UNIT 1 - Conceptual Framework

Computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores or

processes the input as per user instructions and provides output
in desired format.

Input-Process-Output Model

Computer input is called data and the output obtained after

processing it, based on user’s instructions is called information.
Raw facts and figures which can be processed using arithmetic
and logical operations to obtain information are called data.

The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −

 Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like
addition, subtraction, differentials, square root, etc.
 Logical operations − Examples include comparison
operations like greater than, less than, equal to, opposite,
etc.
The corresponding figure for an actual computer looks something
like this −
The basic parts of a computer are as follows −
 Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are
used to input data and instructions to the computer are
called input unit.
 Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit
that are used to provide information to the user in desired
format are called output unit.
 Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit controls all
the functions of the computer. All devices or parts of
computer interact through the control unit.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the computer
where all arithmetic operations and logical operations take
place.
 Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the
processes are stored in the memory. Memory is of two
types – primary memory and secondary memory.
Primary memory resides within the CPU whereas secondary
memory is external to it.
Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called
the central processing unit or CPU. Computer devices like
keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. that we can see and touch are
the hardware components of a computer. The set of instructions
or programs that make the computer function using these
hardware parts are called software. We cannot see or touch
software. Both hardware and software are necessary for working
of a computer.

Characteristics of Computer

To understand why computers are such an important part of our

lives, let us look at some of its characteristics −
 Speed − Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million
instructions per second.
 Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of
accuracy. Errors that may occur are usually due to
inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all
human errors.
 Reliability − Computers can carry out same type of work
repeatedly without throwing up errors due to tiredness or
boredom, which are very common among humans.
 Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work
from data entry and ticket booking to complex mathematical
calculations and continuous astronomical observations. If
you can input the necessary data with correct instructions,
computer will do the processing.
 Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large
amount of data at a fraction of cost of traditional storage of
files. Also, data is safe from normal wear and tear
associated with paper.

Advantages of Using Computer

Now that we know the characteristics of computers, we can see

the advantages that computers offer−
  Computers can do the same task repetitively with same
accuracy.
 Computers do not get tired or bored.
 Computers can take up routine tasks while releasing human
resource for more intelligent functions.

Disadvantages of Using Computer

Despite so many advantages, computers have some

disadvantages of their own −
 Computers have no intelligence; they follow the instructions
blindly without considering the outcome.
 Regular electric supply is necessary to make computers
work, which could prove difficult everywhere especially in
developing nations.

Booting

Starting a computer or a computer-embedded device is

called booting. Booting takes place in two steps −

 Switching on power supply

 Loading operating system into computer’s main memory
 Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case
needed by the user
The first program or set of instructions that run when the
computer is switched on is called BIOS or Basic Input Output
System. BIOS is a firmware, i.e. a piece of software
permanently programmed into the hardware.
If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is
called rebooting. Rebooting may be required if a software or
hardware has been installed or system is unusually slow.
There are two types of booting −
  Cold Booting − When the system is started by switching on
the power supply it is called cold booting. The next step in
cold booting is loading of BIOS.
 Warm Booting − When the system is already running and
needs to be restarted or rebooted, it is called warm booting.
Warm booting is faster than cold booting because BIOS is
not reloaded.
Historically computers were classified according to processor
types because development in processor and processing speeds
were the developmental benchmarks. Earliest computers used
vacuum tubes for processing, were huge and broke down
frequently. However, as vacuum tubes were replaced by
transistors and then chips, their size decreased and processing
speeds increased manifold.
All modern computers and computing devices use
microprocessors whose speeds and storage capacities are
skyrocketing day by day. The developmental benchmark for
computers is now their size. Computers are now classified on the
basis of their use or size −

 Desktop
 Laptop
 Tablet
 Server
 Mainframe
 Supercomputer
Let us look at all these types of computers in detail.

Desktop

Desktop computers are personal computers (PCs) designed

for use by an individual at a fixed location. IBM was the first
computer to introduce and popularize use of desktops. A desktop
unit typically has a CPU (Central Processing Unit), monitor,
keyboard and mouse. Introduction of desktops popularized use
of computers among common people as it was compact and
affordable.

Riding on the wave of desktop’s popularity many software and

hardware devices were developed specially for the home or
office user. The foremost design consideration here was user
friendliness.

Laptop

Despite its huge popularity, desktops gave way to a more

compact and portable personal computer called laptop in 2000s.
Laptops are also called notebook computers or
simply notebooks. Laptops run using batteries and connect to
networks using Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) chips. They also have
chips for energy efficiency so that they can conserve power
whenever possible and have a longer life.
Modern laptops have enough processing power and storage
capacity to be used for all office work, website designing,
software development and even audio/video editing.

Tablet

After laptops computers were further miniaturized to develop

machines that have processing power of a desktop but are small
enough to be held in one’s palm. Tablets have touch sensitive
screen of typically 5 to 10 inches where one finger is used to
touch icons and invoke applications.

Keyboard is also displayed virtually whenever required and used

with touch strokes. Applications that run on tablets are
called apps. They use operating systems by Microsoft (Windows
8 and later versions) or Google (Android). Apple computers have
developed their own tablet called iPad which uses a proprietary
OS called iOS.
Server

Servers are computers with high processing speeds that provide

one or more services to other systems on the network. They
may or may not have screens attached to them. A group of
computers or digital devices connected together to share
resources is called a network.

Servers have high processing powers and can handle multiple

requests simultaneously. Most commonly found servers on
networks include −

 File or storage server

 Game server
  Application server
 Database server
 Mail server
 Print server

Mainframe

Mainframes are computers used by organizations like banks,

airlines and railways to handle millions and trillions of online
transactions per second. Important features of mainframes are −

 Big in size
 Hundreds times Faster than servers, typically hundred
megabytes per second
 Very expensive
 Use proprietary OS provided by the manufacturers
 In-built hardware, software and firmware security features

Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the fastest computers on Earth. They are

used for carrying out complex, fast and time intensive
calculations for scientific and engineering applications.
Supercomputer speed or performance is measured in teraflops,
i.e. 1012 floating point operations per second.
Chinese supercomputer Sunway TaihuLight is the world’s
fastest supercomputer with a rating of 93 petaflops per second,
i.e. 93 quadrillion floating point operations per second.
Most common uses of supercomputers include −

 Molecular mapping and research

 Weather forecasting
 Environmental research
 Oil and gas exploration
As you know, the hardware devices need user instructions to
function. A set of instructions that achieve a single outcome are
called program or procedure. Many programs functioning
together to do a task make a software.
For example, a word-processing software enables the user to
create, edit and save documents. A web browser enables the
user to view and share web pages and multimedia files. There
are two categories of software −

 System Software
 Application Software
 Utility Software
Let us discuss them in detail.

System Software
Software required to run the hardware parts of the computer and
other application software are called system software. System
software acts as interface between hardware and user
applications. An interface is needed because hardware devices
or machines and humans speak in different languages.
Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of
electric signal) and 1 (presence of electric signal) while humans
speak in English, French, German, Tamil, Hindi and many other
languages. English is the pre-dominant language of interacting
with computers. Software is required to convert all human
instructions into machine understandable instructions. And this is
exactly what system software does.
Based on its function, system software is of four types −

 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Drivers
Operating System
System software that is responsible for functioning of all
hardware parts and their interoperability to carry out tasks
successfully is called operating system (OS). OS is the first
software to be loaded into computer memory when the computer
is switched on and this is called booting. OS manages a
computer’s basic functions like storing data in memory, retrieving
files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on priority,
etc.
Language Processor
As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is
to convert all user instructions into machine understandable
language. When we talk of human machine interactions,
languages are of three types −
  Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a
string of 0s and 1s that the machines can understand. It is
completely machine dependent.
 Assembly-level language − This language introduces a
layer of abstraction by
defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or
symbols used to denote a long string of 0s and 1s. For
example, the word “READ” can be defined to mean that
computer has to retrieve data from the memory. The
complete instruction will also tell the memory address.
Assembly level language is machine dependent.
 High level language − This language uses English like
statements and is completely independent of machines.
Programs written using high level languages are easy to
create, read and understand.
Program written in high level programming languages like Java,
C++, etc. is called source code. Set of instructions in machine
readable form is called object code or machine code. System
software that converts source code to object code is
called language processor. There are three types of language
interpreters−
 Assembler − Converts assembly level program into
machine level program.
 Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine
level program line by line.
 Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level
programs at one go rather than line by line.
Device Drivers
System software that controls and monitors functioning of a
specific device on computer is called device driver. Each device
like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs to be
attached externally to the system has a specific driver associated
with it. When you attach a new device, you need to install its
driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be managed.

Application Software

A software that performs a single task and nothing else is

called application software. Application software are very
specialized in their function and approach to solving a problem.
So a spreadsheet software can only do operations with numbers
and nothing else. A hospital management software will manage
hospital activities and nothing else. Here are some commonly
used application software −

 Word processing
 Spreadsheet
 Presentation
 Database management
 Multimedia tools

Utility Software

Application software that assist system software in doing their

work is called utility software. Thus utility software is actually a
cross between system software and application software.
Examples of utility software include −

 Antivirus software
 Disk management tools
 File management tools
 Compression tools
 Backup tools
As you know, system software acts as an interface for the
underlying hardware system. Here we will discuss some
important system software in detail.

Operating System

Operating system (OS) is the lifeline of computer. You connect

all the basic devices like CPU, monitor, keyboard and mouse;
plug in the power supply and switch it on thinking you have
everything in place. But the computer will not start or come to life
unless it has an operating system installed in it because OS −

 Keeps all hardware parts in a state of readiness to follow

user instructions
 Co-ordinates between different devices
 Schedules multiple tasks as per priority
 Allocates resource to each task
 Enables computer to access network
  Enables users to access and use application software
Besides initial booting, these are some of the functions of an
operating system −

 Managing computer resources like hardware, software,

shared resources, etc.
 Allocating resources
 Prevent error during software use
 Control improper use of computer
One of the earliest operating systems was MS-DOS, developed
by Microsoft for IBM PC. It was a Command Line Interface
(CLI) OS that revolutionized the PC market. DOS was difficult to
use because of its interface. The users needed to remember
instructions to do their tasks. To make computers more
accessible and user-friendly, Microsoft developed Graphical
User Interface (GUI) based OS called Windows, which
transformed the way people used computers.

Assembler

Assembler is a system software that converts assembly level

programs to machine level code.

These are the advantages provided by assembly level

programming −

 Increases efficiency of the programmer as remembering

mnemonics is easier
  Productivity increases as number of errors decreases and
hence debugging time
 Programmer has access to hardware resources and hence
has flexibility in writing programs customized to the specific
computer

Interpreter

The major advantage of assembly level language was its ability

to optimize memory usage and hardware utilization. However,
with technological advancements computers had more memory
and better hardware components. So ease of writing programs
became more important than optimizing memory and other
hardware resources.
In addition, a need was felt to take programming out of a handful
of trained scientists and computer programmers, so that
computers could be used in more areas. This led to development
of high level languages that were easy to understand due to
resemblance of commands to English language.
The system software used to translate high level language
source code into machine level language object code line by line
is called an interpreter. An interpreter takes each line of code
and converts it into machine code and stores it into the object
file.
The advantage of using an interpreter is that they are very easy
to write and they do not require a large memory space. However,
there is a major disadvantage in using interpreters, i.e.,
interpreted programs take a long time in executing. To overcome
this disadvantage, especially for large
programs, compilers were developed.

Compiler
System software that store the complete program, scan it,
translate the complete program into object code and then creates
an executable code is called a compiler. On the face of it
compilers compare unfavorably with interpreters because they −

 are more complex than interpreters

 need more memory space
 take more time in compiling source code
However, compiled programs execute very fast on computers.
The following image shows the step-by-step process of how a
source code is transformed into an executable code −
These are the steps in compiling source code into executable
code −
 Pre-processing − In this stage pre-processor instructions,
typically used by languages like C and C++ are interpreted,
i.e. converted to assembly level language.
 Lexical analysis − Here all instructions are converted
to lexical units like constants, variables, arithmetic
symbols, etc.
 Parsing − Here all instructions are checked to see if they
conform to grammar rules of the language. If there are
errors, compiler will ask you to fix them before you can
proceed.
 Compiling − At this stage the source code is converted
into object code.
 Linking − If there are any links to external files or libraries,
addresses of their executable will be added to the program.
Also, if the code needs to be rearranged for actual
execution, they will be rearranged. The final output is
the executable code that is ready to be executed.

Application software that assist OS in carrying out certain

specialized tasks are called utility software. Let us look some of
the most popular utility software.

Antivirus

A virus can be defined as a malicious program that attaches itself

to a host program and makes multiple copies of itself, slowing
down, corrupting or destroying the system. A software that
assists the OS in providing virus free environment to the users is
called antivirus. An anti-virus scans the system for any virus and
if detected, gets rid of it by deleting or isolating it. It can detect
many types of virus like boot virus, Trojan, worm, spyware,
etc.
When any external storage device like USB drive is attached to
the system, anti-virus software scans it and gives an alert if a
virus is detected. You can set up your system for periodic scans
or scan whenever you feel the need. A combination of both the
techniques is advisable to keep your system virus free.

File management tools

file management is an important function of operating systems

as all data and instructions are stored in the computer in form of
files. Utility software providing regular file management tasks like
browse, search, update, preview, etc. are called file management
tools. Windows Explorer in Windows OS, Google desktop,
Directory Opus, Double Commander, etc. are examples of
such tools.

Compression tools

Storage space is always at a premium in computer systems. So

operating systems are always looking at ways to minimize
amount of storage space taken by files. Compression tools are
utilities that assist operating systems in shortening files so that
they take less space. After compression files are stored in a
different format and cannot be read or edited directly. It needs to
be uncompressed before it can be accessed for further use.
Some of the popular compression tools are WinRAR, PeaZip,
The Unarchiver, etc.

Disk Cleanup

Disk cleanup tools assist users in freeing up disk space. The

software scans hard disks to find files that are no longer used
and frees up space by deleting them.
Disk Defragmenter

Disk defragmenter is a disk management utility that increases

file access speeds by rearranging fragmented
files on contiguous locations. Large files are broken down into
fragments and may be stores in non-contiguous locations if
contiguous ones are not available. When such files are accessed
by the user, access speed is slow due to fragmentation. Disk
defragmenter utility scans the hard disk and tries to assemble file
fragments so that they may be stored in contiguous locations.

Backup

Backup utility enables backing up of files, folders, databases or

complete disks. Backups are taken so that data may be restored
in case of data loss. Backup is a service provided by all operating
systems. In stand-alone systems backup may be taken in the
same or different drive. In case of networked systems backup
may be done on backup servers.
A software whose source code is freely distributed with a
license to study, change and further distributed to anyone for any
purpose is called open source software. Open source software
is generally a team effort where dedicated programmers improve
upon the source code and share the changes within the
community. Open source software provides these advantages to
the users due to its thriving communities −

 Security
 Affordability
 Transparent
 Interoperable on multiple platforms
 Flexible due to customizations
 Localization is possible
Freeware

A software that is available free of cost for use and distribution

but cannot be modified as its source code is not available is
called freeware. Examples of freeware are Google Chrome,
Adobe Acrobat PDF Reader, Skype, etc.

Shareware

A software that is initially free and can be distributed to others as

well, but needs to be paid for after a stipulated period of time is
called shareware. Its source code is also not available and
hence cannot be modified.

Proprietary Software

Software that can be used only by obtaining license from its

developer after paying for it is called proprietary software. An
individual or a company can own such proprietary software. Its
source code is often closely guarded secret and it can have
major restrictions like −

 No further distribution
 Number of users that can use it
 Type of computer it can be installed on, example
multitasking or single user, etc.
For example, Microsoft Windows is a proprietary operating
software that comes in many editions for different types of clients
like single-user, multi-user, professional, etc.
Input and Output Devices of Computer
The devices which are used to input the data and the
programs in the computer are known as “Input Devices“.
or Input device can read data and convert them to a form
that a computer can use. Output Device can produce the
final product of machine processing into a form usable by
humans. It provides man to machine communication.
Some of the I/O devices are explained below
Input Devices
(1) Keyboard : Keyboard is used in the input phase of a
computer-based information system. Keyboard is most common
input device is used today. The data and instructions are input by
typing on the keyboard. The message typed on the keyboard
reaches the memory unit of a computer. It’s connected to a
computer via a cable. Apart from alphabet and numeral keys, it
has other function keys for performing different functions.

(2) Mouse : It’s a pointing device. The mouse is rolled over the
mouse pad, which in turn controls the movement of the cursor in
the screen. We can click, double click or drag the mouse. Most of
the mouse’s have a ball beneath them, which rotates when the
mouse in moved. The ball has 2 wheels of the sides, which in
turn mousse with the movement of the ball. The sensor notifies
the speed of its movements to the computer, which in turn moves
the cursor/pointer on the screen.

(3) Scanner : Scanners are used to enter information directly

in to the computers memory. This device works like a Xerox
machine. The scanner converts any type of printed or written
information including photographs into digital pulses, which
can be manipulated by the computer.

(4) Track Ball : Track ball is similar to the upside- down design
of the mouse. The user moves the ball directly, while the
device itself remains stationary. The user spins the ball in
various directions to effect the screen movements.

(5) Light Pen : This is an input device which is used to draw

lines or figures on a computer screen. It’s touched to the CRT
screen where it can detect raster on the screen as it passes.
(6) Optical Character Rader : It’s a device which detects alpha
numeric characters printed or written on a paper. The text
which is to be scanned is illuminated by a low frequency light
source. The light is absorbed by the dark areas but reflected
from the bright areas. The reflected light is received by the
photocells.

(7) Bar Code Reader : This device reads bar codes and coverts
them into electric pulses to be processed by a computer. A bar
code is nothing but data coded in form of light and dark bars.

(8) Voice Input Systems : This devices converts spoken words

to M/C language form. A micro phone is used to convert
human speech into electric signals. The signal pattern is then
transmitted to a computer when it’s compared to a dictionary
of patterns that have been previously placed in a storage unit
of computer. When a close match is found, the word is
recognized.
(9) Plotter : Plotter is an O/P device that is used to produce
graphical O/P on papers. It uses single color or multi color
pens to draw pictures as blue print etc.
(10) Digital Camera : It converts graphics directly into digital
form. It looks like an ordinary camera, but no film is used
therein, instead a CCD (changed coupled Divide) Electronic
chip in used. When light falls, on the chip though the lens, it
converts light waves into electrical waves.

Output Devices
VDU
Stands for "Visual Display Unit." A VDU displays images
generated by a computer or other electronic device. The
term VDU is often used synonymously with "monitor," but it
can also refer to another type of display, such as a digital
projector. Visual display units may be peripheral devices or
may be integrated with the other components. For
example, the Apple iMac uses an all-in-one design, in which
the screen and computer are built into a single unit.
Early VDUs were primarily cathode ray tube (CRT) displays
and typically had a diagonal size of 13 inches or less.
During the 1990s, 15" and 17" displays became standard,
and some manufacturers began producing displays over
20" in size. At the turn of the century, flat panel displays
became more common, and by 2006, CRT displays were
hard to find.
Today, it is common for computers to come with VDUs that
are 20" to 30" in size. Thanks to the recent growth in LCD,
plasma, and LED technology, manufacturing large screens
is much more cost effective than before.

Printer
Printers are Output devices used to prepare permanent
Output devices on paper. Printers can be divided into two
main categories :
Impact Printers : In this hammers or pins strike against a
ribbon and paper to print the text. This mechanism is
known as electro-mechanical mechanism. They are of
two types.

Character Printer : It prints only one character at a time. It

has relatively slower speed. Eg. Of them are Dot matrix
printers.

Dot Matrix Printer : It prints characters as combination

of dots. Dot matrix printers are the most popular among
serial printers. These have a matrix of pins on the print head
of the printer which form the character.
The computer memory sends one character at a time to be
printed by the printer. There is a carbon between the pins &
the paper. The words get printed on the paper when the pin
strikes the carbon. There are generally 24 pins.

Laser Printer is a type of printer that utilizes a laser beam

to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser alters
the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum
is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked
up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is
transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and
pressure.

This is also the way copy machines work. Because an entire

page is transmitted to a drum before the toner is applied,
laser printers are sometimes called page printers. There are
two other types of page printers that fall under the category
of laser printers even though they do not use lasers at all.
One uses an array of LEDs to expose the drum and the other
uses LCDs. Once the drum is charged, however, they both
operate like a real laser printer. One of the chief
characteristics of laser printers is their resolution – how
many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down.

Non-Impact Printers : There printers use non-Impact

technology such as ink-jet or laser technology. There
printers provide better quality of O/P at higher speed. These
printers are of two types :
Ink-Jet Printer : It prints characters by spraying patterns
of ink on the paper from a nozzle or jet. It prints from nozzles
having very fine holes, from which a specially made ink is
pumped out to create various letters and shapes. The ink
comes out of the nozzle in a form of vapors. After passing
through a reflecting plate, it forms the desired letter/shape at
the desired place.

Storage Devices
As we know that the Main Memory Stores the data in a
Temporary Manner means all the data will be loss when the
Power switched off. And all the data will be loss when the power
goes switched off.
So that we uses the Secondary Storage devices those are used
for Storing the data in a Permanent Manner means all the Data
will remain Stored whether the Power is Switched on or Switched
off means the Power Will never effect on the System. For storing
the data in a Permanent Manner we uses the Magnetic Storage
Devices. There are also Some Advantages of Secondary
Storage Devices.
1) Non-Volatile Storage Devices: The Non-Volatile Storage
Devices are Non-Volatile in the nature means them never loss
their data when the Power goes switched off. So that data which
is Stored into the Non-Volatile Storage Devices will never be
Loosed When the Power Switched off.
2) Mass Storage: The Capacity of these Devices is very high
means we can Store the Huge Amount of data into the
Secondary Storage Devices. We can Store data into the
Secondary Storage Devices in the form of Giga Bytes and Tera
Bytes.
3) Cost Effective: The Cost of Secondary Storage Devices is very
lower in compare to the Main Memory So that they are also
called as the more cost effective and they are very small and
couldn’t easily damage. And the data can’t be easily loss from
these Disks.

4) Re-usability: As Memory Contains the Data in the Temporary

as well as Permanent Manner. But the Secondary Storage
Devices are always Reusable means they can be erased and
stored any Time. Means we can add or Remove the Contents
from these Disks when we Requires.
There are Many Types of Storage Devices those are based on
the Sequential and Random Access Means the data which is
Stored into the Secondary Storage devices can be Read either
from the First Location which is also known as the Sequential
Access or Sequential Manner and the Data can be Read from
these Disks and also from any Locations. So if any Disk provides
this Utility then this is called as the Direct Access Mechanism.
There are Many Storage Devices those are either based on the
SASD or Some are DASD.
Various types of Secondary Storage Devices are as Followings:

1) Magnetic Tapes: The Magnetic Tapes is the Type of

Secondary Storage Device and this Device is used for taking
back up of data and this Tape contains some magnetic fields and
the Magnetic Tapes are used Accessing the data into the
Sequential Form and the Tape Also Contains a Ribbon which is
coated on the Single Side of the Tape and also contains a head
which reads the data which is Recorded on to the Tape. And
when we are reading the information from the disk then we can
also read backward information means we can also back the
Tape for Reading the Previous information. And For inserting the
Tape into the System we also Requires Some Tape Drives
Which Contains Tape and which is Responsible for Reading the
contents from the Tapes.
They can Store huge Amount of data into the Tape Drive , But
the Main Limitation of the Tape Drive is that we cant Access the
Data from the Disks directly means if we wants to 100th Record
from the Tape then we must have to move all the Previous i.e.
99th Records first. And the Tapes are also easily damaged due
to the Human Errors.

2) Magnetic Disks : – This is also called as the hard disk

and this is made from the thin metal platter which is coated on
the both sides of the magnetic Disks. And the there are Many
Plates or Platters into a single Hard Disk and all the Plates are
Made from the Magnetic Materials and all the Disks are Rotate
from the 700 to 3600 rpm means Rotation per Minute and the
Hard Disk also Contains a head which is used for both Reading
and Writing the Data from the Hard Disks.

The Plate of Disk is Divided into the Tracks and sectors and the
collection of Tracks makes a Cylinder means all the Tracks of the
Disk which a Consecutive Areas makes a Cylinder.

The Disk is first divided into the Number of Tracks and the
Tracks are further divided into the sectors and the Number of
Tracks Makes a Cylinder. All the data is Stored into the disk by
using Some Sectors and each sectors belongs to a Tracks. The
Data is accessed from the Disk by using the heads, all the heads
have Some Arm those are used for Reading the Data from the
Particular Tracks and sector. When the Disk Rotates very high
Speed then the Head also Moves, For Reading the data from the
3) Floppy Diskette: Floppy disk is a kind of storage device
that can be used to carried around? The Floppy Disk is also a
Secondary Storage device which is used for storing the data in a
Permanent Manner. The floppy is made up of Rigid Mylar Plastic
and also contains a Magnetic black disk inside the Plastic Cover.
The Floppy Disk also Stores all the Data into the Form of Tracks
and Sectors and the floppy Disk provides both Reading and
Writing the data into the Disk. The Floppy Disk is also called as
Reusable Disk means the Floppy Disk Provides us the Facility to
Read and Writes the Data into disk as and When Necessary and
Also Many Times. We can Read and Write the data from the
Disk.
The Main Advantage of the Floppy Disk is that the Data can be
Stored many Times but the Main Limitation of the floppy Disk is
that floppy Disk have a Small capacity and the Floppy Disk also
doesn’t have Reliability means the Data Stored into the Disk may
not be used for Long Time because the floppy Disk is very
Sensitive Thing when we Move the Head of the Disk Again and
Again then the floppy disk gets Damaged. So that we can say
that Floppy Disk is not a Reliable thing. And I the Other side the
Cost of floppy Disk is also high means with the Comparison of
the Other Storage Media’s Floppy Disk have some more cost.
But the Main Advantage of the Floppy Disk is that floppy Disk is
used for Moving the data from one Computer to Another With the
Advent of the Floppy Disk we can Store the Data Into the Floppy
Disk and after that we can Easily Remove that Disk from the
System and Also Put the Disk into the Another System for Taking
the Data.
4) Optical Disks: The Optical Disks are also called as the
CD-ROM’s means Compact Disk Read Only Memory which is
also used for Storing the data into the Disk and this is called as
the Optical Disk because the CD-ROM ‘s are made up of the
Golden or Aluminum Material and the data is Stored on the Disk
in the Form of the Tracks and Sectors. The Whole Disk is
Divided into the Number of Tracks and the Single Track is
Divided into the Number of Sectors and the Data is Stored into
the Sectors and the Disk is Divided into the Sectors as the first
Track Contains the Sectors in the huge Size and the Other
Tracks contains the Sectors in a Small Manner. So that as the
Disk grows the Disk is Divided into the Small Number of Tracks
and the Sectors.
CD-ROM Contains the data Which is truly Read able means we
cant edit the contents of the CD-ROM Means once Data has
been Written into the CD , we can be able to Change the
Contents of the Disk and the Data which is Stored on the Disk
can be Any Time Read by the user. The CD-ROM provides us
the Large Capacity in compare to the Floppy Disks and the
CDROM can Store the Data from 650 MB to 800 MB means the
data can be Store up to this Space.

Flash Memory

Flash memory (Known as Flash Storage) is a type of non-

volatile storage memory that can be written or programmed in
units called “Sector” or a “Block.” Flash Memory
is EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory) means that it can retain its contents when the power
supply removed, but whose contents can be quickly erased and
rewritten at the byte level by applying a short pulse of higher
voltage. This is called flash erasure, hence the name. Flash
memory is currently both too expensive and too slow to serve as
main memory.
Flash memory (sometimes called “Flash RAM”) is a distinct
EEPROM that can read block-wise. Typically the sizes of the
block can be from hundreds to thousands of bits. Flash Storage
block can be divided into at least two logical sub-blocks.
Flash memory mostly used in consumer storage devices, and for
networking technology. It commonly found in mobile phones,
USB flash drives, tablet computers, and embedded controllers.
Flash memories are based on Floating-Gate Transistors. Floating
gate transistors are used in memory to store a bit of information.
Flash memories are used in the device to store a large number of
songs, images, files, software, and video for an extended
period,etc.

History Flash Memory

In 1980’s Flash memory as invented by Fujio Masuoka, while
working in Toshiba. In 1988, Intel introduced NOR flash memory
chip having random access to memory location. These NOR
chips were a well-suited replacement for older ROM chips. In
1989, with more improvement, NAND flash memory was
introduced by Toshiba. NAND flash memory is similar to a Hard
disk with more data storage capacity. After that, there has been a
rapid growth in flash memory over the years passes.
Flash memory is an electronic chip that retains its stored data
without any power. Flash memory is different from RAM.RAM is
volatile memory, needs electricity and power to maintain its
content. However, flash memory does not require the power for
holding data. Flash memory was used in many devices like in
form SD card, Pen-drive (moveable storage), camera card and
video card, and so forth. Flash memory gives faster access to
data content as compared to hard disk. In hard-disk, disk rotation
takes time to move on the particular cylinder, track or
sector.However,in a flash, no rotating time disc has created a
barrier for fast access.
Types of Flash Memory
Flash memory is available in two kinds NAND Flash and NOR
Flash Memory. NAND and NOR flash memory both have
different architecture and used for specific purpose.
NAND Flash Memory

In today is an environment where all devices require high data

density, faster speed access and cost-effective chip for data
storage. NAND memory has needed less chip area hence more
data density. NAND Memory used the concept of the block to
access and erases the data. Each block contains the different
size of pages various from bytes. MMU (Memory Management
Unit) helps NAND to the first page the content or copied into
RAM and then executed.
NOR Flash Memory

In the circuit of flash memory, memory cells are connected in

parallel. It provides random or sequentially access memory. Data
Reading process for NOR and RAM are similar. We can execute
the code directly from NOR without copying into RAM. NOR
memory ideal for runs small code instructions program. It
referred to Code-storage applications. It used for low-density
applications.
NOR flash provides support to bad block management. Bad
block in memory is handled by controller devices to improve
functionality.
We can use the combination of both NOR and NAND memory.
NOR (software ROM) used for instruction execution,and NAND
used for non-volatile data storage.
Limitation of Flash Memory
Although Flash memory gives many advantages, yet it has some
flaw.
1) We can quickly read or programmed a byte at a time, but we
cannot erase a byte or word. It can delete data in blocks at a
time.
2) Bit flipping: Bit Flipping problem is more occur in NAND
memory as compare to NOR. In Bit Flipping, a bit get reversed
and create errors. For checking and correcting the bit error
(EDC/ECC) detection and error correction code are
implemented.
3) Bad block: Bad block are the blocks which can’t be used for
storage. If scanning system gets fails to check and recognize bad
block in memory. Then reliability of system gets reduced.
4) Usage of NOR and NAND memory: NOR is easy to use. Just
connect it and use it. However, NAND not used like that. NAND
has I/O interface and requires a driver for performing any
operation. Read operation from NOR do not need any driver.

what is network? Types of Network

In the today world, Two devices are in network if a process in
one device is able to exchange information with a process in
another device. Networks are known as a medium of connections
between nodes (set of devices) or computers. A network is
consist of group of computer systems, servers, networking
devices are linked together to share resources, including
a printer or a file server. The connections is established by using
either cable media or wireless media.

Types of Networks
 1) LAN (Local Area Network)

A Local Area Network is a privately owned

computer network covering a small Networks geographical
area, like a home, office, or groups of buildings e.g. a school
Network. A LAN is used to connect the computers and other
network devices so that the devices can communicate with each
other to share the resources. The resources to be shared can be
a hardware device like printer, software like an application
program or data. The size of LAN is usually small. The various
devices in LAN are connected to central devices called Hub or
Switch using a cable.
For example, a library will have a wired or wireless
LAN Network for users to interconnect local networking devices
e.g., printers and servers to connect to the internet.
LAN offers high speed communication of data rates of 4 to 16
megabits per second (Mbps). IEEE has projects investigating the
standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40 Gbit/s.
LANs Network may have connections with other
LANs Network via leased lines, leased services.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)

MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Networks is one of a number

of types of networks. A MAN is a relatively new class of network.
MAN is larger than a local area network and as its name implies,
covers the area of a single city. MANs rarely extend beyond 100
KM and frequently comprise a combination of different hardware
and transmission media. It can be single network such as a cable
TV network, or it is a means of connecting a number of LANs into
a larger network so that resources can be shared LAN to LAN as
well as device to device.
A MAN can be created as a single network such as Cable TV
Network, covering the entire city or a group of several Local Area
Networks (LANs). It this way resource can be shared from LAN
to LAN and from computer to computer also. MANs are usually
owned by large organizations to interconnect its various
branches across a city.

3. WAN (Wide Area Networks)

A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network. A

wide area network is simply a LAN of LANs or Network of
Networks. WANs connect LANs that may be on opposite sides of
a building, across the country or around the world. WANS are
characterized by the slowest data communication rates and the
largest distances. WANs can be of two types: an enterprise WAN
and Global WAN.

Netiquettes
Netiquette is the etiquette or good manners that one observes in
cyberspace. It is a set of rules that people who are online have to
follow. In cyberspace we don’t meet people face to face and so
new users may not know how to conduct themselves properly
when interacting with others. This may give rise to mistakes and
misunderstandings.

Internet Services allows us to access huge amount of

information such as text, graphics, sound and software
over the internet. Following diagram shows the four
different categories of Internet Services.
Communication Services
There are various Communication Services available that
offer exchange of information with individuals or groups.
The following table gives a brief introduction to these
services:
S.N. Service Description

1 Electronic Mail
Used to send electronic message over the internet.

2 Telnet
Used to log on to a remote computer that is attached to
internet.

3 Newsgroup
Offers a forum for people to discuss topics of common
interests.
4 Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
Allows the people from all over the world to
communicate in real time.

5 Mailing Lists
Used to organize group of internet users to share
common information through e-mail.

6 Internet Telephony (VoIP)

Allows the internet users to talk across internet to any
PC equipped to receive the call.

7 Instant Messaging
Offers real time chat between individuals and group of
people. Eg. Yahoo messenger, MSN messenger.

Information Retrieval Services

There exist several Information retrieval services offering
easy access to information present on the internet. The
following table gives a brief introduction to these services:
S.N. Service Description

1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Enable the users to transfer files.
2 Archie
It’s updated database of public FTP sites and their
content. It helps to search a file by its name.

3 Gopher
Used to search, retrieve, and display documents on
remote sites.

4 Very Easy Rodent Oriented Netwide Index to

Computer Achieved (VERONICA)
VERONICA is gopher based resource. It allows access
to the information resource stored on gopher’s servers.

Web Services
Web services allow exchange of information between
applications on the web. Using web services, applications
can easily interact with each other.
The web services are offered using concept of Utility
Computing.

World Wide Web (WWW)

WWW is also known as W3. It offers a way to access
documents spread over the several servers over the
internet. These documents may contain texts, graphics,
audio, video, hyperlinks. The hyperlinks allow the users to
navigate between the documents.
Video Conferencing
Video conferencing or Video teleconferencing is a method
of communicating by two-way video and audio
transmission with help of telecommunication
technologies.
Modes of Video Conferencing
Point-to-Point
This mode of conferencing connects two locations only.

Multi-point
This mode of conferencing connects more than two
locations through Multi-point Control Unit (MCU).
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

Uniform Resource Locator (URL) refers to a web address

which uniquely identifies a document over the internet.
This document can be a web page, image, audio, video or
anything else present on the web.
Domain Names
Domain Name is a symbolic string associated with an IP
address. There are several domain names available; some of
them are generic such as com, edu, gov, net etc, while some
country level domain names such as au, in, za, us etc.
The following table shows the Generic Top-Level Domain
names:

Domain Name Meaning

Com Commercial business

Edu Education

Gov U.S. government agency

Int International entity

Mil U.S. military

Net Networking organization

Org Non profit organization

The following table shows the Country top-level domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

au Australia

in India

cl Chile
fr France

us United States

za South Africa

uk United Kingdom

jp Japan

es Spain

de Germany

ca Canada

ee Estonia

hk Hong Kong

Web Browser

web Browser is an application software that allows us to view

and explore information on the web. User can request for any
web page by just entering a URL into address bar.
Web browser can show text, audio, video, animation and more. It
is the responsibility of a web browser to interpret text and
commands contained in the web page.
Earlier the web browsers were text-based while now a days
graphical-based or voice-based web browsers are also available.
Following are the most common web browser available today:

Browser Vendor

Internet Explorer Microsoft

Google Chrome Google

Mozilla Firefox Mozilla

Netscape Navigator Netscape Communications Corp.

Opera Opera Software

Safari Apple

Sea Monkey Mozilla Foundation

K-meleon K-meleon

Multimedia
In this section, we will understand the literal meaning of
multimedia.
 Multi − it means more than one
 Medium − it is singular and it means intermediary or
mean
 Media − it is plural and it means conveying the
information
Likewise, Multimedia is the field of Computer Science that
integrates different forms of information and represents in
the form of audio, video, and animation along with the
traditional media, i.e., text, graphics/drawings, images,
etc.
Multimedia Computer System
Multimedia computer system has high capacity to
integrate different media including text, image, graphics,
audio, and video.
The multimedia computer system stores, represents,
processes, manipulates, and makes available to users.
Significant Features of Multimedia Computer System
Following are the major features multimedia computer
system −
 Its Central Processing Unit (CPU) is very fast, as it
needs to process large amount of data.
 It has huge storage capacity.
 It has huge memory power that helps in running
heavy data programs.
  It has high capacity graphic card that helps in
displaying graphics, animation, video, etc.
 The sound system makes it easy to listen to audio.
 With all these features (discussed above), a computer
system is known as high end multimedia computer
system.
 However, all the features listed above are not
essentially required for every multimedia computer
system, but rather the features of a multimedia
computer system are configured as per the need of
respective user.
Multimedia Components
Following are the major components of a multimedia
computer system −
Text
It contains alphanumeric and some other special
characters. Keyboard is usually used for input of text;
however, there are some internal (inbuilt) features to
include such text.
Graphics
It is technology to generate, represent, process,
manipulate, and display pictures. It is one of the most
important components of multimedia application. The
development of graphics is supported by a different
software.
Animation
Computer animation is a modern technology, which helps
in creating, developing, sequencing, and displaying a set
of images (technically known as ‘frames’). Animation
gives visual effects or motion very similar to that of a
video file (see image given below).

Audio
This technology records, synthesizes, and plays audio
(sound). There are many learning courses and different
instructions that can be delivered through this medium
appropriately.
Video
This technology records, synthesizes, and displays
images (known as frames) in such sequences (at a fixed
speed) that makes the creation appear as moving; this is
how we see a completely developed video. In order to
watch a video without any interruption, video device must
display 25 to 30 frames/second.
Multimedia Application
Let us now see the different fields where multimedia is
applied. The fields are described in brief below −
Presentation
With the help of multimedia, presentation can be made
effective.
E-books
Today, books are digitized and easily available on the
Internet.
Digital Library
The need to be physically present at a library is no more
necessary. Libraries can be accessed from the Internet
also. Digitization has helped libraries to come to this level
of development.
E-learning
Today, most of the institutions (public as well as private
both) are using such technology to education people.
Movie making
Most of the special effects that we see in any movie, is
only because of multimedia technology.
Video games
Video games are one of the most interesting creations of
multimedia technology. Video games fascinate not only
the children but adults too.
Animated films
Along with video games, animated film is another great
source of entertainment for children.
Multimedia conferencing
People can arrange personal as well as business
meetings online with the help of multimedia conferencing
technology.
E-shopping
Multimedia technology has created a virtual arena for the
e-commerce.

Multimedia Formats
Multimedia elements (like audio or video) are stored in media
files.

The most common way to discover the type of a file, is to look at

the file extension.

Multimedia files have formats and different extensions like: .wav,

.mp3, .mp4, .mpg, .wmv, and .avi.

Common Video Formats

 There are many video formats out
there.

The MP4, WebM, and Ogg formats are

supported by HTML.

The MP4 format is recommended by

YouTube.

Format File Description

MPEG .mpg MPEG. Developed by the Moving Pictures Expert

.mpeg Group. The first popular video format on the web.
Not supported anymore in HTML.

AVI .avi AVI (Audio Video Interleave). Developed by

Microsoft. Commonly used in video cameras and TV
hardware. Plays well on Windows computers, but
not in web browsers.

WMV .wmv WMV (Windows Media Video). Developed by

Microsoft. Commonly used in video cameras and TV
hardware. Plays well on Windows computers, but
not in web browsers.

QuickTime .mov QuickTime. Developed by Apple. Commonly used in

video cameras and TV hardware. Plays well on Apple
 computers, but not in web browsers.

RealVideo .rm RealVideo. Developed by Real Media to allow video

.ram streaming with low bandwidths. Does not play in
web browsers.

Flash .swf Flash. Developed by Macromedia. Often requires an

.flv extra component (plug-in) to play in web browsers.

Ogg .ogg Theora Ogg. Developed by the Xiph.Org Foundation.

Supported by HTML.

WebM .webm WebM. Developed by Mozilla, Opera, Adobe, and

Google. Supported by HTML.

MPEG-4 .mp4 MP4. Developed by the Moving Pictures Expert

or MP4 Group. Commonly used in video cameras and TV
hardware. Supported by all browsers and
recommended by YouTube.

Common Audio Formats

MP3 is the best format for compressed recorded music. The term
MP3 has become synonymous with digital music.
 If your website is about recorded music, MP3 is the choice.

Format File Description

MIDI .mid MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface). Main

.midi format for all electronic music devices like synthesizers
and PC sound cards. MIDI files do not contain sound,
but digital notes that can be played by electronics.
Plays well on all computers and music hardware, but
not in web browsers.

RealAudio .rm RealAudio. Developed by Real Media to allow streaming

.ram of audio with low bandwidths. Does not play in web
browsers.

WMA .wma WMA (Windows Media Audio). Developed by Microsoft.

Plays well on Windows computers, but not in web
browsers.

AAC .aac AAC (Advanced Audio Coding). Developed by Apple as

the default format for iTunes. Plays well on Apple
computers, but not in web browsers.

WAV .wav WAV. Developed by IBM and Microsoft. Plays well on

Windows, Macintosh, and Linux operating systems.
Supported by HTML.
Ogg .ogg Ogg. Developed by the Xiph.Org Foundation. Supported
by HTML.

MP3 .mp3 MP3 files are actually the sound part of MPEG files. MP3
is the most popular format for music players. Combines
good compression (small files) with high quality.
Supported by all browsers.

MP4 .mp4 MP4 is a video format, but can also be used for audio.
Supported by all browsers.