Determinants: Finding determinant of a square matrix of order n , Minor and

Cofactors, Laplace Expansion Formula.

Determinants are scalar quantities calculated by adding the sums of the products of the
elements of a square matrix according to a set of rules. The determinants aid in the
discovery of a matrix's adjoint, or inverse. We must also use the notion of determinants
to solve linear equations using the matrix inversion approach. Calculating determinants
makes it simple to recall the cross-product of two vectors. Determinants are expressed
in the same way as matrices, but with the addition of a modulus sign. Let's learn more
about determinants, their characteristics, the rules for finding determinants of various
orders, and how to compute them with solved examples in this article.

Determinants:
Every square matrix has a determinant, which is an expression or a number that may be
connected with it. If A=[ aij ] is a square matrix of order n , then the determinant of A is
denoted by det A or ¿ A∨¿, or,

| |
a11 a12 ⋯ a1 j … a1 nn
a21 a22 ⋯ a2 j … a2 n ⋯ ¿ aij ¿ ⋯ ¿ a ¿ ¿ ⋮ ¿ ⋮ ¿ ¿⋮ ¿ ¿⋮ ¿ an 1¿ an 2 ¿ ⋯ ¿ anj ¿ ⋯ ¿ ann ¿
⋮ ⋮ ¿ ⋮ ¿ ai 1 ¿

Determinant of a square matrix of order 1:

If A=[a11 ] is a square matrix of order 1, then the determinant of A is defined as ¿ A∨¿ a11
, or |a11|=a11 .

Determinant of a square matrix of order 2:

If A= [
a11 a12
a 21 a22 ]
is a square matrix of order 2 , then the expression a 11 a22−a21 a12 is defined

as the determinant of A .

|
i.e., | A|=
a11 a12
a21 a22 |
=a11 a22−a21 a12 ……(i)

Thus, the product of diagonal elements minus the product of off-diagonal elements
equals the determinant of a square matrix of order 2.
Determinant of a square matrix of order 3:

[ ]
a11 a12 a13
If A= a 21 a22 a23 is a square matrix of order 3, then the expression
a31 a32 a33
a 11 a22 a33+ a12 a23 a31+ a13 a 32 a21−a11 a 23 a32−a22 a 13 a31−a12 a 21 a33 is defined as the determinant
of A .

i.e.,

| |
a11 a12 a13
| A|= a21 a22 a23 =a 11 a22 a33 +a12 a23 a31 + a13 a32 a 21−a11 a 23 a 32−a22 a13 a 31−a12 a21 a 33 …….(ii)
a31 a32 a23

Or

| |
a11 a12 a13
| A|= a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

¿ a11 ( a22 a33−a 23 a 32) −a12 ( a33 a21−a23 a31 ) +a 13 ( a 32 a21−a22 a 31)

¿ a11
|
a22 a23
a32 a33 | | a a
a 31 a33
a a
| |
−a12 21 23 +a 13 21 22
a31 a32 | [Using (i)]

¿ (−1 )
1+1
|
a11
|
a22 a 23
a32 a 33
1+2 a
|a
|
1+ 3 a a
+ (−1 ) a12 21 23 + (−1 ) a 13 21 22
a31 a33 |
a 31 a32 |
Thus, the determinant of a square matrix of order 3 is the sum of the product of
elements a 1 j in first row with (−1 )1+ j times the determinant of a 2 ×2 sub-matrix obtained
by leaving the first row and column passing through the element.

The above expansion of A is known as the expansion along first row.

There are three rows and three columns in a square matrix of order 3. The expression
(ii) for the determinant of a square matrix of order 3 can be arranged in various forms to
obtain the expansion of ¿ A∨¿ along any of its rows or columns. Infact, to expand ¿ A∨¿
about a row or a column we multiply each element a ij in the i t h row with (−1 )i+ j times the
determinant of the sub-matrix obtained by leaving the row and column passing through
the element.

For Example:
 | |
a11 a12 a13
¿ A∨¿ a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

¿¿

is the expansion of ¿ A∨¿ about second row.

The expansion of ¿ A∨¿ about second column is given as

¿ A∨¿ ¿

NOTE 1 : Determinants are only found in square matrices. There are no determinants in
non-square matrices.

NOTE 2 : The determinant of a square matrix of order 3 can be expanded along any row
or column.

NOTE 3 If a row or a column of a determinant consists of all zeros, then the value of the
determinant is zero.

Determinant of a square matrix of order 3 by using Saraus Diagram:

The determinant of a square matrix of order 3 can be evaluated by the following
procedure:

| | [ ]
a11 a12 a 13 a11 a12 a13
Consider the determinant a21 a22 a 23 of the square matrix A= a 21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a 33 a31 a32 a33

In order to find the value of the determinant, we first enlarge the determinant by
adjoining the first two columns on the right and draw broken lines parallel and
perpendicular to the diagonal as shown below.
The value of the determinant is the sum of the products of elements in lines parallel to
the diagonal minus the sum of the product of elements in lines perpendicular to the
diagonal.

i.e.,

| |
a11 a12 a 13
a21 a22 a 23 =a 11 a22 a33 +a12 a23 a31+ a13 a 21 a32−a13 a22 a31−a11 a 23 a 32−a12 a21 a33 .
a31 a32 a 33

Note: This method does not work for determinants of order more than 3.

Determinant of a Square Matrix of Order 4 or More:

To evaluate the determinant of a square matrix of order 4 or more we follow the same
procedure as discussed in evaluating the determinant of a square matrix of order 3.

| |
1 2 −1 3
2 1 −2 3
For Example, Δ=
3 1 2 1
1 −1 0 2

Expanding the determinant along the first row, we have

Δ=¿ .

¿ 1 ( 4−0 ) +2 ( 2+1 ) +3 ( 0+2 )−2 [ 2 ( 4−0 ) +2 ( 6−1 )+ 3 ( 0−2 ) ]−1 [ 2 ( 2+ 1 )−1 ( 6−1 ) +3 (−3−1 ) ]−3[2 ( 0+2 )−1 ( 0−2 )−2

¿ 4 +6+6−2 [ 8+10−6 ] −[ 6−5−12 ]−3[4+ 2+ 8]

 ¿ 1(16)−2(12)+(−1)(−11)−3(14)

¿−39

Remark: It is evident from the above discussion that every square matrix A=[aij ] of
order n can be associated to a number (real or complex) or an expression which is
called determinant of the square matrix A . Thus, determinant may be thought as a
function from the set M of all square matrices to the set of all numbers (real or
complex).

Minors and Cofactors

Minor:

Let A=[ aij ] be a square matrix of order n . The minor M ij of a ij in A is the determinant of
the square sub-matrix of order (n−1) obtained by leaving i t h row and j t h column of A .

For example,

If A=[ 4 −7
−3 2 ]
then

M 11=Minor of a 11 =2

M 12=Minor of a 12=−3

M 21=Minor of a 21=−7

M 22=Minor of a 22=4

[ ]
1 2 3
If A= −3 2 −1 then
2 −4 3

M 11=Minor of a 11 =¿Determinant of the 2 ×2 square sub-matrix obtained by leaving first

row and first column of A .

|
⇒ M 11= 2 −1 =6−4=2
−4 3 |
Similarly, we obtain

M 12=Minor of a 12= |−32 −13 |=−9+2=−7

 |−32 −42 |=12−4=8
M 13=Minor of a13=

M =Minor of a =|
−4 3|
2 3
21 =6 +12=18
21

M =Minor of a =|1 3|=3−6=−3

22 22
2 3

M =Minor of a =|1 2 |=−4−4=−8

23 23
2 −4

M =Minor of a =|
2 −1|
2 3
31 =−2−6=−10
31

M =Minor of a =|
−3 −1|
1 3
32 =−1+ 9=8
32

M =Minor of a =| 1 2|=2+ 6=8

33 33
−3 2

Cofactor:

Let A=[ aij ] be a square matrix of order n . The cofactor C ij of a ij in A is equal to (−1 )i+ j
times the determinant of the sub-matrix of order (n−1) obtained by leaving i t h row and
th
j column of A .

It follows from the definition that

C ij =Cofactor of aij in A=(−1 )i+ j M ij, where M ij is the minor of a ij in A .

Thus, we have

{
M ij if i + j is even
C ij = ˙
−M ij if i + jis odd

For Example, If
A= [4 −7
−3 2 ]
then

C 11=¿

C 12=¿

C 21=¿
 C 22=¿

If

[ ]
1 2 3
A= −3 2 −1 then
2 −4 3

C 11=¿

C 12=(−1 )
1+2
|−32 −13 |=−(−9+2)=7
M 12=−Minor of a12=−

C =(−1 ) M =Minor of a =|
2 −4|
−3 2
1+3
13 =12−4=8
13 13

C =(−1 ) M =−Minor of a =−| 2 3|=−( 6+12 ) =−18

21
2+1
21 21
−4 3

C =(−1 ) =M =Minor of a =|
2 3|
1 3
2+2
22 =3−6=−3 22 22

C =(−1 ) M =−Minor of a =−|

2 −4|
1 2
2+3
23 =4+ 4=8
23 23

C =(−1 ) M =Minor of a =|
2 −1|
2 3
3+1
31 =−2−6=−10
31 31

C =−M =−Minor of a =−| 1

−3 −1|
3 =−(−1+ 9 )=−8
32 32 32

C =(−1 ) M =Minor of a =|
−3 2|
1 2
3+3
33 =2+6=8 33 33

Laplace Expansion Formula:

Definition:

Let A=[ aij ] be a square matrix of order n , then the sum of the product of elements of
any row (column) with their cofactors is always equal to ¿ A∨¿ or, det ⁡( A).

i.e.,
n n
¿ A∨¿ ∑ aij C ij and | A|=∑ aij C ij
i=1 j=1
This formula is known as the Laplace Expansion Formula. It allows us to express the
determinant of a matrix as a linear combination of determinants of smaller matrices,
called minors.

Verification:

[ ]
a11 a12 a13
Let A= a 21 a22 a23 be a square matrix of order 3. Then, by definition, we have
a31 a32 a33

| |
a11 a12 a13
¿ A∨¿ a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

Expanding along the first row, we have

⇒∨ A∨¿ ¿

By using the definition of cofactors, we have

¿ A∨¿ a11 C 11+ a12 C 12+a 13 C 13

Similarly, we have

¿ A∨¿ a21 C 21 + a22 C 22 + a23 C 23, ¿ A∨¿ a31 C 31+ a32 C 32 +a 33 C 33 , ¿ A∨¿ a11 C 11+ a21 C 21+ a31 C31 etc.

Note: If A=[aij ] is a square matrix of order n then the sum of the product of elements of
any row (column) with the cofactors of the corresponding elements of some other row
(column) is zero.
n n
i.e., ∑ aij C kj=0 and, ∑ aij C ik =0.
j=1 i=1

[ ]
a11 a12 a13
For Example, Let A= a 21 a22 a23 be a square matrix of order 3. Then, the sum of the
a31 a32 a33
product of elements of first row with the cofactors of elements in second row is given by

a 11 C21 +a12 C22 +a13 C23

¿ a11 ¿

¿−a11 ( a12 · a33−a13 a32) + a12 ( a11 a 33−a13 a31 )−a13 ( a11 a 32−a12 a 31 )
 ¿−a11 a12 a 33+ a11 a 13 a32 +a12 a11 a33 −a12 a13 a31−a13 a11 a32+ a13 a12 a 31

¿0

Solved Examples on Determinants:

| |
2 3 −2
Q.1. Evaluate Δ= 1 2 3 by expanding it along the second row.
−2 1 −3

| |
2 3 −2
Ans: Given, Δ= 1 2 3
−2 1 −3

Expanding it along the second row, we have

Δ=¿

¿− |31 −2
−3| |−2 −3| |−2 1|
+2
2 −2
−3
2 3

¿−(−9+2)+2(−6−4)−3 (2+6)

¿ 7−20−24

¿−37

[ ]
1 3 −2
Q.2. Find the minors and cofactors of elements of the matrix A=[ aij ]= 4 −5 6 .
3 5 2

Ans: Given,

[ ]
1 3 −2
A= 4 −5 6
3 5 2

Let M ij and C ij denote respectively the minor and cofactor of element a ij in A . Then,

M 11= |−55 62|=−10−30=−40 ⇒ C =M =−40 11 11

M 12 =|4 6|=8−18=−10 ⇒ C =−M =10 12 12

3 2
M 13= |43 −55 |=20+15=35 ⇒C =M =35
13 13

=|
5 2|
3 −2
M 21 =6+10=16 ⇒ C =−M =−16
21 21

=|
3 2|
1 −2
M 22 =2+ 6=8 ⇒C =M =8
22 22

=|
3 5|
1 3
M 23 =5−9=−4 ⇒ C =−M =4
23 23

=|
−5 6 |
3 −2
M 31 =18−10=8 ⇒C =M =8 31 31

=|
4 6|
1 −2
M 32 =6+ 8=14 ⇒ C =−M =−14
32 32

=|
4 −5|
1 3
M 33 =−5−12=−17 ⇒C =M =−17 33 33

Q.3. If [ · ] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to the real number under
consideration, and −1 ≤ x <0,0 ≤ y <1,1≤ z <2, then find the value of the following
determinant:

| |
[ x]+1 [ y] [z ]
Δ= [ x ] [ y ]+1 [z ]
[ x] [ y] [ z]+ 1

Ans: We have −1 ≤ x <0,0 ≤ y <1,1≤ z <2,

⇒[ x ]=−1 ,[ y ]=0∧[ z ]=1.

| |
[ x]+1 [ y] [z ]
∴ Δ= [ x ] [ y ]+1 [z ]
[ x] [ y] [ z]+ 1

| |
0 0 1
⇒ Δ= −1 1 1
−1 0 2

| | |
¿ 0 × 1 1 −0 × −1 1 +1 × −1 1
0 2 −1 2 −1 0 | | |
¿ 0(2−0)−0 (−2+1)+1 ×(0+1)
 ¿1

Hence, the required value is 1.

| |
1 sin θ 1
Q.4. Evaluate the determinant Δ= −sinθ 1 sin θ . Also, prove that 2 ≤ Δ≤ 4 .
−1 −sin θ 1

Ans: We have

| |
1 sin θ 1
Δ= −sinθ 1 sin θ
−1 −sin θ 1

Expanding along the first row, we have

Δ=1 ×|−sinθ
1
1 | −1 | 1 | |
sin θ −sin θ −sin θ sin θ +1 × −sinθ
−1
1
−sin θ |
¿ 1× ( 1+sin 2 θ ) −sin θ(−sin θ+sin θ)+1 × ( sin 2 θ+1 )

¿2¿

∵ −1 ≤sin θ ≤ 1 for all θ .

2
⇒ 0 ≤ sin θ ≤1 for all θ .
2
⇒ 1+0 ≤ 1+sin θ ≤ 1+1 for all θ .
2
⇒ 1 ≤1+ sin θ ≤ 2 for all θ .

⇒ 2 ≤ 2 ( 1+sin θ ) ≤ 4 for all θ

2

⇒ 2 ≤ Δ≤ 4 for all θ .

Q.5. Evaluate the determinant of the following matrix using the Laplace expansion by
the second row:

[ ]
2 −1 −1
A= −3 2 1
5 0 −2

Ans: Given,

[ ]
2 −1 −1
A= −3 2 1
5 0 −2
Let C ij denote the cofactor of element a ij in A .

Using the Laplace Expansion formula, and expanding the determinant along the second
row, we have

| A|=a 21 C21 +a 22 C22 +a23 C23

| 0 −2 | |
5 −2 | | 5 0|
¿−3 × (−1 )2+1 −1 −1 + ( 2 )(−1 )2 +2 2 −1 + ( 1 ) (−1 )2+3 2 −1

¿ 3 ( 2−0 )+ 2 (−4+5 )−(0+ 5)

¿ 6+2−5

¿3

Summary:
This article explains about the method of finding the determinant of a matrix of order n .
The steps to find the minors and cofactors of an element in a matrix is also explained
with the help of solved examples. The minor M ij of a ij in A is the determinant of the
square sub-matrix of order (n−1) obtained by leaving i t h row and j t h column of A . The
cofactor C ij of a ij in A is equal to (−1 )i+ j times the determinant of the sub-matrix of order
(n−1) obtained by leaving i t h row and j t h column of A . We have also verified that the
sum of the product of elements of any row (column) with their cofactors is always equal
to ¿ A∨¿ or, det ⁡( A) which is also known as the Laplace Expansion Formula.

FAQ’s:
Q.1. What is determinants with examples?

Ans: Every square matrix A=[aij ] of order n can be associated to a number (real or
complex) or an expression which is called determinant of the square matrix A .

[ ]
1 2 3
For Example: Let A= 4 5 6 then determinant of A is denoted by det A , or ¿ A∨¿, or
7 8 0

| |
1 2 3
4 5 6 , and its value is evaluated as follows:
7 8 0

| A|=1 ( 0−48 )−2 ( 0−42 ) +3(32−35)

¿−48+ 84−9
 ¿ 27

Hence, the determinant of A=27

Q.2. How do you find a determinant?

Ans: Let A=[aij ] be a square matrix of order n , then the sum of the product of elements
of any row (column) with their cofactors is always equal to ¿ A∨¿ or, det ⁡( A).

i.e.,
n n
¿ A∨¿ ∑ aij C ij and | A|=∑ aij C ij, where C ij denote the cofactor of element a ij in A . And,
i=1 j=1

the cofactor C ij of a ij in A is equal to (−1 )i+ j times the determinant of the sub-matrix of
order (n−1) obtained by leaving i t h row and j t h column of A .

[ ]
2 0 −1
For Example: Let A= −3 2 1 . Then, using the Laplace Expansion formula and
5 0 −2
expanding the determinant along the second row, we have

| A|=a 21 C21 +a 22 C22 +a23 C23

¿−3 × (−1 )
2+1
|00 −1
−2|+ ( 2 ) (−1 ) |
2+2 2 −1
5 −2|+ (1 )(−1 ) |
2+3
5 0|
2 0

¿ 3 ( 0−0 ) +2 (−4+ 5 )−(0−0)

¿2

Using the same concept, we can expand the determinant along any row (column) but
every time we will get the same value.

Q.3. What is the symbol for determinant?

Ans: . If A=[ aij ] is a square matrix of order n , then the determinant of A is denoted by
det A or ¿ A∨¿, or,
 | |
a11 a12 ⋯ a1 j … a1 nn
a21 a22 ⋯ a2 j … a2 n ⋯ ¿ aij ¿ ⋯ ¿ a ¿ ¿ ⋮ ¿ ⋮ ¿ ¿⋮ ¿ ¿⋮ ¿ an 1¿ an 2 ¿ ⋯ ¿ anj ¿ ⋯ ¿ ann ¿
⋮ ⋮ ¿ ⋮ ¿ ai 1 ¿

Q.4. How do you solve a 2 ×2 determinant?

Ans: If A= [ a11 a12

]
a 21 a22
is a square matrix of order 2 , then | A|=
a11 a12
a21 a22| |
=a11 a22−a21 a12.

Thus, the determinant of a square matrix of order 2 is equal to the product of the
diagonal elements minus the product of off-diagonal elements.

Q.5. What is the order of the determinant?

Ans: A nt h-order determinant is an expression that is always associated with a n × n

matrix.

Thus, based on the order of the matrix, we classify the determinants as the first-order
determinants, second-order determinants, third-order determinants, and so on, where
the determinant of the 1 ×1 matrix is called the first-order determinants, the determinant
of the 2 ×2 matrix is called the second-order determinants, the determinants of 3 ×3
matrices are called third-order determinants etc.