Microfiltration:

Microfiltration (MF) lies on the upper end of the spectrum of pressure-driven membrane
techniques, with membranes containing the largest pore size of the aforementioned processes. It
is capable of separating suspended solids within the range of 0.1-10μm and is often used as a
precursor stepto downstream filtration applications in order to achieve the desired degree of
separation within a given feed stream. Due to the larger pore size of MF membranes, manyof
these processes are capable of being run at lower pressures than those with
membranescontainingsmaller pores. Common MF applications involve the separation of large
macromolecules in clarification steps, such as in the removal of bacteria from cellular broths and
in fat removal processes in the dairy industry

2.1.1 Ultrafiltration:
Within the family of pressure-driven membrane processes, ultrafiltration (UF) lies between

microfiltration and nanofiltration in terms of pore size, which can range from 1-100 nm. This
size range allows for the concentration of high molecular weight proteins, macromolecules, and
other small, suspended solids. In contrast to MF, UF membranes are categorized with respect to
their molecular weight cutoff, i.e., their ability to retain a molecule of a given size, rather than by
the size of their pores. Nevertheless, the pore size range of UF membranes makes them well-
suited for use in a wide variety of ultrafiltration applications across multiple industries. In the
automotive industry, UF is used in the recovery of undeposited paint for reuse in the
electrocoating process. In the food and beverage industries, it is used in applications ranging
from the concentration of whey protein to the clarification of fruit juices.

Nanofiltration
In contrast to MF and UF, in which solutes are separated according to size, both size and charge
play a role in nanofiltration (NF) separation processes. With a pore size between 0.1-10 nm, NF
membranes are capable of retaining low molecular weight, uncharged solutes, such as sugars and
other organic molecules. NF membranes also retain charged species, such as polyvalent ions and
large monovalent ions, whereas smaller monovalent species pass through. Applications for NF
membranes range from theremoval of natural organic matter in wastewater treatment, hardness
reduction in water purification, and whey demineralization in dairy processing.

Reverse osmosis (RO) membranes contain the smallest pores of the pressure-driven membrane
processes and are capable of retaining all dissolved particles within a feed stream, including
monovalent ions. This degree of separation results in a permeate consisting ofa pure solvent,
which, in many cases, is water. Separation using RO is accomplished not only through size
exclusion but utilizes a diffusive mechanism as well. The necessity of overcoming the osmotic
pressure, in addition to the extremely narrow pore size found in RO membranes, results in RO
processes requiring higher pressures than those previously mentioned. The most common
applications for RO are in the preparation of drinking water and beverage concentration.
Osmosis is the process of transfer of the solvent of a solution across a membrane separating two
liquid solutions of different concentrations. The transfer takes place from the phase in which the
chemical potential solvent is higher. A classical example is the transfer of water to a sugar
solution. Figure (a) shows two compartments separated by a water permeable membrane. One
contains the solution, while the other holds pure water. Initially the level of the solution is placed
at the same level as that of the water. Since the chemical potential of pure water is higher than
that of water in the solution, water transfers across the membrane to the solution, increasing the
level on the solution side and thus creating a hydrostatic head (Figure b). When the process is at
equilibrium the difference in the hydrostatic pressure between the two phases is that required to
make the chemical potential of water in both phases the same. In the special case of this
example, when the pure solvent is on one side of the membrane this pressure difference is the
osmotic pressure, P. If solutions are at both sides of the membrane, the pressure difference gives
the osmotic pressure difference ΔП. For very dilute solutions the osmotic pressure is given by
where β is a constant that takes into account the dissociation of the solute, ci is the molar
concentration of solute i, R the gas constant and T the absolute temperature. The constant (β is in
general equal to the number of ions produced by the dissolved solute; thus for electrolytes that

dissociate fully such as Nalco and CAC2 it is equal to 2 and 3, respectively, while β = 1 for
molecules that do not dissociate. When the solute has a large molecular mass, the osmotic
pressure of the solvent ceases to depend linearly on the concentration of the solute and a
 polynomial approximation must be used. For concentrated solutions as well as nonideal solutions
the osmotic

Pervaporation:
When thin layer of polymeric non-porous membrane, is brought in contact with a feed of liquid mixture,
facilitates diffusion of permeate through the membrane and permeate which is in vapor state is condensed at the other
end and collected.
Mass transfer of liquid from the feed side to the permeate side is because of chemical potential gradient, which is
established by the difference in partial pressure across the membrane.
Working Mechanism:
The basic principle of pervaporation is the separation of liquid mixtures (Azeotropic, organic-aqueous, and organic-
organic) by maintaining a vapor pressure difference across the membrane. The Solution-diffusion model is a widely
accepted by several researchers to understand the mass transfer in PV because of its ease of usage. This model
involves three steps
 Sorption of the preferentially permeating compound from the liquid feed into the upstream membrane layer,
 Diffusion of the same compound through the membrane thickness, and
 Desorption of permeate from the downstream surface of the membrane.

The solution-diffusion model assumes that the system is under iso-thermal, steady-state conditions, no convection
(only diffusion) and the membrane is homogeneous.
Some area of application of pervaporation are
 Preparation of absolute alcohol from near Azeotropic mixture of water and ethanol
 Dehydration of Solvents
 Removal of organic from aqueous solution at low concentration

Pervaporation of Ethanol/Water Mixture:

Some organic could not be parted by simple distillation because of their close volatility and form azeotrope
this problem can be overcome by suitable membrane technology, Recovery of ethanol by distillation is currently the
standard industrial operation and being an energy demanding process. The highest achievable ethanol
concentration is about 95% (w/w) as ethanol forms an azeotrope with Water at this composition.
Azeotropic distillation has employed to beat this problem but the drawbacks are the addition of an
entrainer to the mixture, high cost of entrainer recovery and therefore the quantities of water required

When simple distillation becomes not economical i.e. when distillation needs entrainer to split azeotrope and large
number of theoretical stages or high reflux ratios, the application of pervaporation becomes economical.

Advantages
Hybrid distillation processes using either pervaporation or vapor permeation have been found to be a very
attractive economic option. In PV, less space is needed, as the process equipment is comparatively small compared to
other separation techniques. The advantages also include its simplicity in handling and operation, easy adaptability to
hybrid processes; therefore process control and maintenance would be fairly easy
pressure must be determined experimentally or estimated using activities instead of
concentrations.