected in ancient cultural landscapes."

"MESOAMERICAN ASTRONOMY IN WRITTEN SOURCES, ICONOGRAHY AND ETHNOGRAHIC

MATERIAL

3a: Calendrical System: Like any other precise calendar invented in the history of humankind,
the complex Mesoamerican calendrical system was based on astronomy. The relation between
the tropical year and the 365-day Mesoamerican year, composed of 18 months of 20 days and
an additional 5-day period, is evident. While the origin of the other an- Mesoamerican
calendrical cycle, which had 260 days, is less clear, it has been noticed that the length of two
260-day periods corresonds, with reasonable accuracy, to three eclipse half-years of 173.31
days, and that the synodic period of Mars (779.94 days) equals almost exactly three 260-day
cycles.

It has also been suggested that the 260-day count was invented somewhere along the 15th
parallel north, because at this latitude the Sun's passages through the zenith are separated by
intervals of 105 and 260 days. Whatever its origin, this cycle, unique in the history of
humankind, had an enormous importance in all calendrical and astronomical comutations.

3b. The Sun and the Moon: The 365-day calendrical year was likely derived from the
observation of the Sun's annual movement along the horizon. This is suggested by the
importance of solstitial extremes, attested since early periods and reflected not only in
architectural orientations but also in the concept, aparently an- Mesoamerican, that the sky
corners are located at the four solstitial points on the horizon.

The zenith passages of the Sun were also observed, and of particular importance the first
annual transit; though its exact date depends on the latitude, this event occurs throughout
Mesoamerica in late April or May and thus announces, or coincides with, the onset of the rainy
season, a crucial moment in the agricultural cycle.

A wide variety of sources demonstrate the importance of the Moon in Mesoamerica.

Chronological information in Maya hieroglyhic inscritions regularly includes the data on the
'age' of the Moon expressed in the so-called Lunar Series. To kee their lunar months of 29 or
30 days in step with lunations of 29.53059 days during longer periods, the Maya alternated
them using different formulae. This enabled them to achieve a remarkable degree of precision
reflected in lunar data calculated for dates in distant past and future.

In all ancient traditions the eclipses were considered as bad auguries. This is because they are
relatively rare and difficult to predict and, therefore, are associated with bringing disorder and
disrupting the cosmic harmony.

Various prehispanic codices and early colonial sources contain information on native beliefs
about eclipses and on ritual performances intended to prevent their negative influences. On
the other hand, the Mesoamerican astronomers-priests achieved a rather sophisticated
knowledge about the periodicity of eclipses. The most explicit information can be found in the
Dresden Codex, one of the few Maya manuscripts that survived to our time: the dates listed on
the ages constituting the so-called Lunar Table are spaced at tyical eclise intervals (177 and
148 days). The purpose of such tables was astrological: if the possibility or 'danger' of an
eclipse could be predicted, the apropriate ritual acts could be performed on time.

[Fifth age of the Dresden Codex Venus Table. The bar and dot numerals in the bottom line
(each bar represents five, a dot is equivalent to one, and the shell symbol stands for zero),
comose numbers written in the Maya vigesimal positional notation (11.16; 4.10; 12.10; 0.8),
which correspond to the canonical periods of morning star visibility (236 days), invisibility
around superior conjunction (250 days), evening star visibility (250 days) and disappearance
around inferior conjunction (8 days) in one synodic period of 584 days. The intervals separate
the first and last appearances of the morning and evening star, falling on the dates of the 260-
day and 365-day cycles listed in the upper rows. The accompanying text and images refer to
the deities residing over this synodic cycle, and to the victims of the baleful first appearances
of the morning star.]

3c. Planets and Stars. Among the planets observed in Mesoamerica, Venus had a paramount
importance. The finest examle of the knowledge on this planet is the Venus Table in the
Dresden Codex. The five ages of the table, each of them covering one synodic period, reflect
the commensurability of five synodic periods and eight calendrical years. The complete run of
the table embraces 37,960 days or 104 years, which is the lowest common multiple of the
canonical Venus period of 584 days and of the 260-day count. It is notable that even if the
difference between the true mean length of Venus synodic revolution (583.92 days) and the
canonical value assigned to this period by the Mesoamericans (584 days) resulted in an error
of 5.2 days, accumulated after the complete run of the table, an introductory age reveals that
the table was 'recyclable.' In fact, occasionally, correction mechanisms were aplied, intended
to maintain the dates of Venus phenomena predicted by the table (first and last appearances
of the morning and evening star) in accordance with observational reality.

While Venus as morning star at its first appearance after inferior conjunction was believed to
inflict harm on nature and humankind, the evening star had a prevalent role in the beliefs
about rain, maize and fertility. The main observational motive of the latter concets must have
been the seasonality of the planet's maximum and minimum declinations observable as
extreme rising and setting points: the evening star extremes, constantly occurring in April-May
and October-November, coincide with the beginning and the end of the rainy season and,
therefore, also delimit the agricultural cycle in Mesoamerica.

Venus also figured prominently in ideas and ritual practices linked to warfare and sacrifice,
and was also believed to be an eclipse agent.

While other planets seem to have had much less importance, one section of the Dresden
Codex has been interpreted as a Mars Table, and references to Jupiter and Saturn have been
found in some Maya texts.

A number of prehispanic constellations or asterisms have been identified. A table in the Maya
manuscript known as Paris Codex, containing dates accompanied by different animals hanging
from celestial bands, has been interpreted by various researchers as a Maya zodiac. However,
there is no general agreement about the functioning of the table and the identity of the
constellations represented."

"ASTRONOMICAL PROPERTIES OF MESOAMERICAN ARCHITECTURE

Systematic research carried out during the last few decades has revealed that Mesoamerican
architectural orientations exhibit a clearly non-uniform distribution and that civic and
ceremonial buildings were largely oriented on the basis of astronomical considerations,
articularly to the Sun's positions on the horizon on certain dates. The earliest orientations in
Mesoamerica refer to solstitial sunrises and sunsets, probably because the solstices, marked
by easily percetible extremes of the Sun's movement along the horizon, must have been the
most elementary references for orientation in time. Two other rather easily determinable
dates are the so-called quarter-days of the year, or mid-points in time between the solstices.
While there is no compelling evidence that the true equinoxes were known in Mesoamerica,
the orientation of architecture to sunsets on the quarter-days of the year are quite common.
The solstitial and quarter-day orientations are not limited to the early periods of Mesoamerica;
in later times, however, more complicated orientation princiles began to prevail.

[Grou F of Yaxnohcah, a large Maya urban center discovered in 2004 in southeastern Cameche,
Mexico, exhibits a solstitial orientation. As the surface ceramics indicates, this huge acropolis
was built as early as midfirst millennium B.C.]

Recent studies based on a number of archaeological sites with monumental architecture in

central Mexico and in the Maya area have revealed that the alignments enabled the use of
observational calendars composed of calendrically significant and, therefore, easily
manageable intervals. The intervals separating the sunrise and sunset dates recorded by
orientations at a particular site tend to be multiples of 13 or 20 days, i.e. basic periods of the
Mesoamerican calendrical system. The corresondence between the most frequently recorded
dates and the crucial moments of the cultivation cycle suggests that the observational
schemes, reconstructed for a number of sites, served for predicting imortant seasonal changes
and for accurately scheduling corresponding agricultural and ritual activities.

It should be recalled that the Mesoamerican calendrical year of 365 days, due to the lack of
intercalations, did not maintain a perpetual concordance with the tropical year of 365.2422
days; direct astronomical observations were, therefore, always necessary. The orientations of
public buildings, marking critical and canonized moments of the year of the seasons, not only
allowed their determination by means of direct observations: since the observational schemes
were composed of elementary periods of the formal calendrical system, it was relatively easy
to anticipate the relevant dates (this was important because cloudy weather could impede
direct observations on these dates). Knowing the structure of a particular observational
calendar and the mechanics of the formal one was of crucial importance to these societies.

Particularly imortant for these purposes must have been the 260-day calendrical count, in
which the cycles of 13 and 20 days were intermeshing: every date had a name composed of a
number from 1 to 13 and a sign in the series of 20. Given the structure of this calendrical
count, the sunrises and sunsets, separated by 13-day intervals and their multiples occurred on
the dates with the same numeral, while the events separated by periods of 20 days and their
multiples fell on the dates having the same sign. In some cases, the relevant dates were
marked by attractive light-and-shadow effects produced by apropriate spatial arrangement of
certain architectural elements including stairways.

[Along the east-west axis of the central and uppermost art of the Acropolis at Xochicalco,
Morelos, Mexico, the sun rises on February 12 and October 30 (Left) and sets on Aril 30 and
August 13 (Right). The four dates, recorded by a number of orientations in Mesoamerican
architecture, must have been canonical dates of a ceremonial agricultural cycle: on the one
hand, they delimit intervals of 260 days (from February 12 to October 30, and from August 13
to April 30), equivalent to the length of the Mesoamerican ritual calendrical count; on the
other, these dates approximately coincide with four critical moments in the maize cultivation
cycle, i.e. the preparation of fields (February), the onset of the rainy season and the time of
planting (around May 1st), the appearance of the first corn cobs or pelotes (August), and the
end of the rainy season and the beginning of harvest (around November 1st).]

While the orientations in Mesoamerican architecture are predominantly solar, a few

alignments to Venus extremes have also been identified. The referred targets were the
evening star extremes, probably because they approximately delimit the rainy season. A few
architectural alignments might also refer to major lunar standstills and, possibly, to the rising
or setting points of some brilliant stars.

[Figure 5. At Dzibilchaltún, Yucatán, Mexico, an interesting light-and-shadow effect can be

observed twice a year in the Classic period Temple of the Seven Dolls. In late afternoons, when
the Sun rays enter the building through two windows and two smaller openings in the western
wall, illuminated rectangles are projected on the opposite inner wall, moving up as the Sun
descends, and disappearing at the moment of sunset; on the quarter days of the year (March
23 and Setember 20), they disappear aligned exactly with the corresponding openings in the
eastern wall (bottom Right and Left).]"

"In Mesoamerica, just like in other ancient civilizations whose subsistence was based on
intensive agriculture, the ability to predict important seasonal changes in natural environment
was of paramount importance. In the absence of a calendar accurately reproducing seasonal
cycles, reliable predictions could only be based on astronomical observations performed by
specialists familiar with cyclical celestial phenomena and their concomitance with annual
climatic variations. This was a lot of power to be put in the hands of a few. Considering that an
efficient distribution of activities in the agricultural cycle increased productivity and secured
survival to a larger population, the astronomers-priests' professional skills were vital for a
successful economy and a smooth functioning of the existing social and political system.

[A throne in a monumental building at Toniná, a large Maya site in Chiapas, Mexico, is

decorated with a giant Venus glyph elaborated in stucco.]

In view of the parallelism observed between the movement of celestial bodies and the
alternation of seasonal changes in natural environment, and because the intervals at which
astronomical phenomena recur are much more constant and precise than those separating
other cyclical events in nature, the sky was considered, since time immemorial, to be the
image of divine perfection and supreme order to which human and earthly order was
subordinated. With the origin and develoment of social stratification, such beliefs were
modified and incorporated into the ideology that was elaborated, declared and imposed by
the ruling elite, with the purpose of sanctioning and maintaining the existent social order.

The rulers were believed to be men-gods resonsible for performing ritual activities that
guaranteed a proper develoment of natural cycles and the reservation of the ideal cosmic
order. Advances in astronomical knowledge made the achievement of these objectives more
effective, as they allowed the most apropriate moments for every ceremonial act to be
determined with greater precision. Moreover, reliable predictions of celestial events and the
corresponding astrological auguries contributed to the legitimation of power, justifying the
privileges enjoyed by the rulers and their collaborators dedicated to the priesthood,
astronomy and the calendar.

The apparently immutable and perfect order observed in the sky, obviously superior to the
one reigning on the earth, must have been the primary source of deification of heavenly
bodies. Therefore, the cyclic behavior of the stars and planets was not viewed as being simply
correlated with seasonal transformations in natural environment, but rather as provoking
them. It comes as no surprise, then, that the rulers personifying important deities were also
associated with the latter's celestial avatars, particularly the Sun and Venus. On the other
hand, due to the belief that the proper movement of the Sun, Venus and other celestial bodies
were responsible for timely occurrences of cyclical natural changes, the directions to the
points of their rising and setting on crucial dates of the yearly cycle also acquired a sacred
dimension. Consequently, the alignments reproducing significant astronomical directions in
civic and ceremonial architecture can be interpreted not only as a sanctified materialization of
the union of sace and time, whose imortance in the Mesoamerican world view is attested in
different sources, but also as a manifestation of the attempts of the governing class to
legitimate its power by recreating and perpetuating the cosmic order in the earthly
environment. Hence the alignments in Mesoamerican architecture, just like other types of
evidence, clearly show that practical use of astronomy was intimately related to social
organization, religion and political ideology of prehispanic societies."

Cosmology In The Inca Empire: Huaca Sanctuaries, State-Supported Pilgrimage, And Astronomy
(J. McKim Malville):

"Huacas (shrines) and ushnus (ceremonial platforms) are ever-present elements of millennia-
old Andean cosmology extending backward at least to Chavín de Huantar (1500-300 BCE). A
major theme of Andean cosmology appears to be shamanic transcendence and transformation
involving the three worlds of the cosmos. To avoid ethnocentrism, a new ontology may be
necessary to grasp the full meaning of Andean astronomy. All of the known cases of astronomy
in the archaeological record of the Inca appear to be associated with huaca sanctuaries that
may also have been state-supported pilgrimage centers. The Sanctuary of Isla del Sol is a
paradigmatic example of such a center. Its characteristic features are stone-lined channels,
sacred rock, gateways for controlling access to ritual space, physical separation of space
according to social status, and areas designated for observing the solstice sun. Most of the
sites considered in this paper are associated with the June solstice, contain huacas consisting
of natural and carved rocks, show evidence of social differentiation of participants, and have
channels for natural or offertory liquids."

"Andean Cosmology: Not Just a Different World-View, But a Different World?

Andean cosmology has deep roots, extending at least back to Chavín de Huantar, 1500-300
BCE, where it is revealed by uniquely Andean artifacts: huacas, i.e., shrines with extraordinary
power, often sculpted rocks; and ushnus, which are raised ceremonial platforms sometimes
with basins or wells into which offerings were poured. The carved 4.5 meter tall shaft of the
Lanzón of Chavín is a well-known example of an early huaca, an evocative axis mundi, a link
between the three worlds of sky, earth, and the underworld. Although it thrusts upward
toward the sky, it is set deep in the interior of the Old Temple, reached by labyrinthine
passageways. It is carved with the image of the supreme deity of Chavín, a fierce
transformation of a shaman priest into a fanged jaguar with swirling snakes.

Huacas, which continued to be central elements in Andean cosmology for at least another
2000 years, continued this tradition of penetrating the three worlds through their verticality
and shamanic-like power of transformation. Huacas possessed supernatural power and an
animating essence for people, crops, and animals. A primary role of Andean religion and ritual
was to keep the universe in balance and harmony. Some of the ritual offerings to huacas were
water, corn beer (chicha), or blood, which were poured into basins or channels as a form of
sympathetic magic to stimulate the flow of energy through the cosmos. Shamanic
transcendence through the three planes of the cosmos was a continuing theme in Andean
cosmology. Symbolic stairways, linking the dark underworld of caves and labyrinths to the
earth and sky are ubiquitous such as at Chavín, Chankillo, Chinchero, and Machu Picchu.

[The Andean Cosmos: Movement between the worlds was symbolized by stairs, underground
labyrinths, caves, huacas, and ushnus.]

[Chavín de Huantar, the underground Gallery of the Labyrinths: an example of shamanic

transformation from priest to fanged feline. Note the eyes and nostrils formed by coiled
snakes, symbolic of the underworld.]

Chankillo in the Casma-Sechín river basin followed the collapse of the Chavín civilization and
was occupied between 320-200 BCE. With its hill-top fort, cloistered temple, thirteen towers,
and extensive structures, Chankillo seems to be a complex mixture of warfare and ceremony.
The major axis of the site is solar, extending from December solstice sunrise to June solstice
sun set. There also is evidence for interest in major lunar standstills. Ghezzi presents a
convincing argument that the great fortress may have been a scene of ritual battles. Kaulicke
suggests a similar interpretation for nearby Cerro Sechín such that mythical battles were
performed as a form of ritual dance. The towers of Chankillo may have been the scene of ritual
processions. Each of the thirteen towers has double stairways, suggesting that they were
huacas and that shamanic movement between the worlds was their raison d'être.
Furthermore, the orientation of each tower is gradually changed from terrestrial to solar as
one ascends to the sky.

The interactive parallelism of the three worlds is another feature of Andean cosmology. The
Milky Way was understood to be the celestial counterpart of the Urubamba River and dark sky
constellations such as the Celestial Llama provided the life force for terrestrial llamas.

[The Huacas of Chankillo: an example of ritual movement between worlds. Each tower has two
sets of stairs. Successively higher towers are rotated from a terrestrial orientation to a solar
orientation.]
 The Spanish were immensely puzzled by huacas. For them huacas were very alien features in
an already alien land. As documented by the chroniclers, huacas were carved and uncarved
rocks, idols, buildings, springs, caves, poles, trees, nails, hair and body parts of Incas, mummies
of ancestors, children born with deformities, piles of stones on mountain passes, and places
where lightning had struck. Andean huacas still can be puzzling to us today, but they are
deeply embedded in millennia-old Andean cosmology, and to ignore their meaning puts one at
the risk of not fully understanding Andean astronomy.

The archaeologist Tamara Bray is a major advocate for the emerging paradigm in
anthropology that uses the ethnohistoric record to explore alternate Andean ontologies. In
particular she recommends that to understand the Andean world, we need to break out of
Cartesian dualism in which living and non-living are fundamentally different. Applied to the
astronomy of the Inca, this 'different understanding of the nature and categories of being on
the part of indigenous people in the Andes' implies that we should free ourselves of the notion
that the stones of Cusco or Machu Picchu were inert lumps of inanimate matter, the sole
meaning and function of which was to mark astronomical sightlines. Such is the kind of
thinking that leads to identifying as 'observatories' those artifacts that give any hint of
astronomy, whereas a term such as 'sky watching place' might be more appropriate. The
authors of 'Thinking Through Things' suggest that we need to be open to 'moments of
ethnographic revelation in which unanticipated, previously inconceivable thing become
apparent' and propose that we move away from questions of epistemology to those of
ontology. Instead of assuming that nature is one and culture is many, we should consider that
there may be genuinely different realities encountered and created by other cultures. An emic
approach to culture, grounded in ethnography, is being increasingly encouraged in
archaeoastronomy. Instead of picking out those features that are astronomical, the cultural
context needs to be considered in depth, requiring thick descriptions such as proposed by
Geertz.

The ethnography of huacas indicates that they were regarded as living beings possessing
extraordinary powers and the great wisdom of ancestors. They had vibrant lives, functioned as
oracles, dispensed wisdom; they were fed and dressed in clothes; they could be married,
abducted, or even destroyed by enemies. The personhood of huacas blurs the distinctions
between the living and the dead, between animate and inanimate.

In addition to the calendrical functions they may have had, the 328 or so huacas surrounding
Cusco must have served as powerful protectors of the Inca state. They were a standing army
and a council of wise advisors always in residence.

Outside of Cusco, huaca sanctuaries are found in Royal Estates such as Chinchero,
Quespiwanka (Urubamba), Pisac, Ollantaytambo, and, of course, Machu Picchu, with the
largest density of huacas of all. Machu Picchu was more than a vacation lodge for the Inca
Pachacuti: everything and everyone contained within the place would have been imbued with
the power of its huacas.

One of the most impressive huacas of Machu Picchu is the single rock that contains the
Torreon on top and the cave of the Royal Mausoleum below. This huaca penetrates the three
worlds, like a gigantic Lanzón. It combines a cave, symbolic stairs, niches for ancestors,
illumination at June solstice, and proximity to transformative water."

[The Great Huaca of Machu Picchu. Torreon on top and Royal Mausoleum below. Inside the
cave of the Mausoleum there are stairs and niches for the ancestors. Both the window of the
Torreon and the cave receive light of the sun on the morning of June solstice.]

"Water and Camay

Running water was understood to be an energizing and animating life force in Andean
cultures, associated with the Quechua verb, camay. The agent of camay, the 'camayer' is
known as camac. The dark constellation of the Celestial Llama is the camac of llamas,
responsible for giving llamas the vitality to flourish on the earth. The Pleiades, also known as
the storehouse or granary, Collca, was especially revered because that asterism was
considered the supreme camac or mother from which flowed all the energy for animals. It
seems quite possible that the sun was understood to be a camac for certain huacas, such as
the rocks of the Torreon and the Palace of Huayna Capac, which are touched by light of the
rising sun at June solstice. People skilled in their crafts, such as sculptors, engineers, and
weavers would be camayers. As early as AD 600, drainage canals in Tiwanaku may have served
the ritual purpose of energizing sacred buildings through the process of camay. We find
evidence for similar energizing of sacred buildings at Machu Picchu where the canal was
diverted toward the huaca of the Torreon/Royal Mausoleum. At Tipon, the major aqueduct
was diverted under its Intiwatana and the Ceremonial Plaza."

"Ceremonial Centers as Huaca Sanctuaries

Every known instance of astronomy in the Inca Empire appears to be associated with huacas
and public/private ceremony."

"The Huacas of Cusco The most detailed descriptions of Inca astronomy by the Spanish
chroniclers involve the solar pillars of Cusco, where as many as 16 horizon pillars on the
horizon once marked the annual changes in the location of the rising or setting sun. None of
the pillars that were on the Cusco horizon has survived the Spanish campaign of eradication of
indigenous cosmology and religion. On sunrise of the feast day of June solstice, Inti Raymi, the
Inca and his relatives watched the rising sun from the plaza of Haucaypata (Plaza de Armas)
while others watched the event from the Plaza Cusipata, to the west across the Huatanay
River. After drinking to the Sun, the celebrants poured chicha and or water from Lake Titicaca
into a basin from which it flowed in a channel to the House of the Sun.

The horizon pillars on the surrounding horizon and the ushnu in the Plaza of Cusco were
important features of Inca ceremonialism in Cusco, but it seems likely that the most powerful
ritual objects in the Cusco basin were the 328 or so huacas tied together by 41 ceques which
radiated outward from the Coricancha. The personhood of these huacas may have been of
primary significance because they may have been understood to be powerful protectors of the
capital of the Inca Empire and valued sources of advice and wisdom for the Inca.

The Sanctuary of Isla del Sol The Sanctuary on the northern end of Isla del Sol in Lake Titicaca
and its pilgrimage traditions have been documented by Bauer and Stanish and Dearborn et al.
The difficult journey to the island and along its spine gave it a sense of otherworldliness for the
pilgrims. The most important feature of the Sanctuary was the Sacred Rock, known as Titicala,
out of which, according to legend, the Sun had first emerged. The concave portion of the rock
was reportedly covered by gold and silver and the entire rock was sometimes clothed by a
large finely-woven cloth. The first European visitors to the area reported numerous women
attendants who made large quantities of corn beer, chicha, which was poured into a stone
basin at the base of the sacred rock. The basin had a hole in its center and stone-lined channels
carried the chicha away from the rock. Only Inca nobility and priesthood were allowed to pass
through the several gates to reach the plaza in front of Sacred Rock. Lower status pilgrims
were limited to a platform just before one of the gates, from which they could watch the ritual
in front of the sacred stone from a distance of some 400 meters.

Machu Picchu. In a manner similar to Isla del Sol, pilgrims would have had to pass through
gates on the Inca trail as they approached Machu Picchu, first at Intipunku, the Gate of the
Sun, and then at a security station half way down to the primary gate. The station contains a
carved huaca, which may have both protected the area and received offerings from pilgrims.
Having reached the southern terraces of Machu Picchu, pilgrims would have encountered a
second major carved huaca, the Ceremonial Rock. They could have gathered at the adjacent
upper kallanka, which served as a storehouse and shelter. Entry to Machu Picchu itself was
limited by the main gate and may have been closed to non-elite pilgrims. Ceremonies in the
Sacred Plaza and the ushnu on Huayna Picchu were viewed from the Terrace of the Ceremonial
Rock.

For those allowed to enter Machu Picchu, they could not help but note that the main gate
beautifully frames Huayna Picchu. The northern side of Huayna Picchu is protected by the
largest double-jamb doorway of Machu Picchu. The Temple of the Moon with its beautifully
prepared double-jamb niches for ancestors is a major huaca. This area, which could have been
reached by a not-yet-located trail from the Urubamba River, was an elegant entry to the steep
steps leading to the summit of Huayna Picchu.

Machu Picchu is distinguished from the other royal estates in the Sacred Valley by its large
plaza and by its many huacas. Salazar counts some 30 'religious structures', many being carved
rocks. The density of huacas is high compared to Ollantaytambo, Pisac and Chinchero. A
number of its huacas appear to be associated with astronomical sight-lines such as the Torreon
(June solstice), Temple of the Condor (anti-zenith sunrise), and Intimachay (December solstice
sunrise). We can perhaps understand a little more about what a royal estate meant. It was a
place for feasting and hunting, but in the case of Machu Picchu it was a place of great power
wherein Pachacuti would have been surrounded by a remarkable cluster of huacas that drew
upon the powers of earth, water, sun, and ancestors.

Llactapata and Machu Picchu probably served as combined huaca sanctuary and pilgrimage
center. Llactapata is reached by the narrow and dangerous trail that starts at the Draw Bridge
and leads across the face of Machu Picchu Peak. Many features of the major structure at
Llactapata duplicate the Coricancha of Cusco. Access to the Coricancha was extraordinarily
limited and its ceremonies were clearly private. Because of the difficult and limited access to
Llactapata, ceremonies at its temple were probably similarly private. A stone-lined channel
leads from the double-jamb doorway toward Machu Picchu and the direction of June solstice
sunrise. A 33 meter long ceremonial corridor may have been the setting for a procession
toward the rising sun on June solstice. There are no carved huacas in Llactapata because there
is no granite on that ridge. A major huaca, the River Intiwatana, which is associated with
fountains, a tower, and two caves, lies between Llactapata and Machu Picchu and appears to
tie the two places together.

Tipon (Quespichancha): With its aqueducts, elaborate water channels, and multiple fountains,
Tipon seems an excellent example of the action of camay. It was a place for pilgrimage during
the Inti Raymi festival. There are two areas of modern Tipon that might have been the
destination of the pilgrimage, either the peak of Cruz Moqo or the vicinity of one of its thirteen
terraces. The summit of Cruz Moqo is remote and lacks the features expected at a pilgrimage
center such as a plaza, solar markers, storehouses, or residences for attendants. On the other
hand, the buildings of Iglesia Raqui are adjacent to the largest of the terraces. From those
buildings the sightline to June solstice sunset passes over the terrace and over the sacred rock
and rooms of the Intiwatana some 350 meters away. The trail upward to the Intiwatana
contains a double-jamb gateway. The major canal carrying water from Cruz Moqo was diverted
in order to pass beneath the Intiwatana. Pilgrims could gather in the vicinity of Iglesia Raqui to
observe rituals taking place in the large terrace below them and at the Intiwatana some 350
meters distant.

Urubamba (Quespiwanka): The courtyard of the palace of Huayna Capac, Quespiwanka, in the
town of Urubamba, contains a large granite boulder in its center, after which the palace had
been named. From its vicinity the June solstice sun can be seen to rise between two pillars on
the skyline high above the palace. Today a stone-lined channel carries naturally flowing water
into the vicinity of the boulder. The massive triple-jamb entrance to the courtyard indicates
that only those of high status could participate in ceremonies held within it. The area outside
the south wall of the palace contains 40 unusual double-jamb nice and granite boulders. This
ceremonial area outside the palace compound may have been the location where lower status
celebrants could observe the rising sun.

[The sightline from Iglesia Raqui to the June solstice sunset and the location of a double-jamb
gateway.]

[Quespiwanka showing locations where June solstice sunrise between pillars can be viewed.]

Saihuite Known primarily for its Principal Stone, Saihuite is an elaborate and complex huaca
sanctuary, which contains three carved stones, fountains, a double-jamb doorway, and a
cardinally-oriented platform. A large niche faces June solstice sunrise. On the elaborately
carved Principal Stone a network of grooves carries liquids past a myriad of figures (humans,
pumas, llamas, frogs, monkeys, lizards). The stone may have been a representation of the Inca
cosmos, which could be empowered by liquids flowing across it.

[Rumihuasi at Saihuite. Note the fractal-like sets of stairs of different sizes.]

Sondor. Located about 300 km from Cusco and 21 km from Andahuaylas, Sondor is the most
impressive Inca site in the Andahuaylas region. The conical hill of Apu Muyumuyu contains six
terraces with a stairway leading to stone huacas on the summit. In order to reach the summit
one must pass through two double-jamb gateways.

Sondor is the only astronomical huaca discussed in this paper without June solstice alignment
or a major water feature. There are three clusters of buildings beneath the conical, terraced
Apu Muyumuyu. The easternmost cluster of structures encloses a courtyard from which the
rising sun at the day of zenith sun can be seen. Since the stairway is parallel to that sight-line
to the rising zenith sun, it would appear that the zenith sun is the primary solar phenomenon
of Sondor. As the sun rises in the sky the shadows of the terraces become shorter and
disappear when the sun reaches the zenith making a dramatic visual spectacle."

[View from the summit of Apu Muyumuym. The locations where sunrise can be seen over the
summit are indicated. Note that these involve December solstice sunrise and Zenith sunrise.]

[Sondor: Stairway to the Zenith Sun. Note the double jamb doorway at the entrance to the
stairway.]

"How should the new ontological paradigm in anthropology influence our interpretation of
Inca astronomy? First, the meaning of these ceremonial centers is clearly enriched by
consideration of possible alternate realities. Secondly, we should pay attention to the
difference between epistemology and ontology in our analysis. Not only were huacas engaged
in activities that were astronomical in an epistemological sense, but the presence of living
huacas may have filled places like Machu Picchu and Cusco with special power. Some of the
huacas may have been animated through the action of water and chicha. Others may have
been animated by the light of the sun on June solstice. In the case of the Torreon, the
northeastern window may not have been designed for an observer looking outward but for the
sun to look in and touch the huaca."

"The Sanctuary of Isla del Sol and the Llactapata-Machu Picchu ceremonial complex contain
the greatest depth of cosmic symbolism. It should come as no surprise that the Inca royalty
and pilgrims would undertake arduous journeys to visit these powerful places."

Cosmic Cycles Of Hindu Cosmology: Scientific Underpinnings And Implications (Yash P.

Aggarwal):

"Ancient Hindu Texts indicate that cosmic processes are driven by two cycles: a Primary cycle
possibly some 311 trillion years long that begins with the formation of the universe and ends
with its dissolution and regeneration for a new cycle; and a Secondary cycle of 8.64 + 0.12
billion (Gy) years that begins with the formation of an Earth-like planet that supports life, or by
extension the formation of a Solar system, its demise, and its rebirth."

"The late astrophysicist Carl Sagan noted that 'the Hindu religion is the only one of the world's
great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an
infinite, number of births and deaths. It is the only religion in which the time cycles
correspond, no doubt by accident, to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from
our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long, longer than
the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang. And there are much
longer time scales still.'

Despite the intriguing correspondence noted by Carl Sagan, there have been scant attempts to
elicit or discover a plausible scientific basis for the cosmic cycles. This absence is all the more
surprising because the cosmic time scales involved are not religious beliefs that must be
accepted on faith, but appear to be deductions subject to scrutiny and to the rigors of rational
analysis. Two factors may account for such an absence. First, as discussed later, untenable
interpretations of segments of ancient Hindu Texts have led to erroneous assertions that the
universe is trillions of years old, and thus in conflict with the prevalent scientific view.
Confusion caused by such careless misrepresentations may have thwarted efforts to find a
scientific basis. Second, the Hindu Texts invoke non-material elements and metaphysics,
subject to uncertain interpretations, in explaining the creation of the universe. Therefore,
attempts to discover scientific bases that begin with creation as a starting point immediately
run into difficulties and ambiguities."

"Principle Tenets of Hindu Cosmology

Sources and Methodology The tenets of HC including the creation of the universe, the
destruction of the Earth, and the cyclic nature of these processes are described at times in
rather great details in the Vishnu Purana (VP) and more succinctly in the Bhagvata Purana.
Manusmriti, or the Institutes of Hindu Law, another post-Vedic Hindu Text, also contains
details concerning the beginnings of the universe. In judging the importance and credibility of
revelations contained therein we weigh them using considerations of internal consistency,
consistency across multiple Texts, consistency with scientific data, their relative ages (older the
better), and by giving greater weight to literal than to broad translations."

"The VP and BP are part of an ensemble of 18 post-Vedic Texts collectively denominated as

Puranas, or literally 'of ancient times' in Sanskrit. The Puranas are a vast literature of stories
and allegory pertaining to Hindu cosmology, history, geography, and genealogies of kings, and
not religion per se that requires adherence or blind faith. Not all Puranas were, however,
created equal or written at the same time. The VP and the BP are the finest. Of the two, VP is
considered to be among the oldest dating back to the first century B.C. for its written form and
many centuries older in its oral form. Hence, we have used the VP as the primary and the BP as
a secondary source, followed by the Manusmriti and other scriptures such as the Bhagavad-
Gita when deemed necessary. Collectively these sources are referred to as Texts."

"Cosmic Time Scales and Cycles Just as modern astrophysicists concocted notions of
astronomical unit and light year to measure large distances, Hindu Rishis conjured up notions
of divine year, Brahma's day, or Brahma's life to measure long spans of time. The basic unit of
time in HC can be considered to be a Maha Yug (Great Age) comprising 12,000 divine years
that correspond to the combined span of four unequal human ages or Yugs. A day of Brahma is
equal to 1000 Maha Yugs, his night is equally long, and his life is apparently equal to 100 years
of such days and nights. Each divine year is equal to 360 human or solar years. Therefore, a
Maha Yug is 4.32 million years; Brahma's day or night is 4.32 Gy, and his life span about 311
trillion years long. Brahma's day or night is also known as a Kalpa (aeon), and the two-
combined together form a period of 8.64 Gy or two Kalpas. There is some uncertainty as to the
length of Brahma's life and is discussed later. Additionally, we note that if the number of days
in a divine year were taken to be 365 (solar year) instead of 360 used in HC, Brahma's day or
night would be longer by 0.06 Gy and Brahma's cycle by 0.12 Gy.

The VP describes two kinds of creations - primary and secondary - and associated dissolutions
- elemental, and incidental. Synthesizing the descriptions contained therein with those of
similar nature in the BP, one discerns two distinct cycles. The time span from the beginning of
primary creation to the elemental dissolution corresponds to the life of Brahma and pertains
to the creation and dissolution of the universe. This time span is apparently some 311 trillion
years long and the associated cycle is denoted here as Vishnu's cycle. Creation in HC, however,
is not an event or point in time but an evolutionary process that takes time. In fact, the
principle of evolution in all its aspects, whether affecting life or matter, is firmly embedded in
the descriptions of the material and life processes. Similarly, elemental dissolution is not a
destructive event but a process of reversion and regeneration that begins when the universe is
exhausted and the conditions required to support life cease to exist. In this reversion and
regeneration the creative (forward) process reverses direction and the remaining elements
fold back into the original state and are recreated; thus completing the cycle and setting the
stage for a new cycle of evolution. This cycle of creation and dissolution continues unabated
for eternity. Time, therefore, in HC is eternal, without a beginning and its end is not known,
but finite when measured for example from the beginning of the present cycle.

The time span from the beginning of the secondary creation to the completion of incidental
dissolution corresponds to the day and night of Brahma and pertains to the creation and
destruction of Earth and life on it and the emergence of a new Earth-like planet (earth). This
time span is 8.64 + 0.12 Gy long and the associated cycle is termed here as Brahma's cycle.
During the first half of Brahma's cycle (Brahma's day) life evolves and flourishes on the Earth.
During the second half (Brahma's night) degradation ensues ending with the incineration of
the Earth and birth of a new earth. The current Brahma's cycle began with the formation of the
Earth. And since the Earth and Sun, indeed the Solar system, are known to be essentially
coeval, and since an Earth-like planet supporting life cannot exist without a Sun, it is apparent
that Brahma's cycle does not pertain solely to Earth but also to the Sun and Solar system. The
Texts suggest that there is a short time lag between the onset of Vishnu's cycle or the
beginnings of the universe and the commencement of the very first Brahma's cycle or the
formation of the first Earth capable of supporting life. The exact time lag, however, is not
specified, but results from the fact that evolution is a process and not an event. Brahma's
cycles continue apparently for trillions of years until the universe is exhausted and can no
longer support life. The process of creation then reverses direction and dissolution begins and
the universe folds back towards the stage from where it began, completing the Primary or
Vishnu's cycle.

Age of the Universe and Primeval Planets The Texts do not explicitly state the age of the
universe, but it can be deduced rather precisely from the history of past Kalpas described in
the Texts. Note, as stated earlier, two Kalpas each 4.32 + 0.06 Gy long constitute a Brahma's
cycle and that the cycle begins with the birth of an earth. We know rather precisely from
radiometric data that the oldest rock minerals on Earth are about 4.4 Gy old and that the
oldest Solar System material is about 4.57 Gy old. For simplicity, we shall adopt for all
subsequent calculations the mean value of 4.48 + 0.1 Gy for the common age of the Earth and
Sun and the beginning of the current Brahma's cycle.

The current Kalpa that began with the formation of Earth is called Vraha in VP, BP and in BP
and other Puranas. In addition, VP names a Maha or Great Kalpa called Padma that preceded
Vraha; whereas the BP identifies two Kalpas - Brahma and Padma - preceding Vraha.
Analogizing with the fact that a Maha (Great) Yug is the sum of constituent Yugs, it appears
that a Maha (Great) Kalpa is the sum of two constituent Kalpas that form a Brahma's cycle.
Therefore, Padma, the Maha or Great Kalpa, named in VP is apparently the sum of the
constituent Kalpas - Brahma and Padma - mentioned in BP. About thirty additional Kalpas are
named in the Linga and similar Puranas belonging to a group of Puranas considered to be the
least reliable among the 18 Puranas. Wilson summarily dismisses such claims of additional
Kalpas as clear sectarian embellishments, and notes that the only Kalpas usually specified in
the Puranas are Vraha, the current one; Padma, the one preceding Vraha; and Brahma
preceding Padma and considered by BP to be the very first one of Brahma's life."

"As stated earlier there is a short time lag, albeit unspecified, between the beginning of the
universe and the onset of first Brahma's cycle or the formation of the first earth. Therefore,
the universe is at least, but not much older than about 13.2 + 0.15 Gy; a result in excellent
agreement with the age of the universe (13.7 + 0.13 Gy) deduced from WMAP (2010) data.
This result implies that planets, indeed solar systems, formed within < 0.7 Gy of the birth of the
universe; an implication supported by scientific observations. In a 2003 news release NASA
stated: 'Long before our Sun and Earth ever existed, a Jupiter-sized planet formed around a
sun-like star. Now almost 13 billion years later, NASA's Hubble Space Telescope (HST) has
precisely measured the mass of this farthest and oldest known planet. Its very existence
provides tantalizing evidence that the first planets were formed rapidly, within a billion years
of the Big Bang.'

The erroneous conclusion that the universe is trillions of years old stems from the following
statement in VP: 'Of such days and nights is a year of Brahma composed; and a hundred such
years constitute his whole life. One Pararddha, or half his existence, has expired, terminating
with the Maha Kalpa called Padma. This assertion implies that the Brahma's life is some 311
trillion years, that half of his life is over and therefore the universe is some 155 trillion years
old, and that thousands of Kalpas must have preceded the current one. We showed above that
thousands of past Kalpas are not admissible. Also, the assertion that half of Brahma's life has
expired does not find resonance in either Manusmriti or the Bhagavad-Gita; nor is it supported
in the Puranas with additional evidence or discussion. Therefore, if Brahma's life span is indeed
some 311 trillions long, then the statement that half of his life is over is not tenable; and if half
of his life is indeed over then his life span cannot be some 311 trillions years, but much shorter
in the vicinity of 18 Gy or roughly equal to two Brahma's cycles. Of the two choices, the latter
is rather unlikely; which leaves us with the conclusion that in HC the universe may have a life
span of some 311 trillion years but half of its life is not over.
 Destruction of the Earth It is generally accepted that the Sun is halfway through its life of
about 10 Gy on the main sequence and that the fate of our planet Earth is closely tied to the
evolution of the Sun as it becomes more luminous on its way to the red-giant phase and its
final stage as a white dwarf in billions of years. First, we note that the length of Brahma's cycle
(8.64 + 0.12 Gy) is similar to the Sun's life span on the main sequence. Second, since 4.48 + 0.1
Gy have already elapsed in the current cycle, we are at present about halfway through
Brahma's cycle just as the Sun is. Third, it follows that the Earth has just entered or is about to
enter Brahma's night or the destructive phase of the cycle.

The events that may affect the Earth and life on it during the second half of the current cycle
are described in impressive details in VP and are summarized in Table 1, column 1. The BP
essentially describes the same set of events with minor differences. In column 2 we show for
comparison the events affecting the Earth identified by Schroeder and Smith from their
computations of the Sun's evolution. Schroeder and Smith reviewed current models and their
(SS Model) results are representative of the current status of scientific knowledge on the
evolution of the Sun and its effect on planet Earth. They conclude that the Earth will be
engulfed by the expanding Sun. A comparison of the two columns shows that the events
leading to the total destruction of the Earth are essentially identical in the two predictions. In
both cases we have an extinction of significant life on the Earth in a relatively near future; a
complete drying up of the Earth including its oceans; a green house effect that increases
Earth's temperature setting it on fire; the turning of the Earth into a life-less molten rock or a
shriveled and wrinkled remnant resembling the back of a tortoise; and the total incineration of
the Earth and space around it or the engulfment of the Earth, Venus, and Mercury by the Sun.
In the VP the runaway greenhouse effect (evaporation of oceans) precedes the wet-
greenhouse effect (saturation of atmosphere and increased luminosity), whereas in the SS
Model it is vice-versa. In VP the destruction begins with the demise of humanity caused by
environmental factors that result in a prolonged drought. It is quite feasible that much before
the Earth dries up and the oceans boil over, the increasing luminosity of the Sun will render
the Earth virtually unusable for cultivation of large quantities of food grains causing
widespread famine. Even if this prediction of an early demise of humanity does not pan out,
the subsequent set of events clearly predict an extinction of all significant life on Earth as it
dries up, and water - generally considered to be a necessary ingredient of life - disappears.

The major difference is that the SS Model predicts the engulfment of Earth in 7.6 Gy, whereas
in the Texts it occurs within 4.2 Gy. Secondly, the SS Model predicts a small planetary nebula
and a mild stellar wind, whereas the Puranas predict the formation of a huge nebula and
strong winds."

"In the preceding section we laid out the principle Tenets of HC and showed: 1) that the
application of these Tenets to the history of Brahma's cycle yields an age for the universe that
agrees remarkably well with that deduced from scientific data; 2) that the formation of
primeval planets and solar systems within less than a billion years of the beginning of the
universe predicted by HC is supported by observations of NASA's HST; and 3) that the events
leading to the destruction of the Earth in the next several billion years described in the Texts
are strikingly similar to those inferred from current scientific models of Solar evolution. These
concurrences, covering a time span of 18 Gy from the beginnings of the universe to the future
destruction of the Earth, cannot simply be fortuitous. Therefore, the cosmic time scales and
cycles so aptly noted by Carl Sagan are not an accident but apparently driven by the laws of
universe, and we may confidently proceed to explore a scientific framework for HC. And
hopefully in the process we may even discover new insights into the nature of cosmic
processes.

But before we do so, it is worthwhile separating the implications of the foregoing results from
theories concerning the beginnings of the universe or the formation of planets and stars. The
characteristics of the Secondary cycle and its history imply: 1) that an Earth-like terrestrial
planet capable of supporting life was part of a Solar system similar to ours that formed within
0.7 Gy of the dawn of the universe; 2) that our Solar System is the offspring of this primeval
Solar system; 3) that the Solar system has a life cycle of about 8.64 + 0.12 Gy, and has the
capacity to reproduce its essential constituents; and 4) that human life presumably existed on
this primeval Earth, and the most likely timing of such an occurrence would be around 8.7 Gy if
deduced from a comparison with the evolution of human life on planet Earth."

"Cyclic Universe and Big Bang

As noted earlier, creation in HC is not an event but an evolutionary cyclic process. In this
process a manifold universe emerges or unfolds spontaneously from a singular-self existent
entity (Vishnu) that is without beginning or end. Vishnu, however, is the universal mind or
spirit (Purusha) as well as primary matter (Pradhana) or nature; and therein lies the difficulty
of interpreting in purely physical terms this metaphysical duality of a self-existent singular
entity. Nonetheless, if we are willing to set aside momentarily this difficulty and explore a bit
further we may gain some insight into the creative processes of HC, the beginnings of which
are described in the following paragraph. Primary matter is described as 'subtle, uniform,
durable, self-sustained, illimitable, undecaying, stable; devoid of sound or touch, and
possessing neither color nor form. It is apparently cause and effect, mother of the world,
without beginning; and that into which all that is produced is resolved; and by which all things
were invested in the period subsequent to the last dissolution of the universe and prior to
creation'. This unobservable primary matter, through successive transformations, created
material 'elements' (ether, air, water, and earth) and radiation (light and heat) endowed with
one or more property of sound, touch, form, color, taste, and smell. Combining together, these
'elements' formed an incipient universe in the form of a vast egg that 'gradually expanded like
a bubble of water. In that egg were the continents and seas and mountains, the planets and
the divisions of the universe, the gods, the demons, and mankind.' It is clear therefore that the
creative process in HC begins with the transformation of the unobservable primary matter into
observable material elements and radiation. And the following principles, gleaned from the
Texts, define or drive the creative process. 1) Time is without beginning or end. 2) Space too is
without a beginning and inferred to be so from the fact that in HC matter apparently never
ceases to exist. 3) Primary matter is limitless. 4) Nothing is ever created or destroyed and
matter simply undergoes a change of state; or matter/energy is conserved in accord with the
first law of thermodynamics. 5) The durations of cosmic cycles do not vary with time.

The cyclic nature of the universe in HC is clearly at odds with an ever-expanding universe.
Additionally, the standard big bang/inflationary cosmology (consensus model) postulates a
singularity when the temperature and density of the incipient universe were near infinity and
prior to which nothing existed (space, time, matter or energy)) and the incipient universe
inflated exponentially in an infinitesimally short time. In contrast, space and time in HC are
without a beginning and the universe does not emerge from nothing but apparently from a
limitless, pre-existing primary matter that spontaneously transforms itself to create the
primordial elements and radiation of the universe. Also, the incipient universe in HC
apparently had a finite volume (cosmic egg) as opposed to a singularity and hence the initial
temperature and density could be very high but need not be near infinity. The best fit for the
cyclic universe of HC appears to be with the Cyclic Model of Steinhardt and Turok. The Cyclic
Model (CM) describes the bang as a 'bounce' from a pre-existing contracting phase during
which matter and radiation are 'created' at a large but finite temperature. In their model, as is
the case in HC, time and space are without a beginning and the universe apparently expands
slowly compared to the unimaginably rapid inflation required by the consensus model. After
trillions of years matter, radiation and large-scale structures are all diluted away, a situation
akin to the exhaustion of the universe in HC in many trillions of years when conditions required
to support life cease to exist. This emptying of the universe, a crucial element of CM and a
condition for the reversal of the creative process in HC, apparently overcomes the difficulties
historically encountered by oscillatory models in their ability to retain an identical time span
from cycle to cycle.

Despite these differences between the consensus and cyclic models, it is quite remarkable
that the age of the universe deduced from the Hindu Texts that ascribe to a cyclic universe is
indistinguishable from the age deduced from the big bang picture; an outcome that suggests
that the event that occurred some 13.7 Gy ago is not model dependent, irrespective of
whether it is conceived as a bang (singularity), or as a transition from a contracting to an
expanding phase in CM, or as the event in HC during which primary matter transformed into
material 'elements' and radiation. This seminal event is therefore the inception of the current
universe when matter and radiation were created irrespective of the model used.

Lastly, we offer the following observations and proposals that further cement the
commonalities between the cyclic universes of HC and CM. Theoretically, the universe in CM
consists of two branes separated by a microscopic gap. Observable particles (quarks, leptons,
photons, neutrinos, etc) lie on one brane, and the particles on the other brane are a dark form
of matter that cannot be detected in the laboratories. The particles on the two branes can
interact through gravity but not by strong or weak interactions. Recalling that primary matter
(Pradhana) is unobservable, and that its products (ether, air, water, earth, light, and heat) have
properties perceivable by the senses, it is tempting to equate the non-observable primary
matter of HC with the non-detectable dark matter of CM, and the observable products of
primary matter with the particles and radiation in CM. In other words, the observable universe
lies on one brane, and the unobservable dark matter or the invisible primary matter lies on the
other brane, and the two interact only through gravity. The collision of the two branes is the
seminal event when the universe is infused with new matter and radiation in CM as well as in
HC and a new cycle of evolution begins."

"Secondary Cycle and Replication of Solar System

 Of the two cycles, the Secondary or Brahma's cycle is better defined and has far reaching
implications. As noted above this cycle does not pertain to the Earth alone but also to the Sun
and that its duration (8.64 + 0.12 Gy) is similar to the Sun's life span on the main sequence.
Any scientific model that attempts to successfully explain the characteristics of this cycle and
its history must account for the implied capacity of the System to essentially replicate itself
every 8.64+0.1 2 Gy. There are basically two models for the formation of the Solar System, the
widely accepted nebular hypothesis or the Solar Nebular Model and the primordial planet
model of Schild and Gibson. Schild and Gibson posit that super giant primordial planets of
hydrogen and helium formed soon (380,000 years) after the big bang; that these gas planets
often concentrate together to form a star with residual matter seen in pre-stellar accretion
disks around the youngest stars; and that these planets grow smaller through collisions until
they are whittled down to the size of the planets populating our Solar system. In the nebular
hypothesis, matter in gravitationally unstable giant molecular gas clouds (GMC) coalesces into
denser clumps that collapse to form a star. A protoplanetary accretion disk is formed around
the young star in which planets form through the coagulation of dust grains into planetesimals
and runaway accretion.

While the Schild and Gibson model may explain the formation of the 'first' or the primeval Sun
from super giant gas planets and possibly early planets, it is difficult to imagine how this model
could account for the replication of the Solar system periodically as required by the Secondary
cycle. Similarly, Joseph rogue-planet model, in which the outer planets are ejected from dying
solar systems during the red-giant phase of a star before supernova only to be captured by
another star, cannot explain the clockwork periodicity of the Secondary cycle and the periodic
formation of an Earth-like planet required by HC. Unfortunately the Texts do not contain any
information on how a Solar system is formed. The Texts, however, provide insight into the
likely mechanism responsible for the Sun's capacity to replicate itself. This insight results from
the comparison of events before and after the incineration of the Earth with models of solar
evolution.

We showed earlier that events leading to the future incineration of the Earth described in VP
are remarkably similar to those predicted by the Schroeder and Smith model. In the SS model
the Sun loses 1/3 of its mass during the red-giant phase (RGB) and an additional 12% during
the Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) before becoming a white dwarf. We propose that the
ejected matter, rich with heavier elements manufactured by the Sun in its core and
surrounding shell during RGB, seeds portions of a GMC creating a gravitational instability.
Denser clumps are formed around the seeds that eventually collapse to form a protostar
surrounded by a protoplanetary or an accretion disk. The disk continues to be fed with matter
lost by the Sun as it passes from the RGB phase of the dying Sun towards the AGB tip, a total
time span of about 130 million years.

Within the disk the enriched dust grains coagulate to form planetesimals that merge or
accrete to form planetary embryos and eventually a few terrestrial planets. The outer gaseous
planets may form from the hydrogen-helium gas of the disk or could be the whittled down
versions of the primordial gas planets of Schild and Gibson captured by the new Sun. It is
noteworthy that the time taken by the dying Sun to reach the AGB tip from its rapid ascent
towards the RGB tip is of the same order as the estimated time necessary (100 million years)
to form the Solar system.

Thus, the nebular hypothesis in conjunction with Sun's loss of mass during its RGB and AGB
may adequately account for the Sun's capacity to replicate itself and attendant planets and no
new model is needed. Two factors that make it possible are: 1) the Sun is apparently more
massive than 95% of stars; and that the amount of heavier elements needed to form terrestrial
planets similar to ours is but a fraction (<0.001) of the mass of heavier elements ejected by the
dying Sun, even though heavier elements constitute only a few percent of the Sun's mass; 2)
that, unlike a supernova, the Sun during RGB simply sheds its outer layers and does not
explode, and hence the ejected matter is probably not dispersed far and wide as in a
supernova, but much more locally and not thinned out into space. The large amount of mass
lost during RGB in the SS model is the reason why in their model the subsequent planetary
nebula during AGB is rather small and insignificant. In contrast, the stellar nebula in the VP is
no ordinary cloud formation. Its detailed morphology is reminiscent of the famous descriptions
(NASA, 1995) of 'Elephant trunks' and 'Pillars of creation' found in the Eagle Nebula (M16) - a
site of star formation - than that of a symmetrical pattern expected of a planetary nebula. We
suggest that the stellar nebula described in the VP is indeed a solar nebula surrounding the
young star, and that the subsequent stellar winds that disperse the stellar nebula are the solar
winds that eventually blow away the cocoon surrounding the young Sun. In the case of a
planetary/ejection nebula the stellar winds would be expected to precede or be
contemporaneous with the formation of the nebula, just the opposite of the sequence in VP.
Thus, not only are the events preceding the destruction of the Earth in good agreement with
those predicted from the evolution of the dying Sun, but the events following the destruction
are also in good agreement with events expected to be associated with the formation of a new
Sun. The only significant difference is that in the SS model the time span to the engulfment of
the Earth is about 12 Gy whereas the Secondary cycle is 8.64 + 0.16 Gy long. This difference,
although appreciable, is not fatal given the assumptions and approximations inherent in solar
models and uncertainties in Sun's life on the main sequence (known only to its first order
approximation) arising from such parameters as the rate of fusion and the amount of
hydrogen available."

"The two major results of this study, if they survive the test of time and I have no reason to
believe that they would not, will have major implications. The demonstration that ancient
Hindu seers may have unraveled some of the mysteries of the universe begs the question: How
did they do it without the technological assets that modern science possesses? The finding
that the Sun apparently replicates itself periodically is profoundly important for the
understanding of cosmic processes and for the evolution of life and its distant fate. Lastly, the
conclusion that the event that took place some 13.7 Gy ago marking the onset of the (current)
universe was a seminal event irrespective of whether the universe is conceived to be cyclical or
one that began with a bang may turn out to be equally important in reconciling conceptual
differences between competing models of the universe."
Visions Of The Cosmos: Archaeoastronomy In Ancient India (Subhash Kak):

"This paper is an overview of archaeoastronomy in ancient India. It describes the Vedic

conception of the cosmos and the representation of the knowledge of the motions of the sun
and the moon in the design of fire altars. Sites of archaeoastronomical interest described
include Neolithic and Megalithic sites and the Sanchi Stupa."

"Archaeoastronomy in India has the benefit of ancient texts that describe cosmological ideas,
their basis in astronomy, and their representation in architecture. These texts provide us
crucial understanding of the astronomy and cosmology of the historical period.

In the Indian view, the cosmos is seen as being tripartite and recursive. The universe is viewed
as three regions of earth, space, and sky which in the human being are mirrored in the physical
body, the breath (prana), and mind. The processes in the sky, on earth, and within the mind
are taken to be connected.

Indian narratives about the cosmos are characterized by the central role of the observer. The
cosmos is seen both as real and arising out of the phenomenal contents of the mind. At a
practical level, agreement on the phenomenal contents of many minds is taken to imply real
existence, and the question of the nature of the qualities of the objects is raised. The question
that is asked in the Indian narrative is: Do these attributes or concepts have a real existence or
do they arise from the intuition of the observers?

The examination of this and related questions leads to theories of the cosmos, both at the
universal and personal levels, that form part of the philosophical systems of Sankhya and
Vaiseshika. The Vedic view of India (spanning a long period that goes back to at least 2000 BCE)
classifies knowledge in two categories: the higher or unified and the lower or dual. Higher
knowledge concerns the perceiving subject (consciousness), whereas the lower knowledge
concerns objects. Higher knowledge can be arrived at indirectly through intuition and
contemplation on the paradoxes of the outer world. Lower knowledge is analytical and it
represents standard science with its many branches. There is a complementarity between the
higher and the lower, each being necessary to define the other. This complementarity mirrors
the one between mind and matter.

The Vedic thinkers were aware that formal descriptions of the universe lead to logical
paradox. The one category transcending all oppositions is Brahman. Figure 1 represents this
world-view schematically. In this figure, logic is shown as a subset of the capacities of the
mind, and likewise models of reality (which are based on logic) do not capture all aspects of
the material world. Machines have been grouped together with logic in the figure since they
must be constructed according to a logical framework. This figure may be viewed as a
representation of the incompleteness of formal systems of knowledge. Vedic ritual is a
symbolic retelling of this conception. Notable features of this world view that are relevant here
are:

An Extremely Old and Large Cyclic Universe: The Vedic texts speak of an infinite universe with
ages of very large time periods, or yugas. The recursive Vedic worldview requires that the
universe itself go through cycles of creation and destruction. The encyclopedic Puranas speak
of the universe going through a current cycle of 8.64 billion years, and the period of the largest
cycle is stated to be 311 trillion years.

[Universe as projection of a transcendent principle.]

An Atomic World: According to the atomic doctrine of Kanada, there are nine classes of
substances: ether, space, and time that are continuous, four elementary substances (or
particles) called earth, air, water, and fire that are atomic, and two kinds of mind, one
omnipresent (the universal self) and another that is the individual mind.

Relativity of Time and Space: That space and time need not flow at the same rate for different
observers is encountered in the late Vedic and Puranic stories, and in the Mahabharata and
the Yoga Vasishtha.

Many Solar Systems: Indian mythology assumes an uncountable number of worlds (solar
systems). In Puranic texts, the diameter of our own solar system is taken to be about 500
million yojanas which is about 7.5 billion kilometers.

With the above as background to the general ideas regarding the cosmos current in ancient
India, we come to the discussion of archaeoastronomy in ancient India. A considerable part of
the archaeoastronomy of this period is based on the author's research. Due to the importance
given in Indian culture to the abstract and the symbolic, many of the archaeoastronomical sites
are temples. The king was consecrated at the temple. The consecration served to confirm the
king as foremost devotee of the chosen deity, who was taken to be the embodiment of time
and the universe.

The Indian sacred city has been viewed as a structured mesocosm, situated between the
microcosm of the individual and the macrocosm of the culturally conceived larger universe.
Such a city is constructed of spatially connected and recursively layered circles, each of which
is sustained by its own culture and performance. Although Levy's city is not very ancient, it is
built according to an old tradition. The Harappan city of Dholavira is also recursively
structured. Furthermore, temples were taken to be define the meeting ground between the
macrocosm and the microcosm, and, therefore, they provide much information on the
relationship between astronomy and cosmology.

India's archaeological record has unbroken continuity going back to about 7500 BCE at
Mehrgarh, and it has a rock art tradition, next only to that of Australia and Africa in
abundance, that is much older. Some rock art has been assigned to the Upper Paleolithic
period. There is surprising uniformity, both in style and content, in the rock art paintings of the
Mesolithic period (10,000-2500 BCE).

The setting for the hymns of the Rigveda, which is India's most ancient literary text, is the area
of Sapta Saindhava, the region of north India bounded by the Sindh and the Ganga rivers
although regions around this heartland are also mentioned. The Rigveda describes the
Sarasvati River to be the greatest of the rivers and going from the mountains to the sea. The
archaeological record, suggesting that this river had turned dry by 1900 BCE, indicates that the
Rigveda is prior to this epoch.
 The Rigveda and other early Vedic literature have astronomical references related to the
shifting astronomical frame that indicate epochs of the fourth and third millennium BCE which
is consistent with the hydrological evidence. The nakshatra lists are found in the Vedas, either
directly or listed under their presiding deities, and it one may conclude that their names have
not changed. Vedic astronomy used a luni-solar year in which an intercalary month was
employed as adjustment with solar year.

The foundation of Vedic cosmology is the notion of bandhu (homology or binding between the
outer and the inner). It was estimated correctly that the sun and the moon were
approximately 108 times their respective diameters from the earth (perhaps from the
discovery that the angular size of a pole removed 108 times its height is the same as that of
the sun and the moon), and this number was used in sacred architecture. The distance to the
sanctum sanctorum of the temple from the gate and the perimeter of the temple were taken
to be 54 and 180 units, which are one-half each of 108 and 360. Homologies at many levels are
at the basis of the idea of recursion, or repetition in scale and time. The astronomical basis of
the Vedic ritual was the reconciliation of the lunar and solar years."

"The Cosmological Plan of the City and the Temple

According to the Vastu Sastra, manual of sacred architecture, the structure of the building
mirrors the emergence of cosmic order out of primordial chaos through the act of
measurement. The universe is symbolically mapped into a square that emphasizes the four
cardinal directions. It is represented by the square vastupurushamandala, which in its various
forms is the basic plan for the temple, the house, and the city. There exist further elaborations
of this plan, some of which are rectangular.

Yantric buildings in the form of mandalas, dated to about 2000 BCE, have been discovered in
North Afghanistan that belong to a period that corresponds to the late stage of the Harappan
tradition providing architectural evidence in support of the idea of recursion at this time.
Although these building are a part of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC),
their affinity with ideas that are also present in the Harappan system shows that these ideas
were widely spread.

Recent studies haves shown that the unit of dhanus has been used consistently in India in
town planning and architecture for over 4,000 years, going back to the Harappan period. By
considering the largest measure which leads to integer dimensions for the various parts of the
Harappan age city of Dholavira, which was excavated in the 1990s, it was found that this
measure is the same as the Arthasastra (300 BCE) measure of dhanus (bow) that equals 108
angulas (fingers).

The measure of dhanus is seen to apply not only to the Mauryan and Gupta era structures, but
even to more recent grid and modular measures in the town planning of Kathmandu Valley."

"The layout of Dholavira is unique in that it comprises of three 'towns,' which is in accord with
Vedic ideas. The feature of recursion in the three towns, or repeating ratios at different scales,
is significant. Specifically, the design is characterized by the nesting proportion of 9:4 across
the lower and the middle towns and the castle. The proportions of 5/4, 7/6, and 5/4 for the
lower town, the middle town, and the castle may reflect the measures related to the royal city,
the commander's quarter, and the king's quarter, respectively, which was also true of Classical
India."

"The dhanus unit also explains the chosen dimensions of Angkor Wat and Prambanan temples
in Southeast Asia."

"In this section we consider additional evidence from Harappan and Vedic periods. The
absence of monumental buildings such as palaces and temples makes the Harappan city
strikingly different from its counterparts of Mesopotamia and Egypt, suggesting that the polity
of the Harappan state was de-centralized and based on a balance between the political, the
mercantile, and the religious elites. The presence of civic amenities such as wells and drains
attests to considerable social equality. The power of the mercantile guilds is clear in the
standardization of weights of carefully cut and polished chert cubes that form a combined
binary and decimal system.

Mohenjo-Daro and other sites show slight divergence of 1° to 2° clockwise of the axes from
the cardinal directions. It is thought that this might have been due to the orientation of
Aldebaran (Rohini in Sanskrit) and the Pleiades (Kritikka in Sanskrit) that rose in the east during
3000 BCE to 2000 BCE at the spring equinox, the word 'rohini' literally means rising.
Furthermore, the slight difference in the orientations amongst the buildings in Mohenjo-Daro
indicates different construction periods using the same traditional sighting points that had
shifted in this interval due to precession of the equinoxes.

Mohenjo-Daro's astronomy used both the motions of the moon and the sun. This is attested
by the use of great calendar stones, in the shape of ring, which served to mark the beginning
and end of the solar year.

[Astronomical seal from the Harappan era.]

The seal of Figures 3a,b has been viewed by many as representing the Pleiades. The
conjunction of this constellation with the sun at the vernal equinox marked the New Year
around 2400 BCE. The Pleiades, the wives of the seven sages, are important in Vedic
mythology as representing the seven mothers who nurse the war-god Skanda.

The seal of Figure 4 is taken to represent the opposition of the Orion (Mrigashiras, or antelope
head) and the Scorpio (Rohini of the southern hemisphere which is 14 nakshatras from the
Rohini of the northern hemisphere) nakshatras. The arrow near the head of one of the
antelopes could represent the decapitation of Orion. It is generally accepted that the myth of
Prajapati being killed by Rudra represents the shifting of the beginning of the year away from
Orion and it places the astronomical event in the fourth millennium BCE.

[A 3rd millennium seal from Rehman Dheri.]

[Mapping of the nakshatras to the solar months.]

Figure 5 presents the 27 nakshatras of the Indian astronomy together with the 12 solar
segments (rashis). It is significant that the 27 nakshatras contain 24 names together with three
which are further subdivided. This indicates that the 24 divisions may have preceded the 27
divisions of the Vedic astronomy.

Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India.
Vedic texts describe the design and ritual of the fire altars which were oriented towards the
east and whose design, using bricks laid in five layers, coded astronomical knowledge of its
times. The best known of the fire altars is the falcon altar of Figure 6. Texts that describe fire
altar designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BCE, but their contents appear to
be much older.

Vedic ritual was based on the times for the full and the new moons, the solstices and the
equinoxes. There were two years: the ritual year started with the winter solstice (mahavrata),
and the civil one started with the spring equinox (vishuva). The passage of the rising of the sun
in its northward course from the winter solstice to the summer solstice (vishuvant) was called
gavam ayana, or the sun's walk. The solar year was divided into two ayanas: in the uttarayana
the sun travels north, in the dakshinayana it travels south. The movement of the moon was
marked by its nightly conjunction with one of the 27 or 28 nakshatras. The Rigveda 1.164 also
speaks of another tradition of dividing the zodiac into twelve equal parts. It appears that these
divisions were called the Adityas. The incommensurability between the lunar and the solar
reckonings led to the search for ever-increasing cycles to synchronize the motions of the sun
and the moon. This is how the yuga astronomical model was born. In the lunar month, there
were separate traditions of counting the beginning of the month by the full-moon day and the
new-moon day."

"Neolithic and Megalithic Sites

Sites of archaeoastronomical interest include the Neolithic site of Burzahom from Kashmir in
North India, and megalithic sites from Brahmagiri and Hanamsagar from Karnataka in South
India. The dates for these specific sites are provided in the text. The importance of these sites
arises from the fact that they present astronomical knowledge that was most likely outside the
literary tradition.

Burzahom, Kashmir. The Burzahom site is located about 10 km northeast of Srinagar in the
Kashmir Valley on a terrace of Late Pleistocene-Holocene deposits. Dated to around 3000-1500
BCE, its deep pit dwellings are associated with ground stone axes, bone tools, and gray
burnished pottery. A stone slab of 48 cm x 27 cm, obtained from a phase dated to 2125 BCE
shows two bright objects in the sky with a hunting scene in the foreground. These have been
assumed to be a depiction of a double star system.

Brahmagiri, Karnataka. The megalithic stone circles of Brahmagiri (latitude 14º 73', longitude
76º 77'), Chitradurga district of Karnataka in South India, that have been dated to 900 BCE,
show astronomical orientations. Rao has argued that site lines from the centre of a circle to an
outer tangent of another circle point to the directions of the sunrise and full moon rise at the
time of the solar and lunar solstices and equinox.

Hanamsagar, Karnataka. Hanamsagar is a megalithic site with stone alignments pointing to

cardinal directions. Since the megalithic period of Karnataka is believed to belong to the first
millennium BCE, it may be assumed that this is the period of the site. The site is located on a
flat area between hills about 6 km north of the Krishna river at latitude 16º 19' 18' and
longitude 76º 27' 10'. The stones, which are smooth granite, are arranged in a square of side
that is about 600 meters with 50 rows and 50 column (for a total of 2,500 stones), with a
separation between stones of about 12 m. The stones are between 1 to 2.5 m in height with a
maximum diameter of 2 to 3 m. The lines are oriented in cardinal directions. There is a
squarish central structure known as chakri katti.

It has been argued that the directions of summer and winter solstice can be fixed in relation to
the outer and the inner squares. Rao suggests that it could have been used for several other
kind of astronomical observations such as use of shadows to tell the time of the day, the
prediction of months, seasons and passage of the year."

"The Sanchi Stupa, a hemispherical domed structure with a flattened top meant to contain the
relics of the Buddha, is believed to have been built by King Asoka in around 250 BCE, an
enlargement to double the size was done by the Sungas (this dynasty ruled between 185 and
73 BCE). It is surrounded by a balustrade that represents the sun's circuit. The Buddha did on
full moon day of the lunar month Vaisakha, and this day is observed as the Buddha purnima
day. At full moon the moonrise and sunset are observed in the eastern and western horizons.

It is likely that the astronomical basis of the Stupa was inspired by the Vedic altar that
represented the circuit of the sun. It has been shown elsewhere how this representation of the
sun's motion remained common knowledge and it was used in Angkor Wat.

Two further Stupas were built by the Sunga kings and it is believed that they fixed the
orientation of the Stupa. G.M. Ballabh and K.D. Abhyankar found that the Buddha purnima
occurred at Sanchi on April 28, 109 BCE with the sunset and moonrise of the full moon to the
east-west orientation of the Stupa (azimuth of the Sun and Moon equal to 285.2 and 105
degrees, respectively, with an altitude of about 1 degree). This also corresponds to the setting
and rising of the Pleiades (Krittika) and Scorpii (Anuradha).

There is further astronomical significance to the design of the outer balustrade in the Stupas.

Great Stupa. The outer balustrade has 120 posts arranged in 4 quadrants and they are joined
by three rows of 29 horizontal crossbars. Starting with the 30 posts in the first quadrant, 29
crossbars of the second quadrant, 30 posts of the third quadrant, and 29 crossbars of the
fourth quadrant, we have a count of 118. Three such rounds correspond to the number of days
in the lunar year. Rao adds that to arrive at an undistorted full circle it would require 108 (i.e.
120-16+4) posts, where the 16 entrance posts have been subtracted and 4 missing posts at
each entrance required have been added for reasons of symmetry. We have already
mentioned the significance of the count of 108 in Indian astronomy. Rao speculates that the
total number of outer balustrade posts (120) and slabs (115) gives a count of 235 corresponds
to the lunations of the Metonic cycle. The harmika balustrade at the top has 28 posts, which
equals the number of nakshatras.

Stupa 2. The count according to Rao for the posts and the crossbars is also 354, the number of
days in the lunar year. Rao further speculates that the location of Sanchi may have
astronomical significance since its latitude is close to the declination of the sun on the summer
solstice day."

"The assumed homologies between the outer and the inner cosmoses meant that the same
vocabulary was used to speak of their respective structures. While this becomes an obstacle
for those who do not understand the system, it has within it the potential to explain many
attitudes in Indian mythology, religious practice, science, and art.

In concluding, there was continuity between the archaeoastronomy of the early period
covered in this essay and that of the medieval period where pilgrimage and temple centers
mirrored conceptions of the cosmos. Medieval sites of archaeoastronomical significance
include Sisupalgarh, Chitrakut, Vijayanagara, Gaya, Konarak, Khajuraho, and the Suryapuja
temples in Tamil Nadu. For example, the temple complex of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh,
built in 9th-12th century CE by the Chandela kings, form three overlapping circles, with centers
at the Lakshmana (Vishnu), the Javeri (Siva), and the Duladeva (Siva) temples. Their deviation
from true cardinality is believed to be due to the direction of sunrise on the day of
consecration. The Lakshmana temple, one of the oldest of the complex, is considered the axis
mundi of the site and it is oriented to the sunrise on Holi.

The sun temples of Varanasi are interesting in that six of these lie along one side of an
isosceles triangle with a base of 2.5km. The triangle surrounds the former temple of
Madhyameshavara, which was the original center of the city. Pilgrims walking along the
triangle are symbolically circumambulating the cosmos."

Cosmic Capitals And Numinous Precincts In Early China (David W. Pankenier):

"Study of the role of astronomical alignment in shaping the built environment suggests that
centuries before the ascendancy of mathematical astronomy in the Han dynasty, the Chinese
had already developed practical, geometrical applications of astronomical knowledge useful in
orienting high value structures. The archaeological record clearly shows this fundamental
disposition was firmly established already by the formative period of Chinese civilization in the
early 2nd millennium BCE. The imperative to conform precisely to celestial norms led to the
cosmological design of ritual precincts like the Hall of Numinous Brightness described here.
Moreover, the identity between the Celestial Pole and the imperial capital and an intense
focus on the circumpolar 'skyscape' are manifested in the highly symbolic orientation of early
imperial capitals."

"The Mingtang 'Hall of Numinous Brightness'

According to the Kang gao chapter of Shangshu, following the establishment of the new Zhou
dynasty (1046-256 BCE) capital at Luoyang in mid-11th century BCE, a precedent-setting
assembly of all the vassals of the realm was convened. Classical texts consistently identify the
location of this assembly as the Zhou sacred precinct called Mingtang 'Hall of Numinous
Brightness'. The Mingtang was also the location of similar highly symbolic ceremonial events
recorded in early Zhou ritual bronze inscriptions. This is not the place for a comprehensive
survey of the cosmological symbolism of the Mingtang in tradition and practice, not least
because the subject has already been extensively studied. Here I propose just to consider the
astral associations of the Hall of Numinous Brightness and two early capitals of China's
'Celestial Empire'. The most authoritative early discussion of the design and function of the
Mingtang is that of Cai Yong (133-192 CE) found in his Mingtang yueling lun 'Excursus on the
Hall of Numinous Brightness and the Monthly Ordinances':

The Mingtang is the taimiao (Grand Ancestral Temple) of the Son of Heaven, wherein the
Emperor sacrifices to his ancestors in the company of the Supernal Lord. The lineage of Xia
called this place shishi (Chamber of Generations); the Shang people called it chongwu (Multi-
storied Chamber); and the people of Zhou called it Mingtang (Hall of Numinous Brightness).
The eastern [chamber] is called qingyang (Green yang); the southern is called Mingtang; the
western is called zongzhang (Assemblage of Emblems); the northern is called xuantang
(Sombre Hall), and the central chamber is called taishi (Grand Hall). The Book of Changes says:
'Li is brightness, the hexagram of the south. The sage faces south and attends (to affairs), all
under heaven face the brightness and are ordered. For the ruler of men there is no more true
position than this' ... Therefore, although there are five appellations, principal among them is
Mingtang ... Compare this to the Northern Asterism which dwells in its place while all the
myriad stars circle it, and the ten-thousand things are regulated by it. [It is] the source from
which springs governance and instruction, and the origin of all change and transformation,
manifesting unity. Therefore, it is said of the Mingtang that its affairs are great and its meaning
profound. If one invokes the aspect of purity, it is called qingmiao (Pure Temple); if one
invokes its aspect as the hall of governance, then it is called taimiao; if one invokes the aspect
of veneration, then it is called taishi; if one invokes its aspect of facing toward the light, then it
is called Mingtang; if one invokes the aspect of the schools of the four gates, it is called the
daxue (Great Learning); if one invokes the aspect of being surrounded on the four sides by [a
body of] water, round like a jade bi, it is called biyong [Circular Moat]. They are all different
names for the same thing - it is one thing.

Summing up, Mark Edward Lewis put it like this:

'the Bright Hall is a microcosm in which both cosmos and state are completely realized. It is a
ritual complex that combines rites to ancestors and cosmic deities; an administrative center
where all officials are gathered and all policies enacted; and an educational institution in which
all true teachings are presented. It is also the summation of the ritual structures of earlier
dynasties. As a chart of the cosmos, the source of order, and a summation of history, it
becomes the perfect image of power.'"

"The Mingtang as Celestial Simulacrum

It will be important to consider in more detail some features of the Mingtang that have a
direct bearing on the notion of a normative celestial temple. The political and religious
significance attaching to the Mingtang, held to inhere in the very design and layout of the Hall,
indicates that in addition to the functions named above, the solar and lunar observations
essential to calendrical astronomy would also have been performed within these precincts.
Given the archetypal role of proper orientation based on the guidance derived from the
'images' suspended in the heavens, it now seems clear that the Pure Temple (Great Square of
Pegasus) displayed so prominently in the night sky above may actually have been the
prototype of the Mingtang on the ground.

Immediately following the passage above, Cai Yong quotes the Yueling ji 'Records of Monthly
Ordinances':

The Mingtang is that wherein the unification of all things by Heaven and Earth is manifest. The
stellar image in Heaven through which the Mingtang communicates is called the [Northern]
Asterism (UMa). Therefore, its twelve palaces here below are the [twelve solar] chronograms.
The water surrounds it on the four sides, emblematic of the king's acting as the model for all
under Heaven, his virtue reaching abroad to the Four Seas, like this water.

Here we have it explicitly stated that the correspondence between Mingtang and Heaven is
not merely one of cosmological analogy, but that, in fact, this sacred space is precisely the axis
mundi through which the terrestrial sovereign communicates with his celestial counterpart at
the Pole. Still another Han source, the Liji Mingtang yinyang lu 'Yin-yang Record of the Hall of
Numinous Brightness of the Classic of Rites', elaborates on the details of this resonance
between the temporal and celestial realms:

The yin and yang of the Mingtang are the means by which the kingly ruler responds to
Heaven. The scheme of the Mingtang is that it is surrounded by water, the water swirling
leftward in imitation of Heaven. In the interior is the taishi 'Great Hall', in imitation of the
zigong (Purple Tenuity Palace; circumpolar stars in UMa and Draco); emerging [from it] to the
south there is the Mingtang, in imitation of taiwei (Palace of Grand Tenuity; stars in Leo and
Virgo); emerging [from it] to the west there is the zongzhang (Assembly of Emblems), in
imitation of wuhuang (Five Ponds; stars in Auriga); emerging [from it] to the north there is the
xuantang 'Somber Hall', in imitation of yingshi (Lay-out-the-Hall; Square of Pegasus); emerging
[from it] to the east there is the qingyang Green yang, in imitation of tianshi (Celestial
Marketpace; stars in Ophiucus and Hercules). [Each of] the Supernal Lord Shangdi's four
seasons govern its own palace, the kingly ruler too in carrying out Heaven's unification of all
things attends to the affairs of the kingdom from the [appropriate] quarter.

If this sounds somewhat idealized, compare Li Daoyuan's striking description in Shuijing zhu
'Annotated Water Classic' of the design of the Mingtang in the Northern Wei dynasty capital of
Pingcheng (present-day Datong) in the early 3rd century:

The Mingtang was round above and square below, on the four sides there were twelve doors
and nine rooms, without common walls. Outside the rooms, within the columns and beneath
the silk atrium awning were installed mechanical wheels and pale blue-green silk decorated
with blue semi-precious stones - looking up it resembled the sky. [On it] were painted the
Polar Asterism and lunar lodges, so that it resembled the canopy of Heaven. Each month as the
[Northern] Dipper pointed to [successive] chronograms, it revolved to correspond to the way
of Heaven; in this respect [the Mingtang] departed from the ancient [model]. On top [of the
Mingtang] was added a Numinous Terrace, and below water was led in to form a biyong
[Circular Moat]. Along the water's edge stones were laid to form embankments, in this respect
according with the ancient scheme. This is what was laid out and built during the Taizhong
(227-232) reign period."

"The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) Cosmic Capital

Conscious imitation of the celestial patterns is perfectly consistent with the heavenward
orientation of rulership in China from the outset, and in early imperial times gained physical
expression, not only in the Mingtang, but in the imperial capital itself. There are ample
historical instances of just such mimicry, which go well beyond the cardinal orientation and
number symbolism of the Mingtang. In the 'Basic Annals of the First Emperor of Qin' in Shiji
'The Grand Scribe's Records' (ca. 100 BCE) there is the following description of the layout of
the Qin capital of Xianyang:

Thus he laid out and started to build the audience halls to the south of the Wei [River] in the
Shanglin [Menagerie]. He started first with the E-pang? ?[palace], which was five-hundred
paces from east to west and fifty rods from north to south ... From all sides ran stepped
passageways reaching directly from the Hall to the Southern Mountains. He built an elevated
passageway from E-pang [palace] across the Wei [River] to connect that hall to Xianyang,
thereby symbolizing the Gedao 'Stepped Passageway' (Cassiopeia), [which runs] from near the
Celestial Pole across the Milky Way to connect with lunar lodge Yingshi Lay-out-the-Hall.

Note here the explicit identification of the capital of Xianyang with the Celestial Pole, and the
focus on the connection between the Pole and the Celestial Temple, Yingshi Lay-out-the-Hall
(Square of Pegasus), communication between the opposite sides of the Milky Way being
accomplished via the Stepped Passageway. Elsewhere in the same chapter, Sima Qian again
mentions the link between the terrestrial palace and Celestial Pole:

In his [First Emperor of Qin's] 27th year (220 BCE) ... He built the Xin 'Trust' Palace to the south
of the Wei [River]. Shortly afterward, he renamed the Xin Palace the Jimiao [Northern] Culmen
Temple to symbolize the Celestial Pole. From the Culmen Temple a road led to Mount Li,
where he built the front hall of the Ganquan 'Sweet Springs' Palace. He constructed a walled
corridor to connect it to Xianyang.

This cosmological analogy, redolent of the celestial source of the imperial charisma and
legitimacy, was certainly widely recognized from Qin and Han times on. The Sanfu huangtu
'Yellow Plans of the Three Capital Commanderies' (ca. 3rd to 6th century), a widely circulated
text compiled from Han sources and frequently quoted down through the Song dynasty (960-
1279), confirms that this astral-terrestrial correspondence was commonly understood. For
example, Zhang Shoujie's Zhengyi commentary in Shiji quotes the Sanfu huangtu as follows:

The Sanfu huangtu says: 'When the First Emperor of Qin unified all under heaven he made
Xianyang his capital. Because he laid out a palace on North Hill, the Zigong (circumpolar Palace
of Purple Tenuity) resembled the Emperor's Palace. The Wei River ran through the capital,
simulating the Milky Way, and the Transverse Bridge crossed [the Wei River] to the south, on
the model of Oxherd Qianniu (lunar lodge #9).'

In the First Emperor of Qin's time, in late October to early November the brilliant silvery
ribbon of the Milky Way arched across the sky from southwest to northeast, between the
circumpolar palace of the heavens and lunar lodge Oxherd, precisely like its terrestrial
correlate, the Wei River. The Pure Temple (Great Square of Pegasus) was due south,
perpendicular to the horizon and only at this moment capable of fulfilling its polar alignment
function. Here we have the probable explanation for the Qin dynasty's choice of precisely this
time to begin the New Year - the highly symbolic celebratory moment when Heaven above and
the sub-celestial realm below were exactly congruent."

"The Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) Cosmic Capital

Meticulous mathematical analysis by Stephen Hotaling using scale drawings of the layout and
curious configuration of the walls of the early Han capital of Ch'ang-an (built 194-190 BCE)
suggests that the contours of the northern wall of the city reproduced the shape of the
Northern Dipper, while the southern wall reproduced the shape of the Southern Dipper (lunar
lodge #8) where the ecliptic intersects the Milky Way. Hotaling cites in evidence an account in
the Sanfu huangtu which states explicitly:

The south of the city wall was in the shape of the Southern Dipper, the north was in the shape
of the Northern Dipper; it is for this reason that until now people refer to the city wall of the
Han capital as the 'Dipper (dou) wall'.

The east wall of the city, on the other hand, was aligned on true north, while the imperial
palaces inside the city, such as the Weiyang 'Everlasting' Palace, were rectilinear and cardinally
oriented.

At the upper left in Fig. 2 is Hotaling's inset drawing showing the stars Dubhe and Merak in the
'bowl' of Ursa Major pointing toward Polaris. However, Polaris was not the Pole Star in the
early Han, and the Southern Dipper, whose outline is supposedly replicated in the south wall,
should not lie due south directly behind the Northern Dipper. Instead it should lie well to the
north of the southwesterly direction in which the 'handle' portion of Chang'an's north wall
points in the reconstruction. Most problematical of all, if the design of the north wall of
Chang'an had been conceived as Hotaling suggests, the fictive Pole in Chang'an such a
configuration would imply would necessarily lie outside the city wall some distance to the
north, much as would Kochab beta UMi, the brightest star near the Pole in Han times. But
placing the Celestial Pole, and hence the axis mundi, outside the walls of the imperial capital is
an untenable proposition.

Hotaling's suggested configuration is one that would typically result from drawing the Dipper
on a sheet of paper, then placing this chart face up on the ground in order to plan something
according to the stellar pattern. However, proceeding in this fashion would invert the
orientation of the Dipper, which is fine if the purpose is merely to draw a chart of the
constellation. To exactly replicate the stellar pattern on the ground, however, one has to place
the drawing of the Dipper face down, as if the circumpolar stars had floated down to the
ground surface (or been projected through a template). This procedure correctly reproduces
the precise configuration of the circumpolar sky on the ground, thereby preserving an exact
correspondence between the imperial capital and the Supernal Lord's abode at the Pole.
 Thus Hotaling's reconstruction, while otherwise ingenious, is conceptually flawed in a crucial
respect. The contradictions can easily be resolved, however, if one imagines the Dipper
'emptying' inward rather than outward as in Fig. 2 above; that is, configured in a manner
identical to its depiction on shi 'cosmographs' and stone reliefs of the period. It is extremely
doubtful whether the diviners who made such cosmographs or the engineers who built
Chang'an's walls ever imagined themselves actually looking down on the pole from a vantage
point outside the cosmos. They simply followed the procedure described above: 'looking up
they took the images from Heaven', then floated them down unmediated to earth. They were
not about mapping the sky, but about making a precise simulacrum of the Celestial Pole.

[Early Han cosmograph with the Dipper at the center of the rotating 'Heaven Plate'; from the
tomb of the Marquis of Ru Yin, ca. 168 BCE.]

[Stone carving from the Wuliang Shrine (ca 2nd c. CE) showing the Supernal Lord Shang-di
driving his heavenly chariot, the Dipper.]

On Hotaling's drawing in Fig. 2 the proposed revision would simply entail flipping the north-
south positions of the pairs of 'bowl' stars - Megrez and Phecda, Dubhe and Merak - with the
result that the Pole (and all the 'imperial' stars of UMi) would then lie inside the walls of
Chang'an. Admittedly, the position of the last star in the handle of the Dipper, Alkaid (n UMa),
looks out of place and somewhat incongruous in Hotaling's drawing of the north wall, but it
was the reconstruction of precisely this section of the wall that posed the greatest problems,
leading to Hotaling's characterization of this part as tentative. Significantly, this modification of
Hotaling's solution would also resolve the seemingly problematical identification in Fig. 2 of
the south wall with the Southern Dipper, because now the Southern Dipper's location vis à vis
the north wall's Northern Dipper would correspond to its true position in the sky. On the Han
cosmograph in Fig. 8 Nandou, Southern Dipper, is shown by the character dou in the 8 o'clock
position. This would also explain the curious fact, which confounded Hotaling, that the moat
along the south wall of Chang'an actually cut through the 'scoop' of the Southern Dipper
where it protrudes from the wall. Given the precedent established by the First Emperor of Qin
as documented above, who exploited the Wei River's course to make it flow through the
capital of Xianyang, and given the fact of the Southern Dipper's actual location in the 'silvery
river' of the Milky Way, this curious feature of the south wall of Chang'an now also fits the
pattern.

Whether or not we have recovered the precise explanation for the idiosyncratic configuration
of the walls of Chang'an, we have it on good authority that the identification of the earliest
imperial capitals with the Celestial Pole was certainly in the minds of their builders and
imperial residents. Between early Zhou (early first millennium BCE) and the immediate pre-
imperial period the picture remains somewhat confused, and confusing. A vast amount of new
archaeological information has emerged since Wheatley's pioneering study, but the data on
cardinal alignment has yet to be systematically compiled and analyzed. A significant obstacle is
that many site plans in the archaeological reports fail even to indicate the direction of
magnetic north, much less axial alignments of structures in azimuth. Mingtang from the
earliest period are notoriously difficult to identify from excavated foundations, but there are
notable examples of precise north-south orientation, such as the Eastern Zhou (8th-7th
century BCE) royal city of Wangcheng. As in the case of the shift from the west-of-north to the
east-of-north bias coincident with the Xia (1953-1555 BCE) to Shang (1554-1046 BCE) dynastic
transition, changes in alignment can most definitely be indicative of significant socio-political
or cultural transitions, as has been pointed out in the case of the Western Zhou devolution of
power to Qin in Shaanxi:

Qin tombs differ in two respects from Eastern Zhou-period tombs elsewhere in the Zhou
culture sphere: they are overwhelmingly oriented east-west rather than north-south, and they
feature flexed rather than extended burial. These idiosyncracies have been taken as markers of
an alien ethnic identity of the Qin people. And indeed it is impressive to observe how the
predominant tomb orientation at central Shaanxi cemeteries suddenly shifted by 90 degrees at
the transition from Western to Eastern Zhou, when the Qin took over the area from the royal
Zhou."

"The ancient Chinese were intensely interested in the circumpolar region, and especially in the
mysterious Pole itself, from the very beginning of Chinese civilization. Study of the role of
astronomical alignment in shaping the built environment shows that centuries before the
emergence of mathematical astronomy in the Han dynasty, the Chinese had already developed
practical, geometrical applications of astronomical knowledge. A case in point is the
sophisticated use by mid-1st millennium BCE of the parallel sides of Ding - the 'Pure Temple'
(Great Square of Pegasus) - to achieve a ritually correct polar alignment of symbolic structures.

I have traced the evidence of a persistent intentionality - a focus on the heavens, and
especially the circumpolar sky - in symbolic representation, literary sources, and applied
astronomy. There are innumerable references in classical Chinese literature to the vital
necessity of maintaining conformity with the normative patterns of the cosmos. Long before
this core idea became enshrined in the imperial ideology, the archaeological record clearly
shows this fundamental noetic disposition was firmly established by the formative period of
Chinese civilization in the early 2nd millennium BCE. The imperative to conform to Heaven
made it essential to devise practical methods of achieving that objective. The practice of
divination is one modality that exemplifies this impulse. Devising a calendar is another. The
design and symbolism of ritual precincts like the Mingtang 'Hall of Numinous Brightness' is
another. And finally, as shown here, an age-old preoccupation with the circumpolar 'skyscape'
continued to manifest itself in the highly symbolic orientation of early imperial capitals."

Cosmology And The Death Of Gods: New Age Religions, Anti-Christ, And Precession Of The
Equinox (R. Gabriel Joseph):

"Most calendars are based on astronomical, cosmic events, including the phases of the moon,
the Earth's orbit around the sun, and the rotation of the 12 constellations. Calendars are linked
to the cosmos and serve to predict the future, when to plant and harvest the crops, the
coming of winter and summer, when leaves and rains will fall. Most calanders are based on
rotating cycles, dates repeating themselves, and not just dates, but anniversaries, birthdays,
and when to celebrate or lament historical events. Calanders also serve to regulate human
behavior, to plan and predict the future, and the best predictor of the future is the past.

The Mayan and Aztec calanders were based on the solar year of 365 days, another on a 260
days year and the orbit of Venus. Yet another was called the long count, and was used to
compute and calculate cosmic events which occurred hundreds, thousands, and even millions
of years before, and to predict when similar events would happen again.

Mayan scientists learned to chart the heavens, visualize eternity, and to count in millions.
Over a thousand years ago, the Mayans calculated the solar year at 365.2420 days, which is
remarkably close to the modern 'scientific' figure of 365.2422: the exact length of a solar year.
Likewise, the Mayas calculated that it took the moon 29.528395 days to orbit Earth - a figure
nearly identical to that given by modern scientific instruments: 29.530588 days.

They also discovered the concept of zero, or nothing and believed in the concept of infinity, as
did the Hindu and Aryan sages of ancient India. They erected great pyramids, astronomical
observatories to chart the stars, they speculated about death and the afterlife as related to the
planets and the cosmos, and conducted complex mathematical rituals, and employed a variety
of mind bending hallucinogenic substances to expand their consciousness and open their
minds.

The Mayas may have even determined the orbit of our solar system around the Milky Way
galaxy which in turn may have been depicted or conceptualized as the god, Quetzocoatl, or a
cosmic serpent. Mathematical equations, calculations and predictions decorated public
buildings, monuments, pyramids and temples. Some scholars believe, the Mayan priesthood
worshipped math and the concept of time.

As summed up by Thompson 'In the Maya scheme the road over which time had marched
stretched into a past so distant that the mind of man cannot comprehend its remoteness. On a
stela at Quiriga in Guatemala a date over 90 million years ago is computed; on another a date
over 300 million years ago is given. These are actual computations, stating correctly the day
and month positions, and are comparable to calculations in our calendar giving the month
positions on which Easter would have fallen at equivalent distances in the past. The brain reels
at such astronomical figures.'

The Mayan astronomer priests of ancient Mexico and Central America, also determined the
synodical revolution of Venus, i.e. 584 days, which is the time it takes Venus to return to a
specific point in the heavens as viewed from the Earth. Like the medieval Catholic Church, the
Mayas (as well as the Aztecs) associated Venus (the Morning Star) with the Great Serpent.

The Mayas recognized that the figure of 584 was just a very close approximation, because the
movements of Venus and Earth are not completely regular. The Mayans thus arrived at an
'average' synodical period of 583.92 days - a figure nearly identical to modern estimates.

The Mayan/Aztec calander predict not just the coming of the seasons and the days of the
week, but when the hands of the cosmic clock would shift and the rising sun would appear in a
new constellation, thus signifying the coming of a new age every 2,160 years."
"CIRCLES WITHIN CIRCLES: MILKY WAY AND THE CONSTELLATIONS

The Milky Way galaxy can be viewed in the darkness of night, edge-on, snaking in a curving
arc, forming part of a circle. Through careful observation, the ancient priest-scientists deduced
the existence of a circular galaxy, of which Earth, and the constellations circled round, or which
circled round forming a cosmic clock."

[Egyptian: Note Key of life representing the sign of the cross, and coiled around are the stars of
the milky way galaxy.]

[Milky Way Galaxy, viewed from Earth, with some of the constellations depicited. Not position
of Orion (Osiris) and Gemini .]

[Ancient Eguypt: Osiris atended by the Gemini twins, and above: the Milky Way galaxy, and 12
constellations of the zodiac represented by snakes.]

[Aztec, Quetzalcoatl/Galaxy.]

"The Cosmic Clock and the Equinox

The priests were scientists, mathematicians, and astronomers who believed by studying the
movements of the stars and cyclic cosmic events, that they could scientifically predict what
would occur in the future, as based on what has transpired in the past.

According to the Mayan/Aztec Calanders, cosmic cycles and each new age are linked to a
cosmic clock, with the ticking of the hands, marked by the sun, as it rises in a different house of
the 12 constellations on the equinox and solstice every 2,160 years; a precessional calendar
that, in total, is 25,776 years in duration. In the year 2012, the cosmic clock, and the rising sun,
marked the beginning of a new age ruled by Leo and Aquarius and the death of the previous
age which was governed by Pieces and Virgo for the previous 2,160 years.

According to the Mayan and Aztec calandars, the clock has come not full circle, but half circle,
for 13,000 years ago the cosmic clock marked time by the rising sun in the constellations of Leo
on the day of the on Spring Equinox and Aquarius on the Autmn equinox. Twenty six thousand
years ago, the cosmic clock marked Aquarius on the day of the Spring Equinox and Leo on the
Autmn equinox as is the case since 2012, having come full circle.

The Mayan priests devised a calendar which included a 'sacred year,' the tzolkin of 260 days,
and which was separated into 13 months of 20 days each. As we shall see '13' is a precessional
number related to the cyclic movement of the cosmic clock and the onset of new ages and the
ending of old ages. In addition, they devised a calendar based on the 'Long Count' which
incorporated their beliefs about the future and the past.

This Long Count Calendar was in turn based upon the even more ancient bar-and-dot calendar
devised by the Olmecs. The Olmecs bar-and-dot calendar - with a current starting date of
8/13/3113 B.C. (4 Ahau 8 Cumku) - predicts that the onset of the new age of Aquarius and the
the next great cosmic cycle began on December 23, 2012 (4 Ahau 3 Kankin). 2012 is also the
date given by the Mayan and Atec calendars for the onset of the new age and the ending of
the last age."

"THE PYRAMIDS: HEAVEN ON EARTH

The Pyramids of Kukulkan

Kukulkan, the 'feathered Serpent (also known as Quetzalcoatl by the Aztecs) was the Great
God of the Maya- a god that coiled through the cosmos according to specific cycles and whose
movements and coming and goings coincided with cosmic rebirth, and destruction. The Mayas,
in honor of their god, and to track and record his movement through the cosmos, erected an
observatory, the Temple of Kuklukan, located in Chinchen Itza, in northern Yucanta, Mexico.

The Temple of Kuklukan, towers nearly 100 feet, and forms a perfect four sided ziggurat, a
pyramid, with four stairways with 91 steps each. Coupled with the last step, the threshold to
the top platform, the total steps come to 365 which corresponds with the number of days in a
solar year.

The Temple of Kuklukan, was constructed with astronomical-geometric precision. The

northern staircase was also designed to react to the sun, twice a year, by giving rise to the
illusion of a giant serpent undulating across the steps. The illusion of a slithering snake lasts for
a period of 3 hours and 22 minutes on the day of the spring and autumn equinoxes."

"The Pyramids of Teotihuacan

Like the 3 great pyramids of Egypt, the pyramids of Teotihuacan appear to serve as a
terrestrial map of the heavens. Teotihuacan is notable not only for its Pyramid of the Sun, but
for its Pyramid of the Moon, the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, and the 'Citadel,' all of which form
an axis referred to as the 'Street of the Dead.' The orientation of the 'axis' however is slightly
off center. The 'Street of the Dead' is inclined 15 degrees by 30 degress east of north. The
design is believed to have been purposeful and based on astronomical alignments which form
a map of the heavens, 'the sky-world where dwelt the deities and spirits of the dead'.

It has also been determined that Teotihuacan may have been designed to serve as a scale
model of the solar system, with the center line of the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl representing the
position of the sun, with the temples and pyramids of the 'Street of the Dead' denoting the
precise orbital distances of the outer planets, i.e. Pluto, Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, and
the asteroid belt.

What is even more striking is that Uranus was not 'discovered' by Western scientists until
1787, Neptune in 1846, and Pluto in 1930. The 'Street of the Dead' and its temples and
pyramids appear to be at least 2000 years old.

How did the ancients discover the presence of the outer stars? In the same manner as modern
astronomers: Through mathematical calculations.

The city of Teotihuacan was a center of scientific study. It was believed by the 'place of the
gods' where the gods would gather. This included the god Huehueteotl - the god who gave life
its beginning and who formed the first woman and man - humans who were also part god.
However, the gods were associated with the cosmos, the Milky Way galaxy, and the stars and
planets."

"The Pyramids of Giza and the Belt Stars of Osiris

The three great Egyptian pyramids of Giza appear to have been constructed to form a
terrestrial map of the heavens, specifically, the three belt stars of the constellation of Orion
and thus the house of Osiris. The three great pyramids are oriented closely together, and
although the four corners of each pyramid point due East, West, North and South are oriented
along an axis which mimics the three belt stars of Orion.

As pointed out in 1994 by Robert Bauval, a Belgian construction engineer, the three pyramids
of Giza, are aligned in the exact orientation and interrelationship of the three belt stars. Like
(the lower) two of the three pyramids (Khufu, Khafre), the lower two belt stars, Al Nitak and Al
Nilam, form a perfect diagonal. However, like the upper pyramid (Menkaure), the third, upper
star, Mintaka, is offset slightly to the East.

According to Bauval: 'It is really quite obvious that all these monuments were laid out
according to a unified plan that was modeled with extraordinary precision on those three
stars. What they did at Giza was to build Orion's Belt on the ground.'

Specifically, when mapped against the Orion Constellation, it is apparent that the Great
Pyramid of Khufu occupies the same position as Al Nitak, whereas the Pyramid of Khafre
occupies the same position as Al Nilam, whereas the Pyramid of Menkaure occupies the
position of Mintaka - moreoer, it has been argued that their position most closely matches the
belt stars 12,500 years ago: on the same date that Orion's Belt was at its lowest altitude in the
precessional cycle. The figure of 12,500 years ago also corresponds to a date which marks the
point at which the 3 belt stars began their upward cycle.

'At 10,450 BC - and at that date only - we find that the pattern of the pyramids on the ground
provides a perfect reflection of the pattern of the stars in the sky. I mean it's a perfect match –
faultless - and it cannot be an accident.' (Bauval)

The three pyramids of Giza not only serves as a terrestrial map of the Orion Constellation, but
by their differences in size, also reflect the different magnitudes of these three belt stars
(Bauval). In addition, other structures on the Giza plateau correspond to the location and
interrelationship of the stars of the Orion Constellation, and thus provide a map of the
heavens."

"THE PYRAMIDS: EARTH IN HEAVEN

Although one may speculate as to their meaning, the evidence clearly demonstrates that
there was an objective, scientific, and astronomical basis for the design and construction of the
pyramids of Egypt and old Mexico - an objective scientific basis which explains why there are
so many similarities between the religious structures erected by people from completely
different cultures and living on separate continents, thousands of years ago. The objective
similarities are due to their being modeled on the same heavens and based on the same
science.
 For example, the Teotihuacan Pyramid of the Moon is shorter than the Pyramid of the Sun.
However, their summits are level. Similarly, in Egypt, the summits of the Great Pyramid and
the Pyramid of Khafre are the same, although the Khafre pyramid is shorter. This was
accomplished by building the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of Khafre on higher
ground.

The pyramids of Giza and the pyramids of Teotihuacan, also incorporate, and in the same way,
the value of pi. Pi is the constant that is multiplied by the diameter of a circle to give its
circumferences.

The area of the Great Pyramid's base (3023.16 feet) divided by twice its original height
(481.3949 feet) gives the figure 3.1400000+ (pi). In addition, the ratio between its height and
perimeter is the same as the ratio between the circumference and radius of a circle, i.e. 2 pi.
And, if we multiply the height of the pyramid by 2 pi, we get the perimeter of its base.

The Pyramid of the Sun has a gentler slope compared to the pyramid at Giza, 43.5 vs 52
degrees and it is not as tall, 233.5 feet vs 481.3949. However, its base is almost the same,
2932.8 vs 3023.16 feet. Even so, the pi formula can be applied to the Pyramid of the Sun. Its
base divided by twice its height is equal to two pi, i.e. 6.2800. Its base divided by four times its
height is equal to one pi, i.e. 3.1400... And, if we multiply the height of the pyramid by 4 pi, we
get the perimeter of its base.

The builders of the pyramids of Egypt and ancient Mexico were well versed in geometry and
astronomy and knew the relationship of the radius to its circumference. They knew the
circumference of the Earth, and the distance of the center of the Earth to the poles. For
example, the ratio of the Great Pyramid's altitude to its perimeter is the same as that of the
polar radius of the Earth to its circumference: 2 pi, whereas the same ratio when applied to the
Pyramid of the Sun yields the same figure if divided by two.

In fact, as determined by Charles Piazzi Smyth, the Astronomer-Royal of Scotland, the Great
Pyramid incorporates and reveals the distance of the Earth from the sun when its height is
multiplied by the proportion of its height to its width, that is, ten to the ninth power.

In addition, the height of the Great Pyramid is 1:43,200 of the polar radius of the Earth and
the perimeter of its base is 1:43,200 of the Earth's equatorial circumference. In other words,
by multiplying the base and height of the Great Pyramid by 43,200 one can arrive at an
astonishingly close approximation of the dimensions of the Earth.

The builders of the Great Pyramid 'had determined the shape of the Earth which they knew to
be a true circle, its size, its precise circumference, the geographical distance from the equator
to the poles, the fact that the Earth is flattened at the poles, degrees of latitude and longitude
to within a few hundred feet, the fact that they were shorter at the equator and longer at the
poles, and the exact distance of the Earth from the sun. They had designed the pyramid's base
to correspond to the distance the Earth rotates in half a second'. The same can also be said of
the builders of the Pyramid of the Sun.

In summary: the Great Pyramids of Egypt and Mexico, appear to have been built in
accordance with precise geometrical and astronomical laws to serve as a map of heaven, and
to record the dimensions of Earth and the duration of the solar year. The Great Pyramid and
the Pyramid of the Sun not only served as scale models of this planet, but could be used to
record the movements of the Earth around the heavens in relation to the sun and the stars -
the dwelling place of the gods. Moreover, they may have been used to predict or signify the
death of old gods and the birth of new gods as releated to which house the sun rises on the
equinox."

"THE DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT KNOWLEDGE

'The mind has lost its cutting edge, we hardly understand the Ancients.' (Gregoire de Tours,
6th century)

The astronomer priests of the ancient world made a number of startling discoveries about the
cosmos, our solar system, and the Earth - startling because thousands of years would pass
before modern western scientists would make the same discoveries.

Much of the science of the ancient world has been lost through natural and cosmic
catastrophes, or destroyed by the hand of man. In consequence, we know almost nothing
about the ancient past, and much of what we do know, is dismissed by 'experts' who cloak
their ignorance with derision and laughter.

We suffer from a collective amnesia as to ancient civilizations and those events which
transpired six thousand years ago, ten thousands years ago, and so on.

This amnesia is in large part, purposeful, for the books detailing the pre-deluvial past, and the
treasures of knowledge the ancients had acquired, have been deliberately destroyed by
priests, princes, and conquering kings.

In 213 B.C., the Emperor Chou-Houng-Ti, destroyed a hundred thousand books. When the
library of Alexandria was burnt, tens of thousands of manuscripts went up in flames. When
Pergamo was burned to the ground, 200,000 ancient books were reduced to soot and ash. And
what of the ancient books from the library of the Temple of Solomon, from the sanctuary of
Phtah of Memphis, the libraries of ancient Athens? Dust. Ashes and dust, of which only
fragments remain... fragments and those few ancient stone tablets, temples, and pyramids
which escaped the destructive hand of man.

Yet, despite the destructive efforts of the conquerors of old, and the priests of the medieval
church who preached: 'Thou shalt not know,' we have learned that knowledge is not a sin, and
that the ancients were men of great wisdom who had studied and learned from the stars.

Copernicus stated explicitly in the preface to his works, that it was from his reading of ancient
authors that he learned of the movements of the Earth. And likewise, Newton and Galileo
openly admitted their debts to the scientists of old. Indeed, Newton believed that the ancients
had learned the secrets of the creation, transmutation, and destruction of matter, as well as
the secrets of the stars.

'If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants' - Newton. Newton stood on
those ancient shoulders because he desired a clear view of the stars.
The ancients studied the stars because they believed the future could be predicted by the
past, and that time itself was linked to the cyclic movements of the Earth through the heavens.
These are not superstitions. Modern day calendars are based on the same principle.

However, whereas modern day calendars are based on the orbit and tilt of the Earth during a
365 day period, the ancients relied not only on a solar calendar, but a precessional calendar
that was 25,776 years in duration - a calendar and cosmic clock that also predicts cycles of
cosmic creation and destruction, and the birth and twilight of the gods as represented by the
stars and the 12 constellations."

"PRECESSION AND THE COSMIC CLOCK: THE FUTURE IS THE PAST

The illusion that the Sun moves, from north to south, and then back again, in synchrony with
the waxing and waning of the four seasons, is due to the changing tilt and inclination of the
Earth's axis, as it spins and orbits the sun. Thus over a span of 12 months it appears to an
observer that the days become shorter (winter) and then longer (summer) and then shorter
again as the sun moves from north to south, crosses the equator, and then stops (solstice), and
heads back north again, only to stop (solstice), and then to again head south, crossing the
equator only to again stop (solstice) and head north again.

The two crossings each year, over the equator (in March and September) are referred to as
equinoxes. The two time periods in which the sun appears to stop its movement, before
reversing course (June and December), are referred to as solstices - the 'sun standing still.'

The sun was recognized by ancient astronomer priests, as a source of light and life-giving heat,
and as a keeper of time, like the hands ticking across the face of a cosmic clock.

Because of the scientific, religious, and cosmological significance of the sun, ancient peoples,
in consequence, often erected and oriented their religious temples to face and point either to
the rising sun on the day of the solstice (that is, in a southwest - northeast axis), or to face the
rising sun on the day of the equinox (an east-west axis).

For example, the ancient temples and pyramids in Egypt were oriented to the solstices,
whereas the Temple of Solomon faced the rising sun on the day of the equinox.

Over eons of time ancient peoples were forced to slightly alter the orientation of their
temples, due to precession and cyclic changes in the inclinations of the Earth's orbital path (the
ecliptic) and in its axis (obliquity). For example, the angle of the tilt of the Earth was 24 degrees
in 4,000 BC, but has been reduced to 23.5 degrees in modern time. Eventually the angle of the
tilt will reverse course and assume a greater angle of inclination.

The gravitational influences of the sun and the moon, coupled with the angle of the tilt of the
Earth - that is, the axis of the orientation of the north and south pole - also causes the planet
to slowly wobble as it orbits the sun - a phenomenon referred to as 'precess.'

As will be detailed, the priests of antiquity discovered precess, thousands of years ago. The
Earth spins at the rate of 1000 miles per hour (as measured from the equator) and orbits the
sun at 67,000 miles per hour. This orbital and circular motion generates incredible centrifugal
forces which cause the Earth's equator to bulge outward whereas the poles are somewhat
flattened, thus giving the planet a (sideways) egg-like shape of an oblate spheroid. However,
this extra mass at the equator also serves to keep the Earth steady on its axis as it orbits the
sun - like the outer rim of a spinning top or gyroscope.

It is said that this oblate spheroid shape of the planet was first discovered by Sir Isaac Newton.
However, almost a thousand years before Newton, Muhammad describe the Earth as 'shaped
like an egg.' Muhammad was correct.

And because of the gravitational influences of the sun and the moon, coupled with centrifugal
forces, the angle of the tilt of the Earth slowly alters over time as it spins and orbits the sun.
The alteration in the tilt of the Earth is cyclic, and over the course of the last 41,000 years, the
tilt has been reduced by 1.5 degrees, i.e., from 25 degrees to a little less than 23.5 degrees.

Because the angle of the tilt - that is, the orientation of the north and south pole - alters over
time, and the retardation of the Earth's orbit, and thus due to a cyclic phenomenon referred to
as 'precession,' over time the north pole 'points' at different stars, and the sun rises in
different constellations, like the movements of the hand of a clock."

"The ancient astronomer priests discovered 'precession' thousands of years before modern
western scientists.

There is a cosmic clock-like regularity to 'precession' - like the hands moving around the
circular face of a clock.

At present, the north pole points at the 'pole star' referred to as Polaris (alpha Ursae Minoris).
Five thousand years ago the north pole pointed at alpha Draconis. Thirteen thousand years ago
it pointed towards Vega.

In thirteen thousand years, the north pole will again point at Vega. Twenty thousand years
from now it will again point at alpha Draconis. And, in 25,776 years it will again point at Polaris.

Thus, it takes the Earth 25,776 years for the hands of the cosmic clock to make a complete
circular rotation and to complete a full precessional cycle."

"The Four Seasons and the Sign of the Cross

Because the orientation and tilt of the Earth also shifts as it orbits the sun, the amount of
sunlight the Earth receives varies during the course of a single orbit, but in a predictable, clock-
like fashion. As noted, this change in the tilt of the planet gives rise to the four seasons and
what is referred to as the winter and summer solstices and the autumn and spring equinoxes.

To honor the sun god, ancient peoples oriented their temples and monuments to face the
rising sun on one of the four days believed to have cosmic significance, on the morning of the
first day of Summer, Winter, Spring, or Fall, also known as the Winter and Summer Solstice,
and the Spirng and Fall Equinox. The four seasons, marked by the solstice and equinox, forms a
cross, thereby giving the cross cosmic significance.
 In the northern hemisphere, during the winter, the tilt is away from the sun, with the greatest
degree of that tilt occurring on December 21. December 21 marks the winter solstice and is
the shortest day of the year. By contrast, the greatest degree of tilt toward the sun occurs on
June 21, the summer solstice, which is the longest day of the year. The equinoxes, March 20
and September 22, are the two days of the year which are of equal length.

There are two solstices, and two equinoxes, and these four events, represent the four corners
of Earth and the cosmos, are are symbolized by the sign of the cross. This is why the sign of the
cross appears across cultures and ages.

[Quetzalcoatl/Kukulkan holding the sign of the cross, the four corners, representing the
equinox and solstice, and the surrounding cosmic clock.]

[Egyptian Key of Life (cross).]

[Missipian Native Pendant (cross).]

Thus, the cosmic clock-like cycle of the Earth's orbit around the sun, gives rise to four
significant astronomical events which the ancients deemed to be of the highest significance.
However, as the ancients discovered, the equinoxes also undergo precession, and, precession
has a repetitive, clock-like predictability.

Worship of the sun is a custom that was embraced by most cultures throughout ancient
history. The sun, like the 12 constellations, was viewed as a god. As the Earth orbits the sun it
forms an imaginary circle referred to as the ecliptic. There is, however, a second, outer
imaginary circle, an outer-ring that forms a belt that surrounds the Earth's ecliptic orbit. This
outer circle is ringed with stars that form the 12 constellations of the zodiac: Aquarius, Pisces,
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn. The 12
constellations, although differing in size, are evenly spaced, occupying positions in the heavens
that could be likened to the numbers on the face of a clock. During the course of a solar year,
the sun passes through each constellation which lie along the ecliptic, every 30 days, much like
the hands of a clock marking the 12 hours of a day.

Each constellation occupies a space of 30 degrees along the ecliptic of the Earth's 360 degree
orbit around the sun. Thus, as the Earth orbits the sun, every 30 days the Earth faces a
different constellation during the morning sun-rise, and thus passes through a different house
of the zodiac.

Because the orbit of the Earth gives rise to the illusion of the movement of the sun, the sun
also appears to be rising in and passing through a different constellation every 30 days. An
observer who watches as the sun rises or sets, will also see the sun rising or setting in a
different constellation, every 30 days.

It is this illusion which led the ancient Greeks and the Medieval Catholic Church to believe that
the Earth was at the center of the solar system and that the sun orbited the Earth. The ancient
astronomer priests of remote antiquity were not fooled. Thousands of years before the rise of
the Greek civilization, these ancient priest/astronomers recognized that the sun was at the
center of the solar system, and, they calculated not only precess, but precession.
 Because of the clock-like regularity of the changing seasons and the passage of the Earth
through all the houses of the zodiac in a solar year, it can be predicted in which house of the
Zodiac the sun would rise on any day of the year, including on the mornings of the summer
and winter solstices and the spring and autumn equinoxes. These predictions can be made
with accuracy for the following year, or even a hundreds years into the future: The future can
be predicted mathematically based on the past.

What the ancient astronomer-priests discovered, however, was that over thousands of years
of time, and because of precession, the sun slowly changes position, like the hands of a clock.
Over thousands of years, the sun begins to rise in a different constellation on the mornings of
the summer solstices, and a different constellation on winter solstices and different
constellations on the spring and autumn equinoxes.

What the ancient astronomers discovered was that the sun's changing position, like the hands
of a clock, pointed out the 'hours' of the precessional cycle - a phenomenon referred to as the
'precession of the equinoxes.' Instead of every 30 days, the ancients determined that every
2160 years the sun would point at a different constellations on the day of the equinox or
solistice. That is, it takes 2160 years for the sun to slowly move from house to house - like the
ticking hands of celestial clock.

Due to the retardation of the Earth's orbital movement of 1 degree every 72 years, precession
is a counterclockwise, or rather, an anti-clockwise phenomenon. Thus, every 2,160 years the
sun rises in the previous house of the Zodiac. That is, the sun appears to move in a
counterclockwise direction, such that the hands of the solar precessional clock also move
backwards: Virgo, Leo, Cancer, Gemini, Taurus, Aries, Pisces, Aquarius, etc.

For example, the hands of the solar clock pointed at Aries, 4000 years ago, but slowly moved
toward Pisces. For the last 2000 years the hand of the solar clock has pointed at Pisces, but
moved slowly toward Aquarius. In 2012 we entered the age of Aquarius.

The ancient priests also determined that the precession of the equinoxes takes 25,920 years
to complete its 360 degree circular cycle; i.e. 12 x 2160 years. Although modern 'estimates'
which gives the number as 25,776, it can still be predicted that 25,920 years from now, the sun
will again leave Pisces and will enter the age of Aquarius."

"THE DEATH OF GOD: NEW AGE RELIGIONS

The Age of Pieces/Christ and the Virgo/Virgin

As the ancient astronomer priests realized, a single year consists of 365 days. A Great Year
consists of 25,920 years. The Great Year, like a single year, consists of 12 houses, but instead of
30 days per house/month, the duration of the time spent in each house/constellation is 2160
years.

It was also believed that as the hands of the cosmic clock shifted from one constellation to the
next, this signified the ushering in of a 'new world age,' e.g., the age of Taurus followed by the
age of Aries followed by the (current) age of Pisces, followed by the age of Aquarius; each
lasting 2160 years.
However, every beginning is heralded by an ending and the death of a 'god.' As Aristotle long
ago pointed out, in the truly ancient world, the 'gods were stars,' that is, constellations.

Thus, as the hands of the precessional clock moved from constellation to constellation, each
new world age would be associated with the death of an old god and the birth and rein of a
new god, who in turn would be directly linked to the prevailing constellation.

For example, the astronomical age of Pisces (the fish) began around the time of the birth of
Christ, which is why the fish was and continues to be a symbol associated with Christ and
Christianity. However, whereas the sun rose in the house of Pisces during the Spring equinox,
it rose in the house of Virgo (the Virgin) in the autumn. Hence, the god Christ, is linked to
Pisces and Virgo, i.e. the Virgin Mary.

Again, there are two solstices, and two equinoxes, and a different constellation occupies each
of the four, for a 2,160 year period. These four events, represent the four corners of Earth and
the cosmos, are are symbolized by the sign of the cross. This is why the sign of the cross
appears across cultures and ages."

"The Age of The Ram

Due to centrifugal forces which influences and slows the Earth's orbit around the sun, on the
days of the equinox and solstice the rising sun seems to slowly change position relative to the
constellations, like the backward ticking of a clock.

Because the Earth slows by 1 degree every 72 years, over a period of 2,160 years, it moves
backward by 30 degrees, and therefore the sun begins to rise in a different constellation on
the morning of the equinox and solstice. This is known as the precession of the equinoxes.

We are now in the age of Aquarius. For the previous 2,160 years, the sun rose in the house of
Pisces on the day of the Spring Equinox. Due to the backwards ticking of the cosmic clock, the
Age of Pisces was preced by the Age of the Ram.

Specfically, beginning around 2,200 BC, and for the next 2,160 years, on the morning of the
Spring equinox the sun rose in the constellation of Aries, the Ram. Therefore, in ancient Egypt
during the Age of the Ram, the Egyptians worshipped the Ram and numerous statues and
monuments were dedicated to the Ram god.

Thus, whereas Jesus is associated with the Age of Pieces, during the Age of the Ram, Egyptians
kings, most notably, King Ramses were associated with the constellation of Aries, and
numerous statues of the Ram god including those protectively surrounding the image of
Ramses, were erected throughout Egypt and as guardians in his temple and morturary
complex. Moreover, Ramses magnificent mortuary temples were built to face the rising sun in
the house of Aries, on the first day of Spring."

"The Age of The Bull

Around the year 2,200 BC, the Age of Aries began. However, for the previous 2,160 years,
peoples around the world were paying homage to Taurus, the Bull. The Age of the bull began
around 6,000 years ago which is why ancient religions of that period employed the symbol of
the Bull, e.g. the Bull-cult of ancient Crete, the Apis bulls of ancient Egypt.

Six thousand years ago the Sumerian civilization was in full flower and the Sun rose in the
constellation of Taurus on the spring equinox. The Sumerian lists of the Zodiac begin with
Taurus, the bull, and Sumerian stories frequently refer to the Bull of Heaven.

During the age of Taurus, Egyptian kings and the Egyptian people also paid homage to Osiris,
who is linked to the constellation of Orion. According to legend, Osiris, the great cosmic god of
the afterlife, had once been a king of Egypt and ruled during a golden age, before the great
catastrophe which destroyed much of the world. According to legend, Osiris was murdered by
72 conspirators led by his brother Set in association with the great serpent, Apep.

Thus we see that slate palettes dating from the Age of Taurus, depicts the constellation of
Taurus, and link the king of Egypt to the constellation of Orion and the god-King Osiris who
ruled during the golden age.

The Narmer plate which is crowned on both side by the Bull, Taurus, and the image of the king
which is linked to the constellation of Orion. It has been variably dated to 3100BC and to 4468
BC by some Egyptologists; dates which correspond to the Age of Taurus. However, if the
Narmer plate was fashioned in 4468 BCE, it may have commorating the spring equinox, and
the ending of the age of Gemini, the twins: hence the twin bulls."

"THE NEW AGE OF THE RAM AND THE JEWISH RELIGION

'God brought them out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of a bull.' (Numbers, 23:22)

'Whereupon the king took counsel, and made two calves of gold, and said unto them: behold
thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt.' (Exodus, 32:8)

The Transition From The Age of The Bull to the Age of the Ram

The Sumerians were largely a Semitic people, and Abraham, the patriarch of modern day Jews
and the Jewish religion, hailed from Ur of the Chaldese, a Sumerian city, during the waning
days of the Age of Taurus. And like the Sumerians, the ancient Jews worshipped a number of
gods, including Taurus, the bull - also known as the 'Golden Calf.'

Moses appeared upon the scene during the new age of Aries: the ram - also known as the god
of war. But, when he led the Jews from Egypt to the lands he claimed had been promised to
them by the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, they were not accepting of the new god and
repeatedly rebelled in favor of the old gods, the gods worshipped by their fathers, and their
kings."

"Moses immediately ordered the slaughter of all who had worshipped the golden calf."

"The Age of the Ram

The age of the Bull was over. The hands of the precessional clock had shifted to a new
constellation and a new world age. A new age required a new god. The God of Moses, the God
of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, was the new god heralded by the new age of the ram - Aries, the
god of war, also known as the 'Lord of Hosts' (armies) and the 'Lord of Heaven.'

The age of the ram began 4000 years ago - when Abram/Abraham was called by 'God' and left
for Egypt - and ended 2000 years ago, which is why ancient religions at that time were
ramoriented and/or used rams in their symbolism. Indeed, rams appear repeatedly in the old
testament and were important symbols in Egypt during this period.

Abram (Ab-ram) left Sumer during the opening days of the new age of the ram, and it is
Abram (who became Abraham) who was the patriarch and thus the founder of a new religion,
the Jewish religion - but first he had to prove himself to the new god - the god of the ram - by
sacrificing his first born son, Isaac (Genesis 22)."

"By sacrificing a ram, provided by 'God,' and because he was willing to kill his first born son,
Abraham proved himself worthy of being the father of a new age religion."

"PRECESSION: DEATH OF RAM-GOD. BIRTH OF PISCES-GOD: CHRIST

For the last 2,160 years, the sun has risen in the constellation of Pisces on the first day of
Spring, the vernal equinox, and in the constellation of Virgo on the first day of Fall. Thus we see
that the birth of Jesus is associated with Pisces, the two fish, and the virgin, Virgo.

However, due to centrifugal forces which influences and slows the earths orbit around the
sun, on the days of the equinox and solstice the rising sun seems to slowly change position
relative to the constellations, like the backward ticking of a clock.

Because the Earth slows by 1 degree every 72 years, over a period of 2,160 years, it moves
backward by 30 degrees, and therefore the sun begins to rise in a different constellation on
the morning of the equinox and solstice. This is known as the precession of the equinoxes.

On December of 2012 and June of 2013, the cosmic clock ceased to rise in Pieces and Virgo on
the Spring and Fall Equinox. The New Age had begun, and with the onset of each new age
there is the ending of the preceding age. And as each age is associated with a god, the new age
is linked with the birth of a new god and the death of the old god. However, the followers of
the old god, and the religions developed to serve the old god, are loath to accept the
transition. Rather than with rejoicing, the onset of a new age and a new god are met with fear
and trembling. The birth of a new god spells calamity and destruction for those who prayed
allegiance to what they had believed is the 'one true god.' Thus we see that the ancient Jews
struggled against Moses and the new age god of the Ram, preferring to worship instead the
old god, Taurus."

"Around 60 BC. as it was recognized that the old age of the Ram was coming to an end, the
astronomers, priests, kings, astrologers turned to the heavens searching for signs. In the
Middle East, there was a fever of increasing excitement, a new god was to be born; what some
believed would be a messiah. However, the priests of the old god struggled to destroy the new
religion; but even so, a new religion was born of the virgin (Virgo): Christ, the god of the Pisces.
 The founders of the new religion based on the age of Christ/Pisces/Virgo recognized that 'his'
time would also come to an end; and they incorporated this knowledge into their religion,
warning all of great destruction heralded by an anti-christ: a beast, a lion (Leo) who would
threaten the Virgin, a man who would flood the Earth (Aquarius, the water bearer), an Eagle
(Scorpio) and and 'ox' (Taurus). In fact, as of 2012, Aquarius and Leo govern the equinox, and
Scorpio and Taurus rule the solstice.

Each new age heralds not just the birth of a new god, but periods of destruction and cosmic
calamity followed by a new golden age.

The ancient astronomer priests believed that destiny, on a cosmic or global level, and the
destruction and renewal of civilization, could be determined through the observation of the
stars and via mathematical predictions based on precess, precession, and the orbit of the Earth
as it made its journey through the heavens and the 12 houses of the zodiac; that is, the 12
constellations.

In the final passages of Revelation, we see not only references to precession and the 12
houses of the Zodiac, but we are told of a new golden age: 'One of the seven angels... carried
me away in the Spirit to a mountain great and high, and showed me the Holy City, Jerusalem,
coming down out of heaven. It had twelve gates. The twelve gates were twelve pearls. I did
not see a temple in the city, because... the city does not need the sun or the moon to shine on
it, for the glory of God gives it light.'

Periods of rebirth and destruction were believed to be linked to the Earth's movements from
constellation to constellation, and this is also the overarching message of Revelation, i.e.
Armageddon, in which Christians are warned of a war in heaven.

'And there appeared a great wonder in heaven: A woman clothed with the sun, and the moon
under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars: And she being with child cried
travailing in birth and pained to be delivered...

And there appeared another wonder in heaven: And behold a great red dragon having seven
heads and ten horns and seven crowns upon his head. And his tail drew the third part of the
stars of heaven and did cast them to the Earth...' (Revelation, 12)

Thus we are told of 'twelve stars' which are the 12 houses of the zodiac. And we are provided
with the numbers: seven heads and ten horns and seven crowns. Seven + seven + ten = 24.

There are 24 hours in a day, a recurring cycle of 12 hours of light, 12 hours of darkness.

The number 24 is repeated again and again in Revelation, and the references is to repeating
cycles: '... because he once was, now is not, and yet will come...'

And, as to 'the third part of the stars,' that Revelation tells us will be cast to Earth, this yields
the number 8. What is the significance of number 8?

'Eight' refers to the eighth planet counting from the outer orbit of the solar system, i.e. the
planet Venus, the morning star, also known as the great serpent, and by the name: 'Lucifer.'
'How art thou fallen from heaven, O' Lucifer star of the morning... the one that made the Earth
to tremble, that did to shake kingdoms. That made the world as a wilderness, and destroyed
the cities...' (Isaiah, 14)

However, the same 'warnings' and the complex science which predicts the coming and going
of each Age, can be found in the ancient writings of many ancient peoples; beliefs based on
observation, history, and mathematical analysis of the movement of the stars in relation to
Earth.

There are hints in ancient records, for example, that cyclic periods of destruction were due to
the Earth passing through regions of space that were in turmoil. We are told of wars in heaven,
battles among the stars, in which the Earth was buffeted by debris from space and rocked by
wayward planets, moons, comets and stars that snaked through the heavens like a giant
serpent, or a like a dragon which swallowed (eclipsed) the sun and the moon, and then
attacked the Earth. And we are warned that these cosmic catastrophic events are cyclic and
will occur again in the future:

'Is this the one that made the Earth to tremble, that did to shake kingdoms. That made the
world as a wilderness, and destroyed the cities...

But beware and rejoice not because the rod of his that smote thee is broken: for out of the
serpent's root and of his fruit shall be a fiery flying dragon...' (Isaiah, 14)

And, we are warned that these future cosmic catastrophic events, these wars in heaven, are
directly related to precession and the passage of the Earth through the twelve houses of the
Zodiac. The catastrophe is the death of the old god and the old age, and the birth of a new god
and a new god. Out of destruction comes rebirth, e.g. god and the son of god, the sun god and
the sun of god.

According to ancient Sumerian and Babylonian tradition: 'Seven' refers to our planet, mother
Earth - the seventh planet when counting from the outer rim of the solar system. In the
passage above, mother Earth becomes: 'A woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under
her feet' (though, as detailed later, this passage may also refer to the constellation of Virgo - a
Virgin about to give birth to a new god).

'Seven also refers to the seven stars of Ursa, the dominant stars of the north and which are
believed to be linked to the operative powers controlling the universe. And, in Revelation, we
are told of the '7 angels... 7 seals... 7 spirits... 7 stars...'

Because the ancients believed that the stars, and the movement of the Earth in its journey
through the heavens was of fateful significance, the observations of the heavens and the cyclic
nature of the dance of the stars, played a major role in decision making and in religious
practices, including, as noted, in the orientation of ancient temples and predictions of
destruction and rebirth."

"THE AGE OF LEO 13,000 YEARS AGO

 The scribes of ancient Egypt tell us that the first kings of Egypt established their rule 15,400
years ago, as also documented by the ancient lists of Egyptian kings. According to legend, as
the Egyptian civilization prospered and grew, and with the coming of the New Age of Leo,
13,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians erected a great Sphinx, with the head and body of a
lion which faced the rising sun in the constellation of Leo on the first day of the spring equinox.

The sphinx, which still has the body of a lion, the king of beast, is believed to originally have
had head of a lion, just as the ancient Egyptian statues of the Bull, the Lion, and the Ram have
the heads of a bull, a lion and and a Ram. However, it is believed that the original Lion head
became so badly eroded over eons of time that it was re-carved, growing smaller with each
carving and due to erosion, and was finally reshaped into the head of a pharaoh.

Although the original nature of the head is debatable, that the sphinx has the body of a lion,
and was erected to face the rising sun on the day of the vernal equinox is undeniable. Twelve
thousand five hundred years ago and for the next 2000 years, the sun rose in the constellation
of Leo, the lion, on the morning of the spring equinox. It is reasonable to assume the Sphinx
was designed to greet the rising sun in the house of Leo, 12,500 years ago.

There is, however, considerable evidence that much of the erosion took place soon after the
Sphinx was carved, when inundated by torrential rains and a great flood over 12,500 years ago,
during the age of Leo.

As first discovered by Egyptologist R. A. Schwaller, the erosion on the Sphinx is quite different
from the erosion observable on other structures in Egypt. On the back and upper portions of
the Sphinx and its nearby walls, the rock is badly worn, edges are rounded, and deep up and
down vertical fissures are prominent; conditions usually created, not by wind, but water, and
torrential rains. By contrast the erosion seen on the Old Kingdom tombs is completely different
in character and typical of wind and sand, not water or rain.

These observations were later verified by Egyptologist John Anthony West and geologist
Robert Schoch who concluded that the vertical fissures were indicative of severe water erosion
and were caused by a long period of torrential rainfall or severe flooding. The evidence
indicates the water levels rose to the very head of the Sphinx with waves lapping at its
shoulder and face. In fact, most of the erosion is not at the base or the walls of the Sphinx, but
as the top of the back and neck - areas most accessible to direct rainfall. On the other hand,
the body of the Sphinx was buried beneath the shifting sands for much of history whereas the
head, back and shoulders were continually exposed, thereby making them subject to the
greatest degree of erosion. However, again, much of the erosion appears to be due to water,
not wind or sand.

Thus, it appears that the great Sphinx may have been erected over 12,000 years ago, during
the age of Leo, and suffered a great deal of erosion when exposed to torrential rains and a
great flood. In fact, according to the scribes of Egypt and the Egyptian King's List, the Egyptian
King Osiris ruled Egypt during this epoch. Thus, according to legend, the great king, Osiris, who
is associated with the constellation of Orion, was the last king of Egypt at the time of a massive
flooding and thus a great catastrophe, some 12,000 years ago.
 It has also been claimed that the three titanic pyramids of Giza were constructed over 12,000
years ago. Although there are claims and counter claims regarding who built the three
pyramids of Giza, even the ancient kings of Egypt refer to them as being quite ancient.

In fact, although the grandest and oldest of them all is attributed to Khufu, many scholar
believed that these claims are based on an obvious forgery and even a misspelling of his name
by an archeologist who was hot to make a 'great discovery.' There is in fact evidence that
Khufu claims that the Great Pyramid and the Sphinx, had been constructed long before his own
time. Moreover, Khufu's funeral boat was not found in the pyramid, but buried outside, which
certainly suggest that the Great Pyramid was never intended to be Khufu's final resting place,
but a pyramid belonging to another, more ancient king.

As discussed, the three great pyramids on the Giza plateau are oriented and mirror, in size and
location, the constellation of Orion. The layout and orientation of the three great pyramids of
Egypt are a mirror image of the three main belt stars of Orion, and they best match the
positions of these three belt stars 12,000 yeas ago, during the age of Leo. Not just the earth,
but our solar system, our galaxy, and the stars of the constellations are in motion and change
position over time.

Most authorities agree that these first three great pyramids were constructed first, well
before the erection of all other Egyptian pyramids. However, what has puzzled the experts is
the fact that the first three pyramids are not only many times larger but have a degree of
perfection not seen in all subsequent pyramids, over 100 which are known to have been
constructed during and following the the reins of the 3rd dynasty some 4,500 years ago.

Indeed, the pyramids created by specific pharaohs during the 3rd dynasty, are stunted,
lopsided, poorly constructed miniaturizations in comparison to the thee great pyramids of
Egypt. This is exactly opposite to what would be expected; i.e. improvement in design and
increases in size should appear in later copies but this is not the case. All subsequent pyramids
are stunted, tiny in size, and poorly constructed in comparison. Those responsible for building
the three great pyramids had access to a technology and science not available to those who
came after.

Coupled with their incredible size and utter perfection, and how they map the heavens and
the Earth, as already noted, lends credence to the possibility that the three g pyramids of Giza
were built by a different, technologically advanced civilization, 12,000 years ago, and the later,
inferior pyramids were created 8,000 years later, some 4,000 years ago.

Some ancient Arabian historians explain that these first three Pyramids, which exceeds all
other pyramids in size and perfection, were created in anticipation of the great flood and
calamity which the ancient Egyptians realized might destroy much of their world. Basing their
conclusion on ancient manuscripts, Arab historians, such as al-Murtadi, in 1584, claim that
before the great flood, the king of Egypt decided to secure the treasures of all ancient wisdom.
This king built the pyramids to preserve the records of the sciences and wisdom of the ages,
which were engraved in tablets, and memorials and then stored within the great pyramids and
made secure.
 'Saurid... one of the kings of Egypt prior to the Great Flood... was the builder of two of the
great pyramids... Saurid had a dream where the Earth turned upside down with all its people,
the people fled in a blind rush, and the stars fell down...' (al-Maqrizi)

According to legend, all the kings advisors had the same dream and predicted the end of
civilization. So, Saurid, the pre-deluvial King of Egypt, decided to build the pyramids to serve as
great museums and libraries where all the worlds knowledge could be preserved. Indeed, the
great pyramid itself, was to be a source of knowledge and wisdom, harboring the answers to
all questions regarding the cosmos and the creation.

In fact, the great pyramid contains a number of chambers, one on top of the other, similar to
many universities libraries. However, there is basically no evidence to suggest it was ever
meant to serve as a tomb for an Egyptian king on his journey to the afterlife. As all who visit or
who have studied these grand monuments can attest, the three pyramids are not just the
oldest, grandest, largest, and architecturally superior to all those that came after, but they are
completely un-Egyptian. Unlike all other Egyptian edifices, the chambers and inner walls of the
three great pyramids of Giza are completely barren of hieroglyphics and are lacking in any
markings whatsoever.

Typically, all Egyptian works, from 6,000 years ago to the end of their civilization, are covered
with symbols, artistic renderings, hieroglyphics. Not so the great pyramid. The interiors are
completely barren and lack ornamentation. Moreover, there is no evidence of torch light
within the inner chambers. No smoke, no soot, no ash, nothing to indicate how the interiors
were lighted; nothing except drawings of what appear to be giant electric lights, and the
discovery of an ancient electric battery.

According to Plato: 'We know nothing of what happened in ancient times... because of these
great destructions and pestilence from heaven that comes pouring down, and which leaves
few survivors, and because, after many generations, the survivors of that destruction die,
leaving no written word. Now these memories as myths.'

Be it memory or myth, ancient peoples from throughout the world speak of a horrific cosmic
cataclysm which destroyed the cities and civilizations of woman and man. And most blame the
end of this golden age on a cosmic serpent - a serpent which may represent the Milky Way
galaxy or the 12 major constellations which form circles within circles: and all circles repeat
themselves in great cycles.

Twelve thousand years ago, on the morning of the Spring and Autumn equinox, the sun rose
in the house of Leo and Aquarius. The cosmic clock has come half-circle and we have entered
the new age of Aquarius - and with each new age, there is an ending of an old."

"PRECESSION: THE COSMOLOGY AND GODS OF NUMBERS

'Newton was not the first of the Age of Reason. He was the last of the magicians, the last of
the Babylonians and Sumerians... He looked on the whole universe and all that is in it as a
riddle, as a secret which could be read by... certain mystic clues... laid about by... an esoteric
brotherhood. He believed that these clues were to be found... in certain papers and traditions
handed down by the brethren in an unbroken chain back to the original cryptic revelation in
Babylon. He regarded the universe as a cryptogram set by the Almighty.' (John Maynard
Keynes)

Throughout much of history, there have been secret societies consisting of men who believed
that the discoveries of science should be kept secret from kings, ministers, government
officials, and those who would exploit science for the purpose of evil and doing harm.

Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta who had unified ancient India, was a warrior and a
scientist, and he applied his understanding of science, to war. He was overcome by his own
successes and developed a horror for war. Upon becoming emperor of India, Asoka forbid men
to ever use their intelligence or their knowledge of science, for purposes of evil. Scientists and
scholars of ancient India were forced to take vows of secrecy and to become members of a
secret society who could only communicate openly through riddles, parables, and secret
codes.

The ancient astronomer priesthood in many ways, also functioned like a secret society, with
secret initiation rites, and hidden knowledge that only initiates were privy too.

For example, the Kaballa tells us that there are 72 angels and that those who know their
names and numbers can use them to invoke or approach the divine powers - the Sephiroth.

In the ancient religion of China, the initiation ritual of the Hung League involved questions that
involved the numbers 36, 72, and 108 - all of which are multiples of 12:

'I saw two pots with red bamboo. In one pot were 36 and in the other 72 plants, together,
108. Who in the world knows the meaning of this?'

Indeed, what is the meaning of this?

All three are multiples of 12. Moreover, these numbers, as well as the numbers 9, 12, 30, 36,
108, 360, 2160, 25,920, 432,000, 1,296,000, repeatedly appear in ancient religious texts and in
religious 'myths' the world over.

In Arabic-pre-Islamic tradition, it was said that martyrs were rewarded in heaven with 72
Virgins.

'Man has not touched them before them nor jinni. Which then of the bounties of your Lord
will you deny? Reclining on green cushions and beautiful carpets. Which then of the bounties
of your Lord will you deny?' - The Beneficent.

Hadith number 2,562 in the collection known as the Sunan al-Tirmidhi says, 'The least
[reward] for the people of Heaven is 80,000 servants and 72 wives, over which stands a dome
of pearls, aquamarine and ruby.'

The ancient Egyptian religious myth of Osirus tells us that 72 divine conspirators, led by Seth,
plotted to kill Osirus.

The mystics of the Kaballah believe that 72 is Yahweh's secret number.

 Yahweh instructed Moses and Aron to take 70 of the elders of Israel to accompany them to
the Holy Mount; i.e. Moses + Aron + 70 = 72. However, Moses and Aron also brought along 2
of Arons 4 sons. Thus Aron and Moses were accompanied by 72 men.

These numbers are significant because they are precessional numbers which yield 2160 - the
total number of years in which the sun was believed to spend in each of the 12 constellation.

For example, 30 times 72 equals 2160 - the number of years the ancients believed it took the
sun to pass from one to the next house of the zodiac.

Consider: 12 is the number of houses of the zodiac. There are 360 degrees to a circle and 30 is
the number of degrees assigned to each house (360 divided by 12=30). 72 is the number of
years for the sun to complete a precessional shift of one degree (the modern estimate being
71.6). And, 360 is the total number of degrees in the Earth's ecliptic.

Again, 72 x 30 yields 2160 which is the total number of years in which the sun spends in each
house. 360 x 72 equals 25,920, as does 2160 x 12, which is a very close estimate of the number
of years to complete a precessional cycle through all 12 houses of the zodiac, the modern
estimate being 25,777 years.

Likewise, the value of 2160 is remarkably close to the modern estimate of 2148, which is the
time it now takes for a precessional shift through a single constellation.

In some religious 'myths,' the number 36 is added to 72, to obtain 108:

'In one pot were 36 and in the other 72 plants, together, 108. Who in the world knows the
meaning of this?'

The number, 108, can be multiplied by factors of 10 to obtain the number of years for a
precessional shift through a single constellation, i.e. 20 times 108 equals 2,160.

The temple complex of Angkor, India, has five gates which lead to five roads, each of which is
bordered by 108 gigantic stone figures, i.e. 540 stone figures total. These stone figures are
bound to a huge Naga serpent, which they pull in order to churn the Milky Oceans of the
Universe.

540, like 108, is a precessional number.

For example, 540 x 4 = 2,160.

The number '4' is derived from the four seasons (the two solstices and two equinoxes) and
which also provides us with the sign of the cross.

Also, 540 x 48 = 25,920

In ancient Indian religion, the number 48 appears as a component of each divine year. For
example, 4,800 is the duration of Krita Yuga.

The Rigveda also tell us of the '12-spoked wheel in which the 720 sons of Agni are
established.'
12 x 720 = 8640 which when multiplied by 30 = 25,920.

The number 12, of course, refers to the 12 houses of the zodiac. And, 12 has always been a
very important number in ancient, as well as more modern religions, such as Judaism and
Christianity.

The ancient Greeks and Romans believed in 12 great gods, the 12 Olympians of the Greek
Pantheon. However, before the rise of the 12 Olympians, the Greeks tell us there were 12
Titans.

There are 12 months in a year, 12 hours in a day, and 12 hours in a night, and 12
constellations.

Osiris (The Lord of the Dead), was killed by Set in the company of 72 conspirators, and passes
judgment on the dead with the assistance of a council of 12.

'The Holy City, Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven... had a great, high wall with twelve
gates, and with twelve angels at the gates. On the gates were written the names of the twelve
tribes of Israel. There were three gates on the east, three on the north, three on the south and
three on the west.

The wall of the city had twelve foundations, and on them were the names of the twelve
apostles of the Lamb.' (Revelations)

Jesus had his 12 apostles. Moses 'erected 12 stone pillars' (Exodus 24:4). And Jacob and
Ishmael each had 12 sons.

'As for Ishmael... of him twelve chieftains will be born, his shall be a great nation.' (Genesis
17:20)

'Those were the sons of Ishmael... twelve chieftains each to his own nation.' (Genesis 25)

'And the number of sons of Jacob was twelve.' (Genesis 35)

However, although Jacob had 12 sons, before the birth of his last (12th son) Benjamin, the
number of his brood had also numbered 12 if we include his daughter Dinah. Likewise, the 12
constellations of the zodiac consists of 11 males and 1 female - Virgo.

The tribe of Benjamin, that is, the Benjaminites, also took on a female role. As detailed in the
Jewish Bible (Tanakh), the Benjaminites were a tribe of notorious homosexuals.

As detailed in Genesis, Jacob's other sons were also linked to the zodiac: Juda was referred to
as a lion (Leo), Zebulun was linked to Aquarius - he was to be a Dweller of the Seas - and
Joseph was linked to Sagittarius as he was depicted as a bowman.

Also, Levi and Simeon were linked together, thus forming a Gemini (twins). Both brothers,
Jacob prophesied, would forfeit their domains and their offspring would be dispersed among
the other 10 tribes. However, the list stayed at 12 with the addition of Joseph's two sons,
Ephraim and Manasseh.
Also, in the Jewish 'Bible' - i.e, in the Nevi'm (The Prophets) - there are 12 minor prophets and
9 major prophets listed. Again, these are precessional numbers.

The ancients also counted 9 planets, the Earth being number 7, and Venus, number 8.

And, 12 x 9 = 108. These are all precessional number, and 9 and 12 are repeatedly mentioned
in the Bible and were considered sacred numbers by a number of ancient religions:

The Aztecs and Mayas believed in a pantheon of 9 deities, as did the priests of Egypt during
the earliest dynastic period, 4,500 years ago. The Mayas also believed that the underworld has
nine levels through which the dead must journey over a period of 4 years.

We also know that the Hebrew word 'Mazal-tov' (shouted during births and weddings) does
not mean 'good luck' per se, but a 'good zodiac,' or, a 'good constellation/station.' That is, a
wish that the sun's station, in a specific constellation on the day of the birth/wedding, will
bring good luck.

Again, there are 12 constellations and 12 is a precessional number.

Or consider the number, 432,000.

The Mayan calendar featured the number 432,000, as well as 2160 and others that allowed
for the calculation of precession, i.e. 1 Tun = 360 days, 2 Tuns = 720 days, 6 Tuns 2160 days, 6
Katuns = 43,200 days.

The ancients believed that precession through one constellation takes 2,160 years. Precession
through two houses of the zodiac (60 degree across the ecliptic) was believed to take 4,320
years.

In ancient Indian religion, Kali Yuga is believed to be one of the four ages of Earth. Kali Yuga is
identified as the current and last age and consists of 1200 Divine years. This is equal to 432,000
years of mortal man.

There are also 10,800 stanzas in the religious text, the Rigveda, the most ancient of Vedic
literature - 10800 being a multiple of 108. Each stanza consists of 432,000 syllables.

In the Sumerian King's list, it is asserted that the Anunnaki gods arrived on Earth, 432,000
years ago.

We are also told by Berossus of ancient Babylon, that gods and demi-gods ruled ancient
Summer for a total of 432,000 years.

According to ancient Chinese traditions, all the world's knowledge, before the destruction of
the last world by the worldwide deluge, were said to be written down in 4,320 volumes.

Berossus also tells us that there are 2,160,000 years between creation and universal
catastrophe, which is the amount derived at when 432,000 is multiplied by 5.

The four seasons, plus the axis running through the Earth (passing through north and south
pole) yields the number '5.'
 Likewise, 2,160,000 represents 1000 cycles of the number of years it takes the sun to pass
from one to the next house of the zodiac.

As noted, by multiplying the base and height of the Great pyramid by 43,200 one can arrive at
an astonishingly close approximation of the dimensions of the Earth.

Or, consider the Norse poem which describes the battle of the gods and the end of the world:
'500 doors and 40 there are I seen, in Valhalla's walls; 800 fighters through each door fare,
When to war with the Wolf they go.'

500 plus 40 = 540. 540 x 800 = 432,000.

432,000 divided by 6,000=72

432,000 divided by 2,000=2,160

Again: 'Coincidence' is not a scientific explanation.

Dr. Herman Hiprect, who participated in 'The Babylonian Expedition of the University of
Pennsylvania' has reported that in analyzing the numerous Mesopotamian mathematical
tablets, that 'all the multiplication and division tables from the temple libraries of Nippur and
Sippar, and from the library of Ashurbanipal in Ninevah, are based upon the number 1296000.'
He concluded that this number had to be related to precession.

12,960,000 divided by 500=25,920

500 x 25,920=12,960,000

As summed up by de Santillan and von Dechend, 'When one finds the same numbers
reappearing under several multiples in the Vedas, in the temples of Angkor, in Babylon, in
Heraclitius' dark utterances, and also in the Norse Valhalla, it is not an accident... These refer
to celestial events... and constitute... a language of awe inspiring antiquity... that concentrates
on numbers, motions, measures, overall frames, schemas, and on the structure of numbers, on
geometry.... which transmit... a precessional message...'

Yes, but is the message.

The ancients believed that precession, the cosmic clock, was directly linked to cycles of
creation and destruction, of death and rebirth. Precession was a key to predicting the future -
a future based on the past, including past cycles of cosmic destruction: the old age replaced by
the new.

'And the seven judges of hell raised their torches, lighting the land with their livid flame. A
stupor of despair went up to heaven when the god of the storm turned daylight into darkness,
when he smashed the land like a cup.' (the Epic of Gilgamesh)"

"The coming of Christ, a Messiah, the new god, and the onset of a 'new Golden Age' was
heralded by the sun's movement from Aries into the house of Pisces, 2000 years ago. In the
mind of at least some of the ancients, the birth of the new god was also signaled by the
conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn, which lined up together in the constellation of Pisces, in the
year 6 B.C., thus forming a very bright 'star' - the 'star of Bethlehem.'

These 'blessed' events were immortalized two thousand years ago by Virgil, in his Fourth
Ecologue: 'Now the Virgin returns, the reign of Saturn returns, now a new generation descends
from heaven on high. Only do thou, pure Lucina, smile on the birth of the child, under whom
the iron brood shall first cease, and a golden race spring up throughout the world!'

And who was the 'virgin?'

Virgo. With her return, Virgo the virgin would give birth to a new age and a new god.

Two thousand years ago, whereas Pisces governed the vernal equinox, the sun rose in Virgo
during the autumn equinox. However, 12,000 to 14,000 years ago, Virgo governed the vernal
equinoxes during the 'golden age' and when she left, the 'golden age ended' in a confluence of
catastrophes.

Hence, Virgil's poem, refers to the return of the Virgin which coincided with the new age of
Pisces both of which ruled during the last 'Golden age.'

Thus, the birth of Christ was associated not only with the new golden age of Pisces, but with a
virgin - Virgo: The virgin birth of the new god. Virgo would rein for 2,160 years, and with her
departure (in about 100 years), the god she gave birth to will die. However, a new god will not
only take the place of the old god, but her departure will give birth to the new god as well - a
god associated with the 'beast' - Leo (the lion). The Virgin will flee only to be pursued by Leo
who shall take her place.

Likewise, in Revelation, we are told that the ending of the next world will be associated with a
'beast... like that of a lion...' and a 'dragon' who 'gave the beast his power and his throne and
great authority...' and who 'pursued the woman who... was pregnant and cried out in pain as
she was about to give birth...' and who, upon giving 'birth to the male child... fled into the
desert... where she might be taken care of for 1,260 days... the dragon... pursued the
woman...'

The woman (Virgo) gives birth (a virgin birth) to a new God only to depart and to be pursued
by the water belching dragon and anti-Christ who gives power to a lion-like beast (Leo) who
will rule the heavens. However, by departing she also gives birth to a new god: the beast, Leo.

Revelations also gives us the number of the beast: 'His number is 666. This calls for wisdom. If
anyone has insight, let him calculate the number of the beast.'

'666' is obviously a reference to a repeating cycle. Yet, the author of Revelations asks us to
look beyond the obvious and to 'calculate the number of the beast.'

Calculating the Number of the Beast: 6 x 6 x 6 = 216. '216' is a precessional number: 2,160 -
the number of years to complete a precessional cycle.

'The dragon... which gave power to the beast... had... ten horns.' (Revelation)

10 x 216 = 2160
 The 'Beast' is Leo: 'The horses... I saw in my vision looked like this: The heads of the horses
resembled the heads of lions...Then I saw another mighty angel coming down from heaven...
he gave a loud shout like the roar of a lion... And I saw a beast coming out of the sea.'
(Aquarius - the sea)

'He had... a mouth like that of a lion.' (Revelation)

And his repeating cyclic number, 666, refers to precession: 'The beast, which you saw, once
was, now is not, and will come up out of the Abyss... The inhabitants of the Earth... will be
astonished when they see the beast, because he once was, now is not, and yet will come...'
(Revelation)

As noted, precession is a counterclockwise, or rather, an anti-clockwise phenomenon. Due to

the retardation of the Earth's orbital movement of 1 degree every 72 years, every 2,160 years
the sun rises in the previous house of the Zodiac.

Hence, instead of moving forward from Pisces to Aries, in about 100 years the sun will rise in
Aquarius, thereby signaling the death of the god of Pisces (the fish) and heralding the new age
god of Aquarius who will rule the vernal equinox.

Likewise, Virgo (the virgin) will be replaced by Leo (a predatory 'Beast') who will rule the
autumn equinox, just as he did 12,000 years ago."

"The age of Aquarius/Leo, therefore, is the anti-Christ: Symbolized by the movement away
from Pisces/Virgo, and the end of that 'god's' rule.

'And the serpent cast out of his mouth water as a flood...'

Some 12,000 years ago, Aquarius (the god of the waters) ruled the autumn equinox and Leo
ruled the vernal equinox. It is during this ancient period that the 'Golden Age' is believed to
have ended, and civilization along with it in a terrible flood that coincided with a 'war in
heaven.' Thus, the return of Leo and Aquarius (albeit in the opposite equinox) and the
departure of Pisces and Virgo, is also believed to herald not just a new beginning, but a terrible
ending - a confluence of catastrophes that will coincide with a celestial war in heaven and a
battle among the stars that will begin with the rise of Leo, the 'Beast:'

'Look, he is coming with the clouds, and every eye will see him... and there before me was a
throne... In the center, around the throne, were four living creatures. The first living creature
was like a lion' (Leo?) 'the second was like an ox' (Taurus?) 'the third had a face like a man
(Sagittarius/Aquarius), 'the fourth was like a flying eagle...'

And what is the 'flying eagle?' Scorpio.

Again, as of 2012, the sun rises in the houses of Scorpio and Taurus on the solstice, and in the
constellations of Leo and Aquarius on equinox.

Revelation continues:

'the fourth was like a flying eagle... And I saw a mighty angel proclaiming in a loud voice, 'Who
is worthy to break the seals and open the scroll...Then one of the elders said to me... the Lion...
has triumphed. He is able to open the scroll and its seven seals... and the stars in the sky fell to
Earth. The sky receded like a scroll, rolling up, and every mountain and island was removed
from its place. Then the kings of the Earth, the princes, the generals, the rich, the mighty, and
every slave and every free man hid in caves and among the rocks of the mountains... Then the
seven angels who had the seven trumpets prepared to sound them. The first angel sounded his
trumpet, and there came hail and fire mixed with blood, and it was hurled down upon the
Earth. A third of the Earth was burned up, a third of the trees were burned up, and all the
green grass was burned up.

The second angel sounded his trumpet, and something like a huge mountain, all ablaze, was
thrown into the sea... The third angel sounded his trumpet, and a great star, blazing like a
torch, fell from the sky...'"

"THE COSMIC CLOCK

'Who among us can tell the future by letting us hear the First Things?' (Isaiah, 43)

Revelation repeatedly refers to a cosmic catastrophe associated with the house of Leo (the
lion) and Aquarius (waters/sea). Ezekiel (38, 39) tells us that in the 'End of Days' fire and
brimstone will fall from the skies, and there will be great earthquakes, plagues, and wars.

Ezekiel, like Revelation and Isaiah, also contains precessional language, as does the
Mayan/Olmec calendar. And, they base their predictions of the future, on what has happened
in the past... that the End is anchored in the Beginning (e.g. Isaiah, 48; Zechariah, 1, 7).

The best predictor of the future, is the past.

However, neither Revelation, Ezekiel, or Isaiah, provide us with a date in which these terrible
cosmic events are to recur, other than to warn that these disasters will begin with the return
of the great serpent, the anti-Christ, and the beast: Aquarius/Leo.

The Mayas, basing their calculations on the Venus calender, were more exacting.

According to the Mayan/Olmec/Aztec Calendar, the date for the beginning of the end of the
previous age and its gods, and the onset of a new age and its gods, will be '4 Ahau 3 Kankin'
(December 23, 2012), 'and it will be ruled by the Sun God, the ninth Lord of the Night.'

Welcome to the Age of Aquarius."

30-01-2016, 10:58