JJ Cob 2

Environmental Science & Policy 64 (2016) 101–117
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Environmental Science & Policy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envsci
Review
Assessment of stormwater runoff management practices and

governance under climate change and urbanization: An analysis of
Bangkok, Hanoi and Tokyo
Chitresh Saraswat* , Pankaj Kumar, Binaya Kumar Mishra
United Nations University, Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), 5-53-70, Shibuya-Ku, Tokyo, 150-8925, Japan
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received 9 April 2016 As human history is changing on many fronts, it is appropriate for us to understand the different
Received in revised form 22 June 2016 perspectives of major global challenges, of which, water is a major priority. The water resources in urban
Accepted 23 June 2016 areas are either approaching or exceeding the limits of sustainable use at alarming rates. Groundwater
Available online 9 July 2016 table depletion and increasing flood events can be easily realized in rapidly developing urban areas. It is
necessary to improve existing water management systems for high-quality water and reduced hydro-
Keywords: meteorological disasters, while preserving our natural/pristine environment in a sustainable manner.
Climate change adaptation This can be achieved through optimal collection, infiltration and storage of stormwater. Stormwater
Stormwater management
runoff is rainfall that flows over the ground surface; large volumes of water are swiftly transported to
Stormwater capture measure
local water bodies and can cause flooding, coastal erosion, and can carry many different pollutants that
Urban water security
Water infrastructure are found on paved surfaces. Sustainable stormwater management is desired, and the optimal capture
Stormwater governance measure is explored in the paper. This study provides commentary to assist policy makers and
researchers in the field of stormwater management planning to understand the significance and role of
remote sensing and GIS in designing optimal capture measures under the threat of future extreme events
and climate change. Community attitudes, which are influenced by a range of factors, including
knowledge of urban water problem, are also considered. In this paper, we present an assessment of
stormwater runoff management practices to achieve urban water security. For this purpose, we explored
different characteristics of stormwater runoff management policies and strategies adopted by Japan,
Vietnam and Thailand. This study analyses the abilities of Japanese, Vietnamese and Thai stormwater
runoff management policies and measures to manage water scarcity and achieve water resiliency. This
paper presents an overview of stormwater runoff management to guide future optimal stormwater
runoff measures and management policies within the governance structure. Additionally, the effects of
different onsite facilities, including those for water harvesting, reuse, ponds and infiltration, are explored
to establish adaptation strategies that restore water cycle and reduce climate change-induced flood and
water scarcity on a catchment scale.
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Background supply and, in many cases, the limits of sustainable water use are
being exceeding (Hatt et al., 2004; Mitchell et al., 2003). In some
The world’s population has reached 7.2 billion, and more people cases, water scarcity is leading to conflict over water rights. In
live in cities than in rural areas (UNDESA, 2014). Water is a very urban watersheds, competition with agriculture and industry is
critical natural resource for the world’s fastest growing urban intensifying as cities expand in size and political influence (Bahri,
areas. Commercial, residential, and industrial users already place 2012). With industrial and domestic water demand expected to
considerable demands on cities’ water resources and supply, which double by 2050 (UNDP, 2006), competition among urban, peri-
often require water treatment (Bahri, 2012). The demand of water urban, and rural areas will likely worsen. A critical challenge to
resources in urban areas is approaching the capacity of the water newly developed urban cities is design for resilience to the impact
of climate change with regards to sustainable management of
water resources. It is currently well accepted that the conventional
* Corresponding author. urban water management approach is highly unsuited to
E-mail address: saraswat.chitresh@gmail.com (C. Saraswat). addressing current and future sustainability issues (Ashley et al.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.06.018
1462-9011/ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
102 C. Saraswat et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 64 (2016) 101–117
2005; Wong and Brown, 2008). The conventional approach to et al., 2003). The need for stormwater runoff management capture
urban water systems around the world involves the use of a similar and transportation systems developed as a result of human
series of systems for drainage of stormwater, potable water and experiences with various challenges due to destructive floods.
sewerage. As explained by Bahri (2012), the unsustainable nature The sustainable stormwater runoff management target is to
of this approach is highlighted by the current ecosystem-related understand the changes in the urban landscape, in which the
problems and degraded environment in urban areas due to addition of vegetation is not widely observed, with the aim of
changes in the hydrology of catchments and quality of runoff, devising approaches to limit certain undesirable effects and to take
leading to modified riparian ecosystems (Bahri, 2012). United advantage of the new opportunities (Huang et al., 2007). A
Nations Agenda 21 (1992) stated that achieving sustainable urban sustainable stormwater system is not a system to address runoff
water systems and protecting the quality and quantity of problems and avoid unwanted contaminants in the water, but
freshwater resources are key components of ecologically sustain- rather, it is a system to increase the potential usability of water
able development. Because of climate change and the spread of resources in society (Sundberg et al., 2004). Stormwater capture
urbanization, the negative impacts are intensifying, resulting in and drainage may be considered not only as systems to divert
increasing runoff, pollutant loads and pressure on existing undesired water from urban areas but also as valuable elements for
systems, with a significant economic cost required to augment landscaping the surroundings of buildings and roads (Boller, 2004).
conventional systems. Alternative approaches are required to In general, to control surface runoff, flood control agencies have
develop sustainable water systems in urban environments, and constructed large centralized facilities, such as culverts, detention
Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) is one such basins and sometimes re-engineered natural hydrologic features,
approach, which views the water supply, drainage and sanitation including the paving of city river channels to quickly convey runoff
as components of an integrated physical system within an to receiving water bodies. These large-scale facilities are required
organizational and natural landscape (Mitchell et al., 2007a, to handle the massive amounts of runoff generated by the largest
2007b). It is an integrated system that seeks to reduce the inputs storm events, as it would be impractical to handle this runoff on a
and outputs to decrease the inefficiencies of water resources that decentralized parcel-by-parcel basis with small-scale infiltration
are associated with the traditional practices of urbanization (Hardy devices. The current trend is toward a more overall integrated
et al., 2005). Although this incorporation and diversification of approach to manage stormwater runoff as an integrated system of
urban water systems increase the complexity of urban water preventive and control practices to accomplish stormwater
systems, they also provide more opportunities to attain sustainable management goals. The first principle is to minimize the
water use and increase the overall water system resilience generation of runoff and pollutants through a variety of
(Mitchell and Diaper, 2005; Mitchell et al., 2007b). The identified techniques, and the second principle is to manage runoff and its
key components of the IUWM system are the methods and pollutants to minimize their impacts on humans and the
measures to capture and utilize urban stormwater. Fig. 1 defines environment in a cost effective manner (EPA, 2007). The utilization
stormwater as precipitation, such as rain or melting snow. In a of remote sensing and GIS technology in stormwater management
natural environment, a small percentage of precipitation becomes is constantly evolving, and commonly used GIS technologies are
surface runoff; however, as urbanization increases, the amount of utilized to help decision-makers to determine the most efficient
surface runoff drastically increases. Surface runoff is created when ways to manage stormwater, including the selection of capture
pervious or impervious surfaces are saturated from precipitation measures based on criteria, and the evaluation of methods to
or snow melt (Durrans, 2003). Pervious surface areas naturally capture urban runoff (Wilson et al., 2000). However, as explained
absorb water to the saturation point, after which, rainwater by Wang et al. (2004), even in the most technically complex
becomes runoff and travels via gravity to the nearest stream. This analysis, it is always necessary for the human element to select
point of saturation is dependent on the landscape, soil type, appropriate criteria and make other subjective decisions. There
evapotranspiration and biodiversity of the area (Pierpont, 2008). will frequently be decisions made in stormwater management that
In the urban environment, due to the impervious surfaces that reflect the economic, political, social, and aesthetic components
cover the natural environment, the hydrological processes of that may not always be easily incorporated into a GIS analyses and
surface water runoff become more unnatural, causing damage to modelling system. Important aspects of community attitudes are
infrastructure and contamination of water by pollutants (Ragab also considered in this study, as these attitudes are influenced by a
NATURAL SETTINGS URBAN SETTINGS
40% 30%
Evaporation Evaporation
Precipitation Precipitation
10% Run-off 55% Run-off
25% Shallow infiltration 10% Shallow infiltration

River River
25% Deep infiltration 5% Deep infiltration
Fig. 1. Comparison of absorption and surface runoff between a natural and an urban environment.
C. Saraswat et al. / Environmental Science & Policy 64 (2016) 101–117 103
range of factors, including knowledge of urban water problems,

frequency and water restrictions, familiarity with use of alternative
water sources, and either positive or negative support from water
authorities, government agencies and researchers (Mitchell et al.,
2007a; Dolnicar and Hurlimann, 2009). Stormwater management
in Japan and Thailand has always aimed to control stream flow for
municipal and commercial use while preventing water-related
disasters in cities. City stormwater management policies were
based on flood control and, in recent years, shifted from the
exclusive use of structural approaches to using a combination of
structural and non-structural approaches. Japanese flood manage-
ment began with the policies implemented in 300BC in the Yayoi
period. In 1960, there was an effort to move away from concrete
dams and focus instead on the hydrologic function of green dams,
which rely on the flow retarding the capacity of forests to reduce
flood risk (Luo et al., 2015; Takara et al., 2004; Calder, 2007).
Thailand has focused more on structural measures in addressing
Fig. 2. Hydrographs showing runoff from 3 areas at different levels of development
stormwater issues, including aggressive implementation of meas-
based on impervious cover.
ures involving the general public and the private sector (Chiplun- Adapted from Blair et al. (2011).
kar et al., 2012). In Vietnam, an integrated design of surface runoff
infiltration, storage and transportation of stormwater was applied.
The country has focused on increasing the groundwater levels by In Fig. 2, the y-axis shows the runoff rate, and the x-axis shows
increasing the stormwater percolation rates through enhanced time in hours. This hydrograph illustrates the impact of urbaniza-
infiltration (Werner et al., 2011). tion and climate change on runoff. Climate impact curves are based
In this paper, we present an assessment of stormwater runoff on a 24-h 5-inch rain with semi-saturated runoff conditions (Blair
management and the latest practices in use to achieve urban water et al., 2011). Considering changes in urbanization, climate and
security. For this purpose, we explored the different characteristics management policies, stormwater discharge pollution is versatile
of stormwater runoff management policies and strategies adopted and arises from stormwater volume quantity and quality. All of the
by Japan, Vietnam and Thailand. In addition, this study provides above-mentioned factors affect stormwater, which is derived from
case studies from Tokyo, Hanoi and Bangkok to evaluate the precipitation, such as rain, sleet, or melting snow. In a natural
advantages and disadvantages of stormwater runoff practices and setting, only a very small percentage of precipitation becomes
policies with respect to historical measures and hydrologic surface runoff, but as urbanization increases, this percentage of
dimensions of city stormwater management systems. This paper stormwater drastically increases. This runoff normally flows into
provides a detailed assessment to assist future policy makers and the nearest stream or river, increasing the percentage of water in
researchers in the field of stormwater runoff management the system and, if it is polluted, it can lead to disastrous situations
planning in understanding the significance and emerging role of and various forms of pollution.
remote sensing and GIS in designing optimal surface runoff
measures under the threat of future extreme events and climate 2.1. Urbanization
change.
In the context of urbanization, we can accurately define
2. Stormwater runoff in a changing context stormwater as the runoff from pervious and impervious surfaces
in predominantly urban environments. Impervious surfaces can be
In the changing context of urbanization, climate change and defined as concrete charcoal roads, highways, roofs, pavements
various shifting management policies, stormwater runoff is and footpaths. The land cover and precipitation relationship
severely impacted. It is well known that urbanization alters pathways have created a state in which the watersheds and their
watershed hydrology as land becomes increasingly more covered streams and channels are adversely impacted (Frazer, 2005). In
with surfaces impervious to rain, water is redirected from Fig. 3, from the centre of watershed protection, we can see the
groundwater recharge, and climate change increases the evapo- relation between urbanized areas covered with impervious roads
transpiration rate of stormwater runoff. As the area of impervious and streams. The figure demonstrates that increasing impervious
cover increases, so do the volume and runoff rate. Weak regulatory surfaces alters the hydrologic cycle and creates conditions that no
policies can worsen the situation (Schueler, 1994; Corbett et al., longer can support the diversity of life. The Centre for Watershed
1997). Pollutants accumulate on impervious surfaces, and the Protection has reported that in areas that exceed 10% impervious
increased runoff with urbanization is a leading cause of nonpoint coverage, stream health begins to decline (Coffman and France,
source pollution (USEPA, 2002). Sediment, chemicals, bacteria, 2002). The problems that urbanized watersheds face include
viruses, and other pollutants are carried into receiving water flooding, stream bank erosion and pollutant export. The receiving
bodies, resulting in degraded water quality (Holland et al., 2004; streams of these intensified storm flows alter hydraulic character-
Sanger et al., 2008). Blair et al. (2011) tested and analysed more istics due to peak discharges several times higher than pre-
than thirteen watershed locations in coastal Carolina (USA), and development or even rural land cover characteristics (LeRoy et al.,
developed a method to model the impacts of urbanization and 2006). Improving the water quality of runoff entering receiving
climate change on stormwater runoff, which was based on the waters and reducing pressure on existing water supply systems are
modelling methods of the Natural Resources Conservation Service thus major goals of urban water management.
(NRCS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), We can clearly understand the impact of urbanization on
and generated hydrographs of rate and time. In Fig. 2, the stormwater runoff based on the analysis of Blair et al. (2011), in
hydrograph shows the impact of different levels of urbanization on which a model was developed to understand the impact of
rainfall percentage as well as climate change impacts on urban, urbanization on the surface runoff and tested in 13 locations in the
suburban and forested watersheds. USA. The presented hydrograph clearly demonstrates the impact of
Fig. 3. The difference between the natural ground cover and various types of impervious surfaces in urbanized areas. The impervious surfaces are directly responsible for the
reduction in deep infiltration of water, and increase surface water runoff by at least 50% (https://www3.epa.gov/caddis/ssr_urb_is1.html).
urbanization based on increasing impervious cover percentage and

on the watershed or areas.
2.2. Climate change
In the context of climate change considered in concert with

urbanization, stormwater runoff and its impacts are likely
intensified, further increasing the quantity of polluted runoff.
Numerous studies involving climate change predictions have
indicated that heavy precipitation events will likely increase in
frequency and intensity (Bates et al., 2008; Karl et al., 2008).
Semadeni-Davies et al. (2008) showed that the correlation
between the increased intensity of rainfall and increased
impervious surfaces cover is directly proportional to more extreme
events, such as flooding, flash floods and greater peak flows. Hence,
Fig. 4. Hydrographs showing runoff from 3 test areas at different levels of
within the context of climate change, a science-based system for development (based on impervious cover). The hydrograph illustrates the impact of
evaluating the relative impacts of both urbanization and climate urbanization on runoff. Curves are based on a 24-h 4.5-inch storm, with average
change on stormwater runoff at a local scale is very much needed runoff conditions.
for better management policies. Stormwater management is Adapted from Blair et al. (2011).
planned based on local weather and climate. However, climate
changes, such as the amount, timing, and intensity of rain events,
in combination with land development, can significantly affect the temperature and precipitation from January 1979 to November
amount of stormwater runoff that needs to be managed. In some 2012. The models suggest that manmade greenhouse gases have
regions of the developing countries, the combination of climate caused global surface air temperatures to warm and global
and land use change may worsen existing stormwater-related precipitation to increase. Studies have shown a direct correlation
flooding, whereas other regions in the world may be minimally between stream water quality and impervious surface coverage;
affected. In the past, stormwater management was practiced in an with more than 10% impervious surface coverage, streams in some
anthropocentric, human-centric manner, and as a result, has had a watersheds become unstable due to increasing erosion or
profound effect on the environment. Fig. 4 describes the sedimentation damage (Vargas, 2009).
correlation between the climate change and rainfall, which is As shown in Fig. 6, climate change and urbanization alter the
directly related to stormwater runoff. physical factors associated with stormwater runoff and the
Along with climate change, a suburban expansion has exploded responses of receiving waters.
over the last few years, thereby increasing impervious surface
cover in place of forests, pastures, and cropland. This has affected 2.3. Regulatory policies
local hydrological cycles by producing more surface runoff and
decreasing the base flow, interflow and depression storage (Davis Sustainable stormwater management not only depends on the
et al., 2006). The Fig. 5(a) shows the shift in climate and increase of financial capability of any country but also on the policy priorities
global average temperature resulting in more hot extreme weather and institutional framework. Due to weak regulatory practices,
in future. The Fig. 5(b) is a time-series graph that compares the many parts of the world are unable to sustainably use stormwater.
multi-model mean of the simulations of global surface air Studies have shown that stormwater runoff impacts both water
possibly increase in quantity because less rainwater is evaporating

and infiltrating; this may lead to erosion, sedimentation, flooding,
dissolved oxygen depletion, nutrient enrichment, reduced biodi-
versity, toxicity and other associated impacts on water use
(Wagner et al., 2007). Water quality concerns vary from region
to region, depending on factors such as population density, land
use degradation and pollution in the area (Fletcher and Deletic,
2007). The major pollutants recognized in conventional storm-
water management practices are suspended solids, oxygen-
demanding matter, bacteria, and nutrients, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, and heavy metals. Suspended solids cause an increase
of turbidity, which directly affects ecosystems by lowering the
amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water (Bilotta and Brazier,
2008). It is critical to maintain high DO levels in water to sustain
aquatic life. The organic matter from animal faeces and sewer
overflows typically lowers DO levels in the receiving surface
waters. Pathogenic bacteria in overflow have caused detrimental
human health effects and have caused beaches to be off limits
because of health safety issues, including many diseases associated
with waterborne infections, such as gastroenteritis and hepatitis
(EPA, 2001). Nitrogen and phosphorous mainly originate from
agricultural fields, but they can also originate from the usage of
fertilizers and pesticides in any area (Adams and Papa, 2000). The
phenomenon which destructively affect water bodies with cold
aquatic life with sensitivity to higher temperatures and reduce the
dissolved oxygen concentration is known as thermal enrichment.
Which is another type of water pollution, where surface water is
heated and discharged to receiving water bodies with lower
temperature which can impact the entire aquatic ecosystem.
Fig. 5. (a) Shift in climate and increase in global average temperature. (b) Modelled
global surface temperature with respect to precipitation. 3. Methodology of the assessment of optimal stormwater
Adapted from Steffen et al. (2013). Source: https://bobtisdale.wordpress.com/2012/
management
12/27/model-data-precipitation-comparison-cmip5-ipcc-ar5-model-simulations-
versus-satellite-era-observations/.
This study provides an overview of the environmental impacts
quantity and quality. Excessive stormwater may result in erosion of of surface water runoff and the need of strong surface runoff
stream banks, thereby altering the stream bed morphology (Wynn, management measures to achieve sustainable use of water
2004). During the development stages, soils may become resources in urban environments. Fig. 7 provides an overall
compacted, and thus have reduced infiltration capacity, which methodology for the assessment of optimal stormwater manage-
means that during construction, the amount of stormwater could ment. The impacts of stormwater runoff in changing environments
Fig. 6. Physical effects of urbanization on streams and habitats.

Adapted from Roesner and Bledsoe (2003).
Fig. 7. Methodology for the assessment of stormwater runoff management measures to attain urban water security.
is analysed by comparing and evaluating findings under context of 3.1. Historical trends
climate change, urbanization and the regulation of stormwater
management. Using hydrographs, it is easy to understand the In the ancient history of water management, which began
major negative impacts on surface runoff and nearby water bodies. thousands of years ago, the quality of life was directly correlated to
Analysis of stormwater runoff impacts under various contexts flood control measures because floods had severe consequences in
largely employs historical trends analysis, and remote sensing, GIS, terms of human lives and crops. Even in ancient societies, the
numerical hydrodynamic and economic models. Trends analysis practices, techniques and strategies to control and manage
based on historical observations is popular technique to predict stormwater can be studied (Koutsoyiannis et al., 2008). Approxi-
future outcome. Information about past changes in flood peaks and mately 3000 years ago, the ancient civilizations of Babylonia and
groundwater table can be important to determine trend and Assyria were able to combine wastewater and stormwater sewage
response tendencies in the urban area as a reference for future systems (Durrans, 2003). In ancient times, water management was
floods and groundwater prediction. Based on numerical simulation utmost priority because of basic human needs of sanitation, clean
modelling and economic aspects of stormwater runoff manage- drinking water, and flood prevention, and gradually evolved into
ment measures, we assess current scenarios and optimal future conventional stormwater management. The conventional ap-
strategies. Water cycle under different scenarios is analysed using proach requires the construction of a massive and costly
high-resolution distributed hydrological model coupled to onsite centralized infrastructure system to function efficiently. Many
facility performance at grid level, analyse the resulting water cycle. ancient stormwater drainage systems, such as the Cloaca maxima in
Iterative simulations require to be carried out for different policies Rome, which was built in approximately 600 BCEE, still exist today
for onsite facility installations until water cycle is close to pre- (Fardin et al., 2014). Underground stormwater drainage was
development stage. Local people’s perception on alternative common in Europe and many places in the Americas in the 19th
infiltration and storage facilities are also highly important in century following rapid urbanization (Burian and Edwards, 2002)
reducing urban flood risk and improving urban water cycle. due to the industrial revolution. In particular, combined sewers can
Physical/environmental constraints with local acceptance and be observed in many cities, and the water carried in combined
engagement in urban stormwater runoff management are done by sewers has historically been transported directly to receiving
combining, simulation based on natural science approach and field waters bodies. These approaches helped prevent flood damage and
survey based on social science approaches. Finally, recommenda- also pollution in ancient times, which often resulted in financial
tions are suggested for policy makers to design optimal storm- and environmental benefits. In the beginning of the 1920s, flood
water runoff measures. prevention and stormwater management implementation was
improved in linear fashion. It was assumed that stormwater was of Adelaide. However, the study was limited because it did not
wastewater that needed to be transported outside of cities, and it account for the demands of stormwater, and it only considered the
was never considered as a resource (Durrans, 2003). With the help drainage pattern in the region. The major finding is that GIS is a
of gravity, the stormwater was easily disposed through sewerages valuable tool to identify sites to build facilities related to
to nearby water bodies. This inspired the urban drainage systems stormwater management and handling of the surface runoff, as
in development and the control of damage from infrequent using remote sensing provides the capability to design from a
flooding events. It was followed by designs that became common greater perspective rather than a narrow one. For effective
in every urban setting, which can be divided in two types of stormwater runoff management, the use of specialized comput-
drainage systems: major systems, designed to manage 100-year er-based model in concert with GIS can produce better results
storm events, and minor systems, designed to manage 2–25 year (Rusko et al., 2010). Furthermore, Rusko et al. (2010) explained that
storm events (Grigg, 2012). Next was the development of detention the integration of simulations with sustainability objectives of
ponds, a conventional, yet inexpensive method to reduce peak social, environmental and socioeconomic factors into stormwater
flows and total volumes, up until recent years. However, detention management policies could prove useful. For effective stormwater
ponds are limited in that they have a negative effect on the management at the local level, this approach would be useful along
environment because they disrupt the drainage paths of streams with the use of GIS and remote sensing. It is easier for a policy
and are unable to improve the quality of stormwater due to non- maker to implement policies using different areas in the watershed
point pollution (Durrans, 2003). In recent years, the development rather than different locally adaptable strategies to solve locally
of new technology and infiltration facilities changed the scenarios variable problems, such as erosion, sedimentation, flooding or
from ancient technologies with the one-dimensional view that pollution, and in this respect, GIS and remote sensing is of great
stormwater is not useful and its management is only to reduce usability. This allows for a complete stormwater plan across the
flood damage; as a result, an environmental insight that rainwater watershed to prevent the negative effects of stormwater at specific
can be utilized as a valuable resource was developed. sites and anywhere downstream where there is potential for harm,
which can be identified easily by monitoring the sites using a
3.2. Role of remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) remote sensing map and processing data through GIS. Another use
technology of GIS and remote sensing is to collect and manage spatial data,
which is an important requirement as such data are used as input
Remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) for computer stormwater models, such as MOUSE, MIKE II,
technology have been widely applied, and the integration of both is Hydroworks, SWMM and STORM (Elliott and Trowsdale, 2007).
recognized as a powerful and effective tool to design and formulate GIS can then be used to present the user-friendly processed result
strategies for stormwater management. Remote sensing effectively of output from the models (Heaney et al., 2001). Modelling with
collects multi-temporal, multi-spectral and multi-location data the use of GIS to handle data from computer-based tools to make a
and helps in observing land use changes, whereas GIS provides a user-friendly decision support can improve communication to
platform for analysing and displaying digital data and acts as a stakeholders involved in modern world stormwater planning. GIS
decision support system (Weng, 2001). In urban environments, the and remote sensing for stormwater runoff management are used
first and foremost important selection is to identify suitable for flood mapping, flood hazard mapping, hydrologic modelling,
stormwater harvesting sites for urban water management. GIS has catchment level stormwater management and designing storm
been recommended as a DSS (decision support system) to facilitate sewer systems, including determining the slope and surface
the identification of potential stormwater harvesting sites during elevation from digital elevation model (DEM) data. Moreover, they
the decision making process (Mbilinyi et al., 2005). GIS also can can be used for planning in stormwater practices, such as Best
serve as a screening tool for the selection of preliminary sites as it management practices, Low Impact Development and assessment
has a unique capability for spatial analysis of multi-source of the feasibility system (Rusko et al., 2010).
datasets, allowing for integration (Malczewski, 2004). There is The use of GIS and remote sensing in estimating stormwater
widespread literature available on the use of GIS for the runoff from the land use, slope, impervious surface coverage and
assessment of site suitability in areas in terms of stormwater soil characteristics is common and evolving in nature. It is useful to
harvesting across the world. For example, the potential site aid decision-makers in deciding the optimal way to manage
selection for the harvesting of water in India was identified using stormwater planning decisions. However, it is important to note
the International Mission for Sustainability Development (IMSD) here that for any complex situation or analysis, it is still necessary
guideline in a GIS environment (Kumar et al., 2008). Various to have human element to select appropriate criteria and make
studies have explained the development of GIS-based DSSs subjective decisions because of the requirement of frequent
(decision support systems), developed for locating suitable sites decisions in stormwater management. Another widely applicable
for water harvesting (De Winnaar et al., 2007; Mbilinyi et al., 2007). use of remote sensing is in controlling the non-point source
Using a biophysical approach, criteria can be assessed to formulate pollution by analysing impervious surfaces inside of watersheds
a strategy to identify surface runoff harvesting sites to understand (Slonecker et al., 2001). It is also useful in estimating the
the catchment hydrological information derived from the catch- stormwater pollutant mass loading (Ackerman and Schiff, 2003).
ments characteristics (De Winnaar et al., 2007). Various studies
have shown that areas with less spatial constraints for various 3.3. Numerical simulation modelling of stormwater
water storages are considered suitable for criteria such as
precipitation, runoff, soil type, topography and distance to storage With rapid urbanization and climate change, stormwater
for stormwater harvesting (Mbilinyi et al., 2005; Kahinda et al., managers face increasingly complex issues regarding the design,
2008). However, in an urban context, the spatial constraints are construction, operation and maintenance of different stormwater
greater due to the overall lower storage space and an already infrastructures. Recent stormwater management systems have
exhausted drainage network; this places constraints on social, largely focused on ecosystem-based approaches (instead of
institutional and economic factors needed to locate suitable traditional approaches of moving the stormwater out of the
stormwater harvesting sites. For example, in Australia, Shipton and affected area), which require groundwater recharge, maintenance
Somenahalli (2010) applied GIS for the identification of suitable of the natural flow regime, downstream impacts and water quality.
stormwater runoff collection sites in the Central Business District With the advent of computer systems and tools such as GIS and
remote sensing, numerical models are more widely used to 3.4. Economic assessment
simulate the hydrologic-hydraulic processes by mathematically
representing the stormwater movement systems. Numerical Economic assessment of stormwater runoff management is
models enable testing the effectiveness of different alternative important in improving the environmental quality; the basic
stormwater management measures by simulating water quantity concept is to have an incentive-based market to understand
and quality values at different locations. Numerical models are stormwater as a resource rather than waste. In this section, the
principally based on a set of differential equations representing the cost-effective measures are explored to control stormwater runoff
physical stormwater management systems. They describe rates of by providing incentives for small-scale BMPs (Best Management
change of various parameters with respect to time and space. Practices) throughout urban watersheds (Parikh et al., 2005). The
Running a numerical model implies solving these equations with solution to reduce stormwater runoff and other impacts is a market
boundary conditions and spatial/temporal changes within the mechanism within the incentive-based market, such as storm-
systems. Model results represent the responses to global changes water runoff user fees, charges, cap and trade, and voluntary offset
(climatic, land use, population, etc.) and alternative management programs (Parikh et al., 2005). There are many other proposed
measures. Examples include graphs of depth or flow at specific solutions, one of which is to pay for pollution, which is a basic
locations in the network. strategy that can be achieved by measuring the pollutant in an
The section discusses about the collection of urban stormwater environment and charging the culprits of its source (Dales, 2002);
models used for stormwater simulation and management; Showed another strategy is the promotion of technological advancement to
in Fig. 8(a), the list of potential uses of the listed urban stormwater increase stormwater conservation and prevent pollution. The
models are shown, e.g., the model MOUSE is applicable in stormwater controls can be created using fee structure that is
developing sizing rules for devices, planning and land use in directly related to the degree of water degradation, i.e., “pay for
catchments, and detailing in designing and site layouts. Fig. 8(b) your pollution,” which forces polluters to provide compensation
shows the various urban stormwater models analysed on the basis for damage to the environment in any form, with the goal of
of spatial and temporal resolution, and Fig. 8(c) shows the model preventing pollution as the first priority. However, some studies
capability of simulating runoff generation with different routing have shown that existing fees do not have the impact required to
methods. lead to onsite reductions, and in a few cases, they are not even able
to stop polluters from polluting (Doll et al., 1999). These studies
Fig. 8. (a): Potential uses of the selected models.. *Dark Blue Color Use for the Model in various purposes, Blank Not useful for the purpose. (b): Temporal and Spatial
resolution of the urban stormwater models. * Dark Green Color Represent Sub Hourly distribution, Green Color Hourly distribution, Blue Daily distribution, Dark Blue
Annual distribution. (c): Runoff generation and routing method for the urban stormwater model. *Dark Green Color Represents the Models usefulness in the methods. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Adapted from Elliott and Trowsdale (2007).
indicated that the fees were too low to have an impact on such as Thailand and Vietnam, it remains unpopular. Along with
stormwater runoff control. Another method is to utilize storm- building stormwater infiltration measures, governments have also
water to generate revenue to combat stormwater degradation in focused on building massive sewerages to capture and transport
relation to percentage of impervious surface coverage at any level stormwater out of the city in case of flooding or emergencies. For
(Cyre, 2000). Generally, non-point source constituents are not our case studies, we chose Tokyo, Bangkok and Hanoi to analyse
regulated by any mechanism because of their unobservable nature. the stormwater runoff management practices and compare with
A popular method used for stormwater runoff control is a each other to understand the optimal strategies for recommen-
stormwater trading mechanism (Thurston, 2006). Some commu- dations.
nities have implemented this by calculating a flat rate based on the
imperviousness, and the generated money is used to develop 4.1. Tokyo
infrastructure for stormwater control, which requires local and
regional partner involvement in investing in groundwater Tokyo is capital city of Japan, with a total area of 2188 km2,
infiltration facilities and stormwater technologies, such as LID situated at 35 North and 139 East. The annual precipitation in
and BMPs (Doll et al., 1999). Trading mechanisms provide credit Tokyo is approximately 1530 mm, and it has the largest population
trading incentives to manage sustainable stormwater use, and of any city in the world. The city also suffers from serious flood
allow developers and designers to protect the overall quality of problems and stormwater runoff has always been serious concern
water bodies (Woodward and Kaiser, 2002). The total stormwater for the local government. As shown in Tokyo land use and land
produced in an urban area and its sustainability values (i.e., cover map in Fig. 9, Tokyo has undergone substantial urbanization.
economic, environmental and social) are important considerations Tokyo is focused on structural and non-structural measures for
for trading schemes in addition to water temperature and nutrient stormwater runoff control. For example, Tokyo has been investing
loading. Using a market-based strategy to control stormwater and in and building huge tunnels, such as G-cans, and simultaneously,
improve water quality, large polluters are allowed to purchase the local government has been encouraging residents to use BMPs
water quality improvements from smaller producers, as a and ground water infiltration systems.
voluntary offset of runoff, to optimize economic metrics. To address flooding concerns and the exacerbating effect of
To control and manage stormwater runoff, BMPs are considered stormwater runoff and torrential rains, Tokyo has invested in
less expensive than conventional centralized systems, and efficient underground infrastructure, using five silos and through-tunnel
in improving water quality, however, they require considerable channels to transport water out of the city; this is referred to as the
investment. Analysing their cost effectiveness is a complicated Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel or G-
process. Cost-effectiveness analysis identifies the least expensive Cans project, and it is the largest underground flood water
way of achieving environmental targets (Ecosystem Valuation, diversion facility in the world (Bobylev, 2007). It is located in the
2007). The five techniques used for measuring the value of BMPs outskirts of the city between Showa in Tokyo and Kasukabe in
are replacement cost methods, lifecycle cost analysis, cost-benefit Saitama prefecture and is an example of a critical underground
analysis, the productivity method and the hedonic pricing method. infrastructure of flood and stormwater control management
In the replacement cost method, estimation of ecosystem services system. The figure shows the wide network of the tunnel used
is performed based on the cost of avoiding damage or lost services. to manage the stormwater by draining surface runoff out of the city
For example, in 2006, at the University of California, Davis, (Fig. 10).
researchers estimated that for every 1000 trees in the central The project includes a 6.5 km long connecting tunnel and a
valley, stormwater runoff was reduced by nearly 1 million gallons, storage tank with 78 pumps and five massive silos. There are five
equivalent to 7000 USD (Viers et al., 2012). When those trees are concrete containment silos, which act as a regulator, with
cut down, and their required function is lost due to deforestation, dimensions of 65 m in depth by 32 m in diameter and are located
the costs are passed to the local government (NRDC, 2006). The at the limits of the rivers to connect to tunnel. The tunnel was
life-cycle approach is useful in estimating the BMP costs because, constructed underground, at approximately 50 m depth, to send
most of the time, the maintenance costs are far less than the cost the water to the storage tank after overflow conditions. The storage
involved in maintaining and operating conventional approaches tank, also known as the underground temple, is 177 m long and
(Powell et al., 2005). In cost-benefit analysis, the lack of
information of economic benefits provided by the BMPs can
ultimately obstruct the adoption and implementation (MacMullen,
2007). The method of productivity valuation, which is also known
as the net factor income, can be used to estimate the economic
value of ecosystem products that contribute towards the produc-
tion of marketed goods. Lastly, the hedonic pricing method
estimates the economic values for environmental services that
directly affect the market price, and it is widely used to determine
the variations in housing prices, while reflecting the values of local
environmental attributes (Ecosystem Valuation, 2007).
4. Case studies
Cities in Japan, Vietnam and Thailand are eagerly applying

stormwater infiltration as a stormwater runoff management
measure, but still, many of the local governments are hesitating
to ask residents to install soakaways and small detention basins on
private properties. Based on the above discussion of stormwater
runoff control management, lets discuss the case studies of three
megacities in Asia; it appears that stormwater infiltration is widely
accepted and implemented all over Japan, but in other countries, Fig. 9. Tokyo land use and land cover map.
stormwater infiltration (Fujita, 2005). The Setagaya, Tokyo

government initiated the Setagaya Reservoir framework in 2009,
and started to raise public awareness of rainwater harvesting
systems in the household in order to decrease the possible
inundation of the river. Non-profit organization (NPO) joined the
Setagaya Reservoir Framework by proposing a collaborative
project on infiltration measures aiming to contribute to water
management measures for Nagowa River in the jurisdiction of
Setagaya and avoid the depletions of ground water. In the Setagaya,
5000 soakways are being installed annually. In the city of Koganei,
a Tokyo suburb with a population of 110,000 and an area of 1133 ha,
there are as of March 31, 2005, as many as 48,935 soakways and
infiltration trenches as long as 38 km, which may be the highest
installation density in the world. In the case of the experimental
sewer system in the western part of Tokyo, the Nerima ward, where
such as system was installed is 1434 ha. More than 34,000
soakways, 220 km infiltration in trenches, 70 km of infiltration
curbs, and so much of 500,000 m2 of permeable pavement were
provided in the urban area in the 13 years from 1982 and 1994. The
stormwater runoff control management practices in Tokyo are
overall very effective.
4.2. Bangkok
Bangkok is the capital of Thailand. The total area of the city is

1569 km2, and it is located at a latitude of 13.45 North and
longitude of 100.28 East. The mean elevation is 2.31 m above
Fig. 10. (a) and (b): G-Cans, Tokyo is an underground infrastructure for flooding mean sea level (BMA and UNEP, 2004). In total, 60% of the city land
prevention during the rainy season. area is built up, and approximately 30% is utilized for agriculture
Source: G-Cans project, Tokyo; http://www.water-technology.net/projects/g-cans- (Fig. 12). In 2015, the total population of city was approximately
project-tokyo-japan/.
8,500,000, with a growth rate of less than 2% annually (United
Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division, 2014). The important seasons in Bangkok include the
rainy season from May to October, winter from November to
January, and summer from February to April. The average annual
precipitation is approximately 1500 mm (Shrestha et al., 2015).
Bangkok is facing severe challenges in terms of stormwater
runoff management, mostly inter-related with the impact urbani-
zation and changes in hydrology associated with global climate
change (IPCC, 2007). To address such stormwater issues, the
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) has been focused on
structural measures, and has been aggressively implementing
measures involving the general Bangkok populace, focusing on
strong drainage provisions, such as retention ponds and large-scale
rainwater harvesting, especially in public and private establish-
ments, to alleviate stormwater runoff. Another focus, which is
slowly building its momentum, is recharging the groundwater
bodies via infiltration of stormwater using infiltration techniques
(Chiplunkar et al., 2012).
Fig. 11. Infiltration trench and sewerage system in Tokyo. BMAs focusing on flood mitigation of stormwater runoff help
Source: http://www.recwet.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/furumailab/crest/workshop05/ combat flash flooding in urban areas; groundwater infiltration
june9pm_2.pdf. and the use of various BMPs from vegetation swale, bioretention
BMPs, vegetative strips along roads, ponds, and permeable
pavements are quite popular. Critical underground infrastructure
25 m high, and supported by 59 pillars that are 20 m tall. The tank is gaining popularity in Bangkok as previous flood effects were
has approximately 14000 turbines. This facility is also open to disastrous. Bangkok is currently building comprehensive surface
tourists in the dry season (G-Cans project, Tokyo). runoff and flood control systems. Additionally, on a governance
Another very popular and highly focused stormwater control level, the use of multipurpose critical underground drainage
measure is the artificial infiltration stormwater system in the city. facilities has been gaining support for stormwater management
Fig. 11 shows the structure, in which permeable pavement leads to (Thewes et al., 2012). The plan is to build a double deck cut and
a facility with an artificial infiltration trench, which is connected to also cover the infrastructure beneath the existing eight lane
the combined sewer in the case of over flow. In addition of flood eastern outer ring road, which is approximately 100 km from a
prevention, this provides clean water to the environment and a northern suburb, and runs parallel to the river to drain the extra
functional water cycle with a recharging groundwater table that water to the gulf of Thailand (Tunnel Talk, 2011). In Fig. 13, we can
can restore the spring water, and allow for disaster prevention and see the plan to build the underground infrastructure in a
local ecosystem preservation. Many cities in Japan are applying schematic diagram.
Fig. 12. Land use and land cover map of Bangkok in 2001.
Source: http://giswin.geo.tsukuba.ac.jp/capital-cities/.
harvesting, subsurface rainwater infiltration and storage and urban

aquaculture (Hoan and Edwards, 2005). In general, decentralized
stormwater management measures are incorporated into the
design of the urban landscape to tackle the problem at the source,
and drainage systems are designed to drain the runoff to the
nearest stream. The urban aquaculture system in Hanoi is very
useful in addressing excess stormwater runoff (UNEP International
Environmental Technology Centre, 2008). As shown in Fig. 15, a
good practice is to avoid stormwater runoff and mitigate its
negative effects. Another approach for Hanoi to reduce its
stormwater runoff is urban forestry within the city, as urban
plantations can mitigate the stormwater runoff management
problems caused by impervious surfaces. It is estimated that trees
slow down the flow of stormwater runoff by absorbing the first 30%
of precipitation through their leaf system, and another 30%
through their root systems (Burden, 2006); in addition, trees help
Fig. 13. Plan to build underground infrastructure to mitigate floods and stormwater in filtering the pollutants out of the water before it drains to the
surface runoff. nearby streams. An important measure in Hanoi is rainwater
Adapted from Tunnel Talk (2011). harvesting, as can be observed in Fig. 16. The design is adopted
from Nguyen et al. (2013). Rainwater harvesting is effective in
reducing stormwater runoff and useful for Hanoi due to its high
4.3. Hanoi precipitation. Nguyen et al. (2013) installed ten rainwater harvest-
ing machines at low cost using a canvas catchment, a plastic tank
Hanoi is the capital city of Vietnam and is surrounded by the and a stainless steel tank. Fig. 16 shows the stainless steel tank,
Red river, the Nhue river and the Lich river, with an area of which is very useful in reducing and controlling stormwater
approximately 925 km2 (Duan and Shibayama, 2009). It is (Nguyen et al., 2013).
estimated that the population of the city has exceeded 4 million
inhabitants. The four main precincts have each exceeded 1 million. 5. Discussion
According to the Hanoi Master Plan for the year 2020, calculations
show an increase in population of the urban core to nearly 4.5 Stormwater runoff management practices can be broadly
million inhabitants by the year 2020 (Duan and Shibayama, 2009). classified into two categories. The first is the reduction of surface
This forecast is more than just an estimate, and with the current water runoff quantity, and the second is the improvement of
rate of urbanization, this is a very realistic scenario. In Fig. 14, we stormwater quality, before draining out in nearby water bodies or
see the land use and land cover of Hanoi; the effect of urbanization infiltrating into the ground. The stormwater runoff management
on the land use of the city is easily observed. practices evolved with time, and new strategies have been
According to a study by the World Bank, the country ranked developed to minimize the negative stormwater runoff impacts.
among the top five countries that are going to be severely impacted These strategies are known as LID or Low Impact Development. LID
by climate change, especially in terms of sea level rise and flooding involves a combination of sound site planning, structural
(Dasgupta et al., 2007). The common practices for stormwater techniques and non-structural techniques (Dietz, 2007). LID
management in Hanoi are surface runoff drainage, rainwater techniques promote nature-based designs, and interact with the
Fig. 14. Land Use and land cover map of Hanoi in 2014.
Source: http://giswin.geo.tsukuba.ac.jp/capital-cities/.
reducing impervious cover, incorporating vegetation options, and

also focusing on natural drainage. Non-structural BMPs are
generally classified in four categories, including landscaping and
vegetation swales, minimizing the disturbance at a given site,
management of impervious areas, and modification of stormwater
concentrations. Alternatively, structural BMPs operate very close to
the runoff sources and are used to control and treat runoff. Typical
structural BMPs include filters and surface devices located on
individual lots in a residential commercial or industrial develop-
ment area (Horner et al., 2001). Fig. 17 shows all the types of
structural BMPs, including cisterns, rain barrels, and vertical
storage devices, which are used to capture rainwater. Cisterns are
used for holding larger volumes of water, i.e., approximately 500
gallons or more; rain barrels normally collect drainage from roofs
using pipe networks and are particularly useful in small irrigation
units. Vertical storage involves standing towers against a building
to capture and store water. Another interesting form involves
Fig. 15. Raw wastewater- and stormwater-based fed fish ponds in Hanoi, Vietnam.
storage beneath the structure, in which the stormwater is stored
Source: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications/TechPub-15/2- inside the structure (Guo and Baetz, 2007). Another type of
9/9-3-1.asp. stormwater management policy is the drainage system to take the
stormwater out of the city to the of the nearest water bodies; e.g.,
processes that control stormwater runoff, thereby reducing the Japan built a massive drainage structure. The above-mentioned LID
negative impact of surface water runoff (Davis and Richard, 2005). and BMP techniques integrated with bioretention basins and
Typical elements of conveyance are pavements, roofs, pipes and structural BMPs are applied in stormwater management to
lawn area. Studies have revealed an increasing trend toward more improve the quality of stormwater. A new paradigm of infiltration
sustainable practices, and it is clear that conventional practices are systems, bioretention basins, and surface and subsurface detention
not sustainable and cause environmental degradation (Villarreal basins is developed to address stormwater runoff close to its
2004); thus a shift to LID or Best Management Practices to mitigate source.
effects of stormwater is warranted. Effective LIDs include runoff Green infrastructure is also an important part of the manage-
mitigation measures that are part of larger group of strategies and ment, as it is comprised of interconnected networks of natural
practices in stormwater management known as Best Management areas, such as forests and wetlands, which help in improving water
Practices or BMPs (Perez-Pedini et al., 2005), and the combination quality and provide ecosystem services in the form of recreational
of both is known as LID-BMPs, which use low-impact develop- activities, wildlife, and good air quality.
ment-based BMPs. Table 1 shows the list of BMPs to demonstrate The important aspect of discussion here is that community
the effectiveness of different strategies in terms of managing acceptance and governance of stormwater runoff management are
stormwater runoff. equally important in this respect. As shown in Table 2, on various
Non-structural BMPs include practices such as reducing the governance levels, different entities become responsible for
disturbance at a given site, preserving the important features, governance. At the international level, policies are formed based
Fig. 16. Rainwater harvesting practices in Hanoi.

Adapted from Nguyen et al. (2013).
on agencies such as the UN and other NGOs, and on the national surface. Fig. 18 shows how a hybrid governance structure manages
level, the governance structure and policies are formed by stormwater. As infiltration-based approaches increase, cities have
environmental agencies and legislative bodies. Proper mainte- to share the responsibility by building and maintaining green roofs,
nance of stormwater facilities can lead to reduced costs for stream rain gardens, and swales on private properties. Local municipalities
channel restoration and pollution mitigation in the future. can oversee public communication, incentive programs and
Ferguson (2005) described the conventional engineering methods monitoring (Porse, 2013). This system is reviewed as better in
used to mitigate the effects of stormwater by quoting the oldest many respects than federal regulation in regards to the centralized
method, i.e., reduce the nuisance of water by providing a smooth system to mitigate stormwater runoff because, in hybridization
Table 1
BMP Table type and Effectiveness of different types of BMPs (Best management Practices), including infiltration BMPs.
Best Management Practices Volume Peak Water Unit Operation/Process

Discharge Quality
Low Impact Development Techniques
Bioremediation y z z Volume reduction; microbially mediated transformation; uptake and storage; size separation;
sorption
Bioslope y y z Volume reduction; microbially mediated transformation; uptake and storage; size separation;
sorption
Catch Basin Controls 0 0 Size separation and exclusion; density, gravity, inertial separation
Gutter Filter 0 y Size separation and exclusion; physical sorption
Infiltration Trenches/Strips y y y Volume reduction; size separation and exclusion; chemical sorption processes
Permeable Pavement z z y Volume reduction; size separation and exclusion
Pollution Prevention/Street 0 0 /y N/A
Sweeping
Surface Sand Filter y Size separation and exclusion; microbially mediated transformation; sorption
Soil Amendments y y y Volume reduction; size separation and exclusion; microbially mediated transformation; uptake and
storage; sorption
Swales y y z Volume reduction; density, gravity, inertial separation; microbially mediated transformation;
sorption
Vegetation/Landscaping z z z Volume reduction; microbially mediated transformation; uptake and storage
Conventional and Innovative techniques

Advanced Biological Systems y y z Microbially mediated transformation; uptake and storage
Detention and Retention 0 z Flow and volume attenuation; density, gravity, inertial separation; coagulation/flocculation
Ponds
Disinfection Systems 0 0 y Chemical disinfection
Flocculent/Precipitant 0 0 y Coagulation/flocculation
Injection
Sedimentation Ponds and 0 y Flow and volume attenuation; density, gravity, inertial separation
Forebays
Surface Filters (Filter Fabrics) 0 0 Size separation and exclusion
Disturbed Soil Restoration y y Size separation and exclusion; density, gravity, inertial separation; microbially mediated
transformation
Rain garden y Flow and volume attenuation; density, gravity, inertial separation
Pocket wetland 0 z y Flow and volume attenuation; density, gravity, inertial separation; microbially mediated
transformation; coagulation/flocculation
0–No impact, – Less effective, y Moderately effective, z Highly effective.Source: http://www.coralreef.gov/transportation/evalbmp.pdf.

Fig. 17. Structural Best Management Practices for stormwater runoff management: (a) Cisterns, (b) Rain Barrel, (c) Vertical Storage structures and (d) Storage beneath a
structure. (http://www.elibrary.dep.state.pa.us/dsweb/Get/Document-68001/6.5.2%20BMP%20Runoff%20Capture%20and%20Reuse.pdf).
management, the citizens of the cities have the opportunity to

Table 2 decide the governance, economic and social aspects of stormwater
Structural governance level and the responsible entities for stormwater manage-
management.
ment.
Governance Level Entities Responsible 6. Conclusions and recommendations

1. International UN Agencies
Non-governmental organizations Stormwater runoff management practices have evolved
2. National Environmental agencies
through time, from conventional centralized systems in the past
Flood management agencies
Legislative bodies to low-impact development and best management practices. More
3. State/Territorial Water Management agencies innovative technologies, such as stormwater artificial infiltration
Environmental agencies to the ground, the combination of LID and BMPs, structural and
4. Regional Regional governmental councils non-structural techniques, massive underground tunnels, and the
Issue-focused, multi-agency entities
use of nature-based techniques, are now commonly used around
Adapted from Porse (2013). the world. The case studies from Tokyo, Bangkok and Hanoi
showed the effectiveness and efficiency of these practices. In the
context of climate change, it is necessary to manage stormwater
Fig. 18. Governance structure for stormwater management in cities.

Adapted from Porse (2013).
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Environmental Science & Policy 64 (2016) 101–117

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Science & Policy

Assessment of stormwater runoff management practices and

NATURAL SETTINGS URBAN SETTINGS

10% Run-off 55% Run-off

25% Shallow infiltration 10% Shallow infiltration

range of factors, including knowledge of urban water problems,

urbanization based on increasing impervious cover percentage and

2.2. Climate change

In the context of climate change considered in concert with

possibly increase in quantity because less rainwater is evaporating

Fig. 6. Physical effects of urbanization on streams and habitats.

Cities in Japan, Vietnam and Thailand are eagerly applying

stormwater inﬁltration (Fujita, 2005). The Setagaya, Tokyo

Bangkok is the capital of Thailand. The total area of the city is

harvesting, subsurface rainwater inﬁltration and storage and urban

reducing impervious cover, incorporating vegetation options, and

Fig. 16. Rainwater harvesting practices in Hanoi.

Best Management Practices Volume Peak Water Unit Operation/Process

Conventional and Innovative techniques

0–No impact, – Less effective, y Moderately effective, z Highly effective.Source: http://www.coralreef.gov/transportation/evalbmp.pdf.

management, the citizens of the cities have the opportunity to

Governance Level Entities Responsible 6. Conclusions and recommendations

Fig. 18. Governance structure for stormwater management in cities.

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