Indigenous peoples

Indigenous peoples, also referred to as first peoples,

First Nations, Aboriginal peoples, Native peoples,
Indigenous natives, or Autochthonous peoples
(these terms are capitalized when referring to specific
Indigenous peoples as ethnic groups, nations, and the
members of these groups[1][2][3]), are culturally distinct
ethnic groups who are directly descended from the earliest
known inhabitants of a particular geographic region, and
who to some extent maintain the language and culture of
those original peoples.[4] The term Indigenous was first, in
its modern context, used by Europeans, who used it to Native American dancer of the Save Our
differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from Ancestors Remains and Resources
the European settlers, and the African Americans who Indigenous Network Group (SOARRING)
were brought to the Americas due to enslavement, or who Foundation, 2020
immigrated as free people. The term may have first been
used in this context by Sir Thomas Browne in 1646, who
stated "and although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes serving under the
Spaniard, yet were they all transported from Africa, since the discovery of Columbus; and are not
indigenous or proper natives of America."[5][6]

Peoples are usually described as "Indigenous" when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an
early culture that is associated with the first inhabitants of a given region.[7] Not all indigenous
peoples share this characteristic, as many have adopted substantial elements of a colonizing culture,
such as dress, religion or language. Indigenous peoples may be settled in a given region (sedentary),
exhibit a nomadic lifestyle across a large territory, or resettled, but they are generally historically
associated with a specific territory on which they depend. Indigenous societies are found in every
inhabited climate zone and continent of the world except Antarctica.[8] There are approximately five
thousand Indigenous nations throughout the world.[9]

Indigenous peoples' homelands have historically been colonized by larger ethnic groups, who justified
colonization with beliefs of racial and religious superiority, land use or economic opportunity.[10]
Thousands of Indigenous nations throughout the world are currently living in countries where they
are not a majority ethnic group.[11] Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty,
economic well-being, languages, ways of knowing, and access to the resources on which their cultures
depend. Indigenous rights have been set forth in international law by the United Nations, the
International Labour Organization, and the World Bank.[12] In 2007, the UN issued a Declaration on
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) to guide member-state national policies to the collective
rights of Indigenous peoples, including their rights to protect their cultures, identities, languages,
ceremonies, and access to employment, health, education and natural resources.[13]

Estimates of the total global population of Indigenous peoples usually range from 250 million to 600
million.[14] Official designations and terminology of who is considered Indigenous vary between
countries. In settler states colonized by Europeans, such as in the Americas, Australia, New Zealand,
and Oceania, Indigenous status is generally unproblematically applied to groups directly descended
from the peoples who have lived there prior to European settlement. In Asia and Africa, where the
majority of Indigenous peoples live, Indigenous population figures are less clear and may fluctuate
dramatically as states tend to underreport the population of Indigenous peoples, or define them by
different terminology.[15]

Contents
Etymology
Definitions
National definitions
United Nations
History
Classical antiquity
The Catholic Church and the Doctrine of Discovery
European colonialism in the 'New World'
Settler independence and continuing colonialism
Population and distribution
Environmental and economic benefits of Indigenous stewardship of land
Indigenous people and environment
Contradictory findings
Indigenous peoples by region
Africa
Americas
North America
Central and South America
Asia
Western Asia
South Asia
North Asia
East Asia
Southeast Asia
Europe
Oceania
Indigenous rights and other issues
Human rights violations
Health issues
Racism and discrimination
Cultural appropriation
Environmental injustice
Use of indigenous knowledge
Knowledge reconstruction
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Institutions

Etymology
Indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, meaning "sprung from the land, native".[16] The
Latin indigena is based on the Old Latin indu "in, within" + gignere "to beget, produce". Indu is an
extended form of the Proto-Indo-European en or "in".[17] The origins of the term indigenous are not
related in any way to the origins of the term Indian, which, until recently, was commonly applied to
indigenous peoples of the Americas.[18]

Autochthonous originates from the Greek αὐτός autós meaning self/own, and χθών chthon meaning
Earth. The term is based in the Indo-European root dhghem- (earth). The earliest documented use of
this term was in 1804.[19]

Definitions
As a reference to a group of people, the term indigenous first came into
use by Europeans who used it to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of
the Americas from enslaved Africans. It may have first been used in this
context by Sir Thomas Browne. In Chapter 10 of Pseudodoxia Epidemica
(1646) entitled "Of the Blackness of Negroes", Browne wrote "and
although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes
serving under the Spaniard, yet were they all transported from Africa,
since the discovery of Columbus; and are not indigenous or proper
natives of America."[5][6]

In the 1970s, the term was used as a way of linking the experiences,
issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international
borders. At this time 'indigenous people(s)' also began to be used to
describe a legal category in Indigenous law created in international and
national legislation. The use of the 's' in 'peoples' recognizes that there Colorized photograph of an
are real differences between different Indigenous peoples.[20][21] James Amis couple in traditional
Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, clothing. Taken in pre-World
defined Indigenous peoples as "living descendants of pre-invasion War II Japanese-ruled
inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally Taiwan.
distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies
born of forces of empire and conquest".[22][23]

National definitions

Throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized
as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Indigenous
people also include people indigenous based on their descent from populations that inhabited the
country when non-Indigenous religions and cultures arrived—or at the establishment of present state
boundaries—who retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions,
but who may have been displaced from their traditional domains or who may have resettled outside
their ancestral domains.[24]

The status of the Indigenous groups in the subjugated relationship can be characterized in most
instances as an effectively marginalized or isolated in comparison to majority groups or the nation-
state as a whole. Their ability to influence and participate in the external policies that may exercise
jurisdiction over their traditional lands and practices is very frequently limited. This situation can
persist even in the case where the Indigenous population outnumbers that of the other inhabitants of
the region or state; the defining notion here is one of separation from decision and regulatory
processes that have some, at least titular, influence over aspects of their community and land
rights.[25]

The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to variously
constrain the practices and observances of an Indigenous society. These constraints can be observed
even when the Indigenous society is regulated largely by its own tradition and custom. They may be
purposefully imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may
have a measurable effect, even where countered by other external influences and actions deemed
beneficial or that promote Indigenous rights and interests.[24]

United Nations

The first meeting of the United Nations Working Group on

Indigenous Populations (WGIP) was on 9 August 1982 and this
date is now celebrated as the International Day of the World's
Indigenous Peoples.[26] In 1982 the group accepted a preliminary
definition by Mr. José R. Martínez-Cobo, Special Rapporteur on
Discrimination against Indigenous Populations:[27]

Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are

Guatemalan girls in their traditional
those that, having a historical continuity with pre-
clothing from the town of Santa
invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on
Catarina Palopó on Lake Atitlán
their territories, consider themselves distinct from
other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those
territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-
dominant sectors of society and are determined to
preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations
their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as
the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in
accordance with their own cultural patterns, social
institutions and legal systems.[28]

The primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from considering the historical
impacts of European colonialism. A 2009 United Nations report published by the Secretariat of the
Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues stated:[29]
 For centuries, since the time of their colonization, conquest or occupation, indigenous
peoples have documented histories of resistance, interface or cooperation with states, thus
demonstrating their conviction and determination to survive with their distinct sovereign
identities. Indeed, Indigenous peoples were often recognized as sovereign peoples by
states, as witnessed by the hundreds of treaties concluded between Indigenous peoples
and the governments of the United States, Canada, New Zealand and others. And yet as
Indigenous populations dwindled, and the settler populations grew ever more dominant,
states became less and less inclined to recognize the sovereignty of Indigenous peoples.
Indigenous peoples themselves, at the same time, continued to adapt to changing
circumstances while maintaining their distinct identity as sovereign peoples.[30]

The World Health Organization defines Indigenous populations as follows: "communities that live
within, or are attached to, geographically distinct traditional habitats or ancestral territories, and who
identify themselves as being part of a distinct cultural group, descended from groups present in the
area before modern states were created and current borders defined. They generally maintain cultural
and social identities, and social, economic, cultural and political institutions, separate from the
mainstream or dominant society or culture."[31]

History

Classical antiquity

Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge indigenous people whom they referred to as
"Pelasgians". These people were seen by ancient writers either as the ancestors of the Greeks,[32] or as
an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks.[33] The disposition and precise
identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give
varying, partially mythological accounts. Dionysius of Halicarnassus in his book, Roman Antiquities,
gives a synoptic interpretation of the Pelasgians based on the sources available to him then,
concluding that Pelasgians were Greek.[34] Greco-Roman society flourished between 330  BCE and
640  CE and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the known
world at the time. But because already existent populations within other parts of Europe at the time of
classical antiquity had more in common culturally speaking with the Greco-Roman world, the
intricacies involved in expansion across the European frontier were not so contentious relative to
indigenous issues.[35]

The Catholic Church and the Doctrine of Discovery

The Doctrine of Discovery is a legal and religious concept tied to the Roman Catholic Church which
rationalized and 'legalized' colonization and the conquering of Indigenous peoples in the eyes of
Christianized Europeans. The roots of the Doctrine go back as far as the fifth century popes and
leaders in the church who had ambitions of forming a global Christian commonwealth. The Crusades
(1096-1271) were based on this ambition of a holy war against who the church saw as infidels. Pope
Innocent IV's writings from 1240 were particularly influential. He argued that Christians were
justified in invading and acquiring infidel's lands because it was the church's duty to control the
spiritual health of all humans on Earth.[10]
The Doctrine developed further in the 15th century after the
conflict between the Teutonic Knights and Poland to control
'pagan' Lithuania. At the Council of Constance (1414), the Knights
argued that their claims were "authorized by papal proclamations
dating from the time of the Crusades [which] allowed the outright
confiscation of the property and sovereign rights of heathens." The
council disagreed, stating that non-Christians had claims to rights
of sovereignty and property under European natural law.
However, the council upheld that conquests could 'legally' occur if Alonso Fernández de Lugo
non-Christians refused to comply with Christianization and presenting the captured Guanche
European natural law. This effectively meant that peoples who kings of Tenerife to Ferdinand and
were not considered 'civilized' by European standards or Isabella
otherwise refused to assimilate under Christian authority were
subject to war and forced assimilation: "Christians simply refused
to recognize the right of non-Christians to remain free of Christian dominion."[10]
Christian
Europeans had already begun invading and colonizing lands outside of Europe before the Council of
Constance, demonstrating how the Doctrine was applied to non-Christian Indigenous peoples outside
Europe. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Indigenous peoples of what are now referred to as the
Canary Islands, known as Guanches (who had lived on the islands since the BCE era) became the
subject of colonizers' attention. The Guanches had remained undisturbed and relatively 'forgotten' by
Europeans until Portugal began surveying the island for potential settlement in 1341. In 1344, a papal
bull was issued which assigned the islands to Castile, a kingdom in Spain. In 1402, the Spanish began
efforts to invade and colonize the islands.[36] By 1436, a new papal edict was issued by Pope Eugenius
IV known as Romanus Pontifex which authorized Portugal to convert the Indigenous peoples to
Christianity and control the islands on behalf of the pope.[10] The Guanches resisted European
invasion until the surrender of the Guanche kings of Tenerife to Spain in 1496. The invaders brought
destruction and diseases to the Guanche people, whose identity and culture disappeared as a
result.[36][37][38]

As Portugal expanded southward into North Africa in

the 15th century, new edicts were added by subsequent
popes which extended Portuguese authority over
Indigenous peoples. In 1455, Pope Nicholas V re-
issued the Romanus Pontifex with more direct
language, authorizing Portugal "to invade, search out,
capture, vanquish, and subdue all Saracens and
pagans" as well as allowing non-Christians to be placed
in slavery and have their property stolen. As stated by
Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt, and
Tracey Lindberg, the doctrine developed over time "to
justify the domination of non-Christian, non-European
peoples and the confiscations of their lands and
rights." Because Portugal was granted 'permissions' by
the papacy to expand in Africa, Spain was urged to Portuguese possessions in North Africa (1415–
move westward across the Atlantic Ocean, searching to 1769)
convert and conquer Indigenous peoples in what they
would understand as the 'New World'. This division of
the world between Spain and Portugal was formalized with the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494.[10]
Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella hired Christopher Columbus, who was dispatched in
1492, to colonize and bring new lands under the Spanish crown. Columbus 'discovered' a few islands
in the Caribbean as early as 1493 and Ferdinand and Isabella immediately asked the pope to 'ratify'
the discovery. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera divinai, which affirmed that since
the islands had been "undiscovered by others" that they were now under Spanish authority. Alexander
granted Spain any lands that it discovered as long as they had not been "previously possessed by any
Christian owner". The beginnings of European colonialism in the 'New World' effectively formalized
the Doctrine of Discovery into 'international law', which at that time meant law that was agreed upon
by Spain, Portugal, and the Catholic Church. Indigenous peoples were not consulted or included in
these arrangements.[10]

European colonialism in the 'New World'

Spain issued the Spanish Requirement of 1513 (Requerimiento), a

document that was intended to inform Indigenous peoples that
"they must accept Spanish missionaries and sovereignty or they
would be annihilated." The document was supposed to be read to
Indigenous peoples so that they theoretically could accept or reject
the proposal before any war against them could be waged: "the
Requerimiento informed the Natives of their natural law
obligations to hear the gospel and that their lands had been
donated to Spain." Refusal by Indigenous peoples meant that, in
the Spaniard's eyes, war could 'justifiably' be waged against them. Depiction of a Spaniard entering
Many conquistadors apparently feared that, if given the option, Chalco with three Tlaxcalan soldiers
Indigenous peoples would actually accept Christianity, which and an Indigenous porter in the
would legally not permit invasion of their lands and the theft of Lienzo de Tlaxcala (pre-1585)
their belongings. Legal scholars Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Rura,
Larissa Behrendt, and Tracey Lindberg record that this commonly
resulted in Spanish invaders reading the document aloud "in the night to the trees" or reading it "to
the land from their ships". The scholars remark: "so much for legal formalism and the free will and
natural law rights of New World Indigenous peoples."[39]

Being Catholic countries in 1493, England as well as France worked to 're-interpret' the Doctrine of
Discovery to serve their own colonial interests. In the 16th century, England established a new
interpretation of the Doctrine: "the new theory, primarily developed by English legal scholars, argued
that the Catholic King Henry VII of England, would not violate the 1493 papal bulls, which divided the
world for the Spanish and Portuguese." This interpretation was also supported by Elizabeth I's legal
advisors in the 1580s and effectively set a precedent among European colonial nations that the first
Christian nation to occupy land was the 'legal' owner and that this had to be respected in international
law. This rationale was used in the colonization of what was to become the American colonies. James
I stated in the First Virginia Charter (1606) and the Charter to the Council of New England (1620)
that colonists could be given property rights because the lands were "not now actually possessed by
any Christian Prince or People". English monarchs issued that colonists should spread Christianity "to
those [who] as yet live in Darkness and miserable Ignorance of the true Knowledge and Worship of
God, [and] to bring the Infidels and Savages, living in those parts, to human civility, and to a settled
and quiet Government."[39]

This approach to colonization of Indigenous lands resulted in an acceleration of exploration and land
claiming, particularly by France, England, and Holland. Land claims were made through symbolic
"rituals of discovery" that were performed to illustrate the colonizing nation's legal claim to the land.
Markers of possession such as crosses, flags, and plates claiming
possession and other symbols became important in this contest to
claim Indigenous lands. In 1642, Dutch explorers were ordered to
set up posts and a plate that asserted their intention to establish a
colony on the land. In the 1740s, French explorers buried lead
plates at various locations to reestablish their 17th century land
claims to Ohio country. The French plates were later discovered by
Indigenous peoples of the Ohio River. Upon contact with English
explorers, the English noted that the lead plates were monuments
"of the renewal of [French] possession" of the land. In 1774,
Captain James Cook attempted to invalidate Spanish land claims The arrival of Jan van Riebeeck in
to Tahiti by removing their marks of possession and then Table Bay, South Africa in 1652.
proceeding to set up English marks of possession. When the Painting by Charles Davidson Bell
Spanish learned of this action, they quickly sent an explorer to (1813–1882)
reestablish their claim to the land.[39]

The English developed the legal concept of terra nullius (land that is null or void) or vacuum
domicilium (empty or vacant house) to validate their lands claims over Indigenous peoples'
homelands. This concept formalized the idea that lands which were not being used in a manner that
European legal systems approved of were open for European colonization. Historian Henry Reynolds
captured this perspective in his statement that "Europeans regarded North America as a vacant land
that could be claimed by right of discovery." These new legal concepts were developed in order to
diminish reliance on papal authority to authorize or justify colonization claims.[39]

As the 'rules' of colonization became established into legal doctrine agreed upon by between European
colonial powers, methods of laying claims to Indigenous lands continued to expand rapidly. As
encounters between European colonizers and Indigenous populations in the rest of the world
accelerated, so did the introduction of infectious diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of
extraordinary virulence. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and other diseases
were unknown in pre-Columbian Americas and Oceania.

Settler independence and continuing colonialism

Although the establishment of colonies throughout the world by various European powers was
intended to expand their nation's wealth and influence, settler populations in some localities became
anxious to assert their own autonomy. For example, settler independence movements in the American
colonies were successful by 1783, following the American Revolutionary War. This resulted in the
establishment of the United States of America as a separate entity from British Empire. The United
States continued and expanded European colonial doctrine through adopting the Doctrine of
Discovery as the law of the American federal government in 1823 with the US Supreme Court case
Johnson v. M'Intosh. Statements at the Johnson court case illuminated the United States' support for
the principles of the discovery doctrine:[40]

The United States ... [and] its civilized inhabitants now hold this country. They hold, and
assert in themselves, the title by which it was acquired. They maintain, as all others have
maintained, that discovery gave an exclusive right to extinguish the Indian title of
occupancy, either by purchase or by conquest; and gave also a right to such a degree of
sovereignty, as the circumstances of the people would allow them to exercise. ... [This loss
of native property and sovereignty rights was justified, the Court said, by] the character
 and religion of its inhabitants ... the superior genius of Europe ... [and] ample
compensation to the [Indians] by bestowing on them civilization and Christianity, in
exchange for unlimited independence.

Population and distribution

Indigenous societies range from those who have been
significantly exposed to the colonizing or expansionary
activities of other societies (such as the Maya peoples
of Mexico and Central America) through to those who
as yet remain in comparative isolation from any A map of uncontacted peoples, around the start of
external influence (such as the Sentinelese and Jarawa the 21st century
of the Andaman Islands).

Precise estimates for the total population of the world's Indigenous peoples are very difficult to
compile, given the difficulties in identification and the variances and inadequacies of available census
data. The United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million Indigenous people living in over
70 countries worldwide.[41] This would equate to just fewer than 6% of the total world population.
This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples[42] in over 72 countries.

Contemporary distinct Indigenous groups survive in populations ranging from only a few dozen to
hundreds of thousands and more. Many Indigenous populations have undergone a dramatic decline
and even extinction, and remain threatened in many parts of the world. Some have also been
assimilated by other populations or have undergone many other changes. In other cases, Indigenous
populations are undergoing a recovery or expansion in numbers.

Certain Indigenous societies survive even though they may no longer inhabit their "traditional" lands,
owing to migration, relocation, forced resettlement or having been supplanted by other cultural
groups. In many other respects, the transformation of culture of Indigenous groups is ongoing, and
includes permanent loss of language, loss of lands, encroachment on traditional territories, and
disruption in traditional ways of life due to contamination and pollution of waters and lands.

Environmental and economic benefits of Indigenous stewardship of land

A WRI report mentions that "tenure-secure" Indigenous lands generates billions and sometimes
trillions of dollars' worth of benefits in the form of carbon sequestration, reduced pollution, clean
water and more. It says that tenure-secure Indigenous lands have low deforestation rates,[43][44] they
help to reduce GHG emissions, control erosion and flooding by anchoring soil, and provide a suite of
other local, regional and global ecosystem services.
However, many of these communities find
themselves on the front lines of the deforestation crisis, and their lives and livelihoods
threatened.[45][46][47]

Indigenous people and environment

Misconceptions about complexity of the relationship between indigenous population and their natural
habitat has informed Westerners view of California's "wild Eden" which may have led to misguided
ideas on policy designs to preserve this "wilderness". Assuming that the natural habitat automatically
provided food and nourishment for indigenous population placed practices toward the exploitative
end of the spectrum of human interactions with nature as only "hunter-gatherers". There is evidence
that tells another story and describes this relationship as a "calculated tempered use of nature as
active agents of environmental change and stewardship". This distorted view of "wilderness" as
uninhabited nature has resulted in removal of indigenous inhabitants to preserve "the wild". In
reality, depriving the land from indigenous people management such as controlled burning,
harvesting, and seed scattering has yielded dense understory shrubbery or tickets of young trees
which are inhospitable to life. Current assessments indicate that indigenous peoples used land
sustainably, without causing substantial losses of biodiversity, for thousands of years.[48]

A goal is to ascertain an unbiased view of indigenous population resource management practices

instead of literature that often assumes their impact to be entirely negative or of little to no effect.
Although, there is evidence of negative impacts, particularly, on large animals by over-exploitation,
there is a plethora of evidence from historical literature, archaeological findings, ecological field
studies, and native people's culture that paints another picture in which indigenous land management
practices were largely successful in promoting habitat heterogeneity, increasing biodiversity, and
maintaining certain vegetation types. These findings show that indigenous practices sustain lives
while conserving natural resources and may be prove essential in improving our own relationship
with natural resources. Setting aside "wilderness" is still imperative given our continued population
growth, however, that growth itself requires another way of thinking in "re-creating specific human-
ecosystem associations". Human-ecological history of land should inform resource management
policies today. This history cannot be simplified into dichotomies of "hunter-gatherers" vs.
"agriculturalists" and should entail more complex models. Indigenous practices are at the roots of this
history, present a prime example of this complex relationship, and show how weaving their way of life
into our culture allows us to meet our needs without destroying natural resources. It is really
important that studying ethnoscience is not guarantee that every local societies and indigenous people
must have special science to consider important.[49]

Contradictory findings

Recently, it has come to light that the deforestation rate of Indonesian rainforests has been far greater
than estimated. Such a rate could not have been the product of globalization as understood before;
rather, it seemed that ordinary local people dependent on these forests for their livelihoods are in fact
"joining distant corporations in creating uninhabitable landscapes." Popular theories of globalization
cannot accommodate such phenomena. These conventions "package all cultural development into a
single program" and assert that powerless minorities and communities have adjusted themselves
according to global forces. However, in the case of Indonesian deforestation, global forces alone could
not explain the rate of destruction. Therefore, a new approach is in which global forces are themselves
"congeries of local/global interaction" with unexpected encounters across different populations and
cultures. Then, destruction of forests in excess of market needs could be seen as an unexpected result
of the encounter between global forces that feed the market needs and local livelihoods that depend
on the same forests. Trying to capture these unexpected encounters under the idea of "friction" where
culture is "continually co-produced in interactions" that are made up of "creative qualities of
interconnection across difference" might seem awkward, unequal, or unstable. These "messy and
surprising" features of such interactions across difference are exactly what should inform our models
of cultural production. In this framework, friction makes global connection powerful and effective but
at the same time, it has the capacity to disrupt and even cause cataclysms in its smooth operation as a
well-oiled machine. A well-documented example of such process is the industrialization of rubber,
which was made possible by European savage conquests, competitive passions of colonial botany,
resistance strategies of peasants, wars, advancement of technology and science, and the struggle over
industrial goals and hierarchies. Attention to friction provides a unique opportunity to create a
theoretical framework under which developing an "ethnographic" account of globalization becomes a
possibility. Within such an ethnographic account, Indonesian encounters can "shape the shared space
in which Indonesian and non-Indonesian jointly experience fears, tensions, and uncertainties."[50]

Studying indigenous knowledge and their relationship with nature does not make it obligatory for
indigenous people to have local knowledge to consider their rights. Criticizing environmentalist
accounts of indigenous populations that are typically motivated by trying to protect their landscape
and surroundings from globalization forces might be a good idea. To do so requires a two-fold
strategy where description of an indigenous society and their habitat must make a "narratable" story,
and be of some "value" to westerners so that it can generate international support for preserving their
culture and environment. Using Eastern Penan populations to demonstrate how environmentalists
transform Penan's indigenous "knowledge" of their forest by pulling from ethnographies of other
forest population, e.g., in Amazon forests. In doing so, they corrupt the cultural diversity of
indigenous by framing them into a single narrative in the name of preserving the biodiversity of their
habitat. In case of Easter Penan, three categories of misrepresentation is noticeable:The Molong
concept is purely a stewardship notion of resource management. communities or individuals take
ownership of specific trees and harvest them in such a way that allows them to exploit long-term. This
notion has gained an etherealism in environmentalist writings according to western romantic notions
of indigenous to tell a more connecting story. Landscape features and particularly their names in local
languages provided geographical and historical information for Penan people; whereas in
environmentalist accounts, it has turned into a spiritual practice where trees and rivers represent
forest spirits that are sacred to the Penan people. A typical stereotype of some environmentalists'
approach to ecological ethnography is to present indigenous "knowledge" of nature as "valuable" to
the outside world because of its hidden medicinal benefits. In reality, eastern Penan populations do
not identify a medicinal stream of "knowledge". These misrepresentations in the "narrative" of
indigeneity and "value" of indigenous knowledge might have been helpful for Penan's people in their
struggle to protect their environment, but it might also have disastrous consequences. What happens
if another case did not fit in this romantic narrative, or another indigenous knowledge did not seem
beneficial to the outside world. These people were being uprooted in the first place because their
communities did not fit well with the state's system of values.[51]

Indigenous peoples by region

Indigenous populations are distributed in regions throughout the globe. The numbers, condition and
experience of Indigenous groups may vary widely within a given region. A comprehensive survey is
further complicated by sometimes contentious membership and identification.

Africa

In the post-colonial period, the concept of specific Indigenous peoples within the African continent
has gained wider acceptance, although not without controversy. The highly diverse and numerous
ethnic groups that comprise most modern, independent African states contain within them various
peoples whose situation, cultures and pastoralist or hunter-gatherer lifestyles are generally
marginalized and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation. Since
the late 20th century these peoples have increasingly sought recognition of their rights as distinct
Indigenous peoples, in both national and international contexts.
Though the vast majority of African peoples are indigenous in the
sense that they originate from that continent, in practice, identity
as an Indigenous people per the modern definition is more
restrictive, and certainly not every African ethnic group claims
identification under these terms. Groups and communities who do
claim this recognition are those who, by a variety of historical and
environmental circumstances, have been placed outside of the
dominant state systems, and whose traditional practices and land
claims often come into conflict with the objectives and policies Starting fire by hand, San people in
implemented by governments, companies and surrounding Botswana.
dominant societies.

Americas

Indigenous peoples of the American continent are broadly

recognized as being those groups and their descendants who
inhabited the region before the arrival of European colonizers and
settlers (i.e., Pre-Columbian). Indigenous peoples who maintain,
or seek to maintain, traditional ways of life are found from the
high Arctic north to the southern extremities of Tierra del Fuego. Nama man greeting visitors.

The impacts of historical and ongoing European colonization of

the Americas on Indigenous communities have been in general
quite severe, with many authorities estimating ranges of
significant population decline primarily due to disease, land theft
and violence. Several peoples have become extinct, or very nearly
so. But there are and have been many thriving and resilient
Indigenous nations and communities.

North America
Inuit elders
North America is sometimes referred to by Indigenous peoples as
Abya Yala or Turtle Island.

In Mexico, about 25 million people self-reported as Indigenous in 2015. Some estimates put the
Indigenous population of Mexico as high as 40-65 million people, making it the country with the
highest Indigenous population in North America.[52][53] In the southern states of Oaxaca (65.73%)
and Yucatán (65.40%), the majority of the population is Indigenous, as reported in 2015. Other states
with high populations of Indigenous peoples include Campeche (44.54%), Quintana Roo, (44.44%),
Hidalgo, (36.21%), Chiapas (36.15%), Puebla (35.28%), and Guerrero (33.92%).[54][55]

Indigenous peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations,[56] Inuit[57] and Métis.[58] The descriptors
"Indian" and "Eskimo" have fallen into disuse in Canada.[59][60] More currently, the term
"Aboriginal" is being replaced with "Indigenous". Several national organizations in Canada changed
their names from "Aboriginal" to "Indigenous". Most notable was the change of Aboriginal Affairs and
Northern Development Canada (AANDC) to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) in 2015,
which then split into Indigenous Services Canada and Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern
Development Canada in 2017.[61] According to the 2016 Census, there are over 1,670,000 Indigenous
peoples in Canada.[62] There are currently over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands
spread across Canada, such as the Cree, Mohawk, Mikmaq, Blackfoot,
Coast Salish, Innu, Dene and more, with distinctive Indigenous cultures,
languages, art, and music.[63][64] First Nations peoples signed 11
numbered treaties (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/
aboriginal-treaties) across much of what is now known as Canada
between 1871 and 1921, except in parts of British Columbia. All treaty
promises have been historically and contemporarily broken.

The Inuit have achieved a degree of administrative autonomy with the

creation in 1999 of the territories of Nunavik (in Northern Quebec),
Nunatsiavut (in Northern Labrador) and Nunavut, which was until 1999
a part of the Northwest Territories. The autonomous territory of
Greenland within the Kingdom of Denmark is also home to a recognised
Indigenous and majority population of Inuit (about 85%) who settled the
area in the 13th century, displacing the Indigenous Dorset people and A girl wears the traditional
Greenlandic Norse.[65][66][67][68] Nahua headdress in
Yohualichan, Veracruz.
In the United States, the combined populations of Native Americans,
Inuit and other Indigenous designations totaled 2,786,652 (constituting
about 1.5% of 2003 U.S. census figures). Some 563 scheduled tribes are recognized at the federal
level, and a number of others recognized at the state level.

Central and South America

In some countries (particularly in Latin America), Indigenous

peoples form a sizable component of the overall national
population — in Bolivia, they account for an estimated 56–70% of
the total nation, and at least half of the population in Guatemala
and the Andean and Amazonian nations of Peru. In English,
Indigenous peoples are collectively referred to by different names
that vary by region, age and ethnicity of speakers, with no one
term being universally accepted. While still in use in-group, and in
many names of organizations, "Indian" is less popular among Quechua woman and child in the
younger people, who tend to prefer "Indigenous" or simply Sacred Valley, Andes, Peru
"Native, with most preferring to use the specific name of their
tribe or Nation instead of generalities. In Spanish or Portuguese
speaking countries, one finds the use of terms such as índios, pueblos indígenas, amerindios, povos
nativos, povos indígenas, and, in Peru, Comunidades Nativas (Native Communities), particularly
among Amazonian societies like the Urarina[69] and Matsés. In Chile, there the most populous
indigenous peoples are the Mapuches in the Center-South and the Aymaras in the North.[70] Rapa
Nui of Easter Island, who are a Polynesian people, are the only non-Amerindian indigenous people in
Chile.

Indigenous peoples make up 0.4% of all Brazilian population, or about 700,000 people.[71]
Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in
Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country. On 18 January 2007,
FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted peoples in Brazil, up
from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country
having the largest number of uncontacted peoples.[72]
Asia

The vast regions of Asia contain the majority of the world's present-day indigenous populations, about
70% according to IWGIA figures.

Western Asia
Armenians: are the Indigenous people of the Armenian Highlands. There are currently more
Armenians living outside their ancestral homeland because of the Armenian genocide of 1915.
Assyrians: are indigenous to Mesopotamia.[73] They claim descent from the ancient Neo-Assyrian
Empire, and lived in what was Assyria, their original homeland, and still speak dialects of Aramaic,
the official language of the Assyrian Empire.
Anatolian Greeks, including the Pontic Greeks and Cappadocian Greeks, includes the Greek-
speaking minorities that existed in Anatolia millennia before Turkish conquest. They are
indigenous to Asiatic Turkey.[74] Most were either killed in the Greek genocide or displaced during
the following population exchange; however, some remain in Turkey.[75][76]
Georgians: are indigenous to Georgia.
Kurds: are one of the Indigenous peoples of Mesopotamia.[77][78]
Yazidis: are indigenous to Upper Mesopotamia.[79]

There are competing claims that Palestinian Arabs and Jews are indigenous to historic Palestine/the
Land of Israel.[80][81][82] The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with
Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement,
and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel.[83] Israeli Jews have in turn claimed
indigeneity based on historic ties to the region and disputed the authenticity of Palestinian
claims.[84][85] In 2007, the Negev Bedouin were officially recognised as Indigenous peoples of Israel
by the United Nations.[86] This has been criticised both by scholars associated with the Israeli state,
who dispute the Bedouin's claim to indigeneity,[87] and those who argue that recognising just one
group of Palestinians as indigenous risks undermining others' claims and "fetishising" nomadic
cultures.[88]

South Asia

The most substantial populations of Indigenous people are in

India, which constitutionally recognizes a range of "Scheduled
Tribes" within its borders. These various people number about
200 million, but these terms "Indigenous people" and "tribal
people" are different.[89]

There are also Indigenous people residing in the hills of Northern,

North-eastern and Southern India like the Tamils (of Tamil
Young Assamese couple in
Nadu), Shina, Kalasha, Khowar, Burusho, Balti, Wakhi, Domaki,
traditional attire during the
Nuristani, Kohistani, Gujjar and Bakarwal, Kashmiri (of Jammu
celebration of Rongali Bihu Festival
and Kashmir), Bheel, Ladakhi, Lepcha, Bhutia (of Sikkim), Naga
in Assam
(of Nagaland), Indigenous Assamese communities, Mizo (of
Mizoram), Tripuri (Tripura), Adi and Nyishi (Arunachal Pradesh),
Kodava (of Kodagu), Toda, Kurumba, Kota (of the Nilgiris), Irulas and others.
India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean are also home to several Indigenous groups
such as the Andamanese of Strait Island, the Jarawas of Middle Andaman and South Andaman
Islands, the Onge of Little Anadaman Island and the uncontacted Sentinelese of North Sentinel
Island. They are registered and protected by the Indian government.

In Sri Lanka, the Indigenous Vedda people constitute a small minority of the population today.

North Asia

The Russians invaded Siberia and conquered the indigenous people in

the 17th–18th centuries.

Nivkh people are an ethnic group indigenous to Sakhalin, having a few

speakers of the Nivkh language, but their fisher culture has been
endangered due to the development of oil field of Sakhalin from
1990s.[90]

In Russia, definition of "indigenous peoples" is contested largely

referring to a number of population (less than 50,000 people), and
neglecting self-identification, origin from indigenous populations who
inhabited the country or region upon invasion, colonization or Marina A. Temina, a native
establishment of state frontiers, distinctive social, economic and cultural speaker and teacher of the
institutions.[91][7] Thus, indigenous peoples of Russia such as Sakha, Nivkh language
Komi, Karelian and others are not considered as such due to the size of
the population (more than 50,000 people), and consequently they "are
not the subjects of the specific legal protections."[92] The Russian government recognizes only 40
ethnic groups as indigenous peoples, even though there are other 30 groups to be counted as such.
The reason of nonrecognition is the size of the population and relatively late advent to their current
regions, thus indigenous peoples in Russia should be numbered less than 50,000 people.[93][94][95]

East Asia

Ainu people are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaidō, the Kuril

Islands, and much of Sakhalin. As Japanese settlement expanded, the
Ainu were pushed northward and fought against the Japanese in
Shakushain's Revolt and Menashi-Kunashir Rebellion, until by the Meiji
period they were confined by the government to a small area in
Hokkaidō, in a manner similar to the placing of Native Americans on
reservations.[96] In a ground-breaking 1997 decision involving the Ainu
people of Japan, the Japanese courts recognized their claim in law,
stating that "If one minority group lived in an area prior to being ruled
over by a majority group and preserved its distinct ethnic culture even
after being ruled over by the majority group, while another came to live in
an area ruled over by a majority after consenting to the majority rule, it
must be recognized that it is only natural that the distinct ethnic culture
of the former group requires greater consideration."[97] Ainu man performing a
traditional Ainu dance
The Dzungar Oirats are indigenous to the Dzungaria in Northern
Xinjiang.
The Pamiris are indigenous to the Tashkurgan in Xinjiang.

The Tibetans are indigenous to Tibet.

The Ryukyuan people are indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands.

The languages of Taiwanese aborigines have significance in historical linguistics, since in all
likelihood Taiwan was the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language family, which spread
across Oceania.[98][99][100]

In Hong Kong, the indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories are defined in the Sino-British Joint
Declaration as people descended through the male line from a person who was in 1898, before
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory.[101] There are several different groups that
make of the indigenous inhabitants, the Punti, Hakka, Hoklo, and Tanka. All are nonetheless
considered part of the Cantonese majority, although some like the Tanka have been shown to have
genetic and anthropological roots in the Baiyue people, the pre-Han Chinese inhabitants of Southern
China.

Southeast Asia

The Malay Singaporeans are the indigenous people of Singapore, inhabiting it since the Austronesian
migration. They had established the Kingdom of Singapura back in the 13th century. The name
Singapore itself comes from the Malay word Singapura (Singa=Lion, Pura=City) which means the
Lion City.

The Cham are the indigenous people of the former state of Champa which was conquered by Vietnam
in the Cham–Vietnamese wars during Nam tiến. The Cham in Vietnam are only recognized as a
minority, and not as an indigenous people by the Vietnamese government despite being indigenous to
the region.

The Degar (Montagnards) are indigenous to Central Highlands (Vietnam) and were conquered by the
Vietnamese in the Nam tiến.

The Khmer Krom are the indigenous people of the Mekong Delta and Saigon which were acquired by
Vietnam from Cambodian King Chey Chettha II in exchange for a Vietnamese princess.

In Indonesia, there are 50 to 70 million people who classify as indigenous peoples.[102] However, the
Indonesian government does not recognize the existence of indigenous peoples, classifying every
Native Indonesian ethnic group as "indigenous" despite the clear cultural distinctions of certain
groups.[103] This problem is shared by many other countries in the ASEAN region.

In the Philippines, there are 135 ethno-linguistic groups, majority of which are considered as
indigenous peoples by mainstream indigenous ethnic groups in the country. The indigenous people of
Cordillera Administrative Region and Cagayan Valley in the Philippines are the Igorot people. The
indigenous peoples of Mindanao are the Lumad peoples and the Moro (Tausug, Maguindanao
Maranao and others) who also live in the Sulu archipelago. There are also others sets of indigenous
peoples in Palawan, Mindoro, Visayas, and the rest central and south Luzon. The country has one of
the largest indigenous peoples population in the world.
In Myanmar, indigenous peoples include the Shan, the Karen, the Rakhine, the Karenni, the Chin, the
Kachin and the Mon. However, there are more ethnic groups that are considered indigenous, for
example, the Akha, the Lisu, the Lahu or the Mru, among others.[104]

Europe

Various ethnic groups have lived in Europe for millennia. However, the
UN recognizes very few indigenous populations within Europe, which are
confined to the far north and far east of the continent.

Notable indigenous minority populations in Europe that are recognized

by the UN include the Uralic Nenets, Samoyed, and Komi peoples of
northern Russia; Circassians of southern Russia and the North Caucasus;
Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks and Crimean Karaites of Crimea in Ukraine;
Sámi peoples of northern Norway, Sweden, and Finland and
northwestern Russia (in an area also referred to as Sápmi); Basques of
Basque Country, Spain and southern France; and the Sorbian people of Sámi family in Lapland,
Germany and Poland.[105] 1936

Oceania

In Australia, the indigenous populations are the Aboriginal

Australian peoples (comprising many different nations and
language groups) and the Torres Strait Islander peoples (also
with sub-groups). These two groups are often referred to as
Indigenous Australians,[106] although terms such as First
Nations[107] and First Peoples are also used.[108]

Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian peoples originally

Aboriginal Australian dancers populated many of the present-day Pacific Island countries in
the Oceania region over the course of thousands of years.
European, American, Chilean and Japanese colonial expansion
in the Pacific brought many of these areas under non-indigenous administration, mainly during the
19th century. During the 20th century, several of these former colonies gained independence and
nation-states formed under local control. However, various peoples have put forward claims for
indigenous recognition where their islands are still under external administration; examples include
the Chamorros of Guam and the Northern Marianas, and the Marshallese of the Marshall Islands.
Some islands remain under administration from Paris, Washington, London or Wellington.

The remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were
recently found on the islands of Palau in Micronesia.[109]

In most parts of Oceania, indigenous peoples outnumber the descendants of colonists. Exceptions
include Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii. In New Zealand the Māori population estimate at 30
June 2021 is 17% of the population.[110] Māori are indigenous to Polynesia and settled New Zealand
after migrations probably in the 13th century.[111] A treaty with the British, the Treaty of Waitangi was
signed in 1840 by approximately 45 Māori leaders,[112] following in 1835 the signing of He
Whakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tirene: the Declaration of Independence of the United
Tribes of New Zealand as a statement of sovereignty by Māori to the wider world and an assertion of
the Indigenous rights of Māori in New Zealand, this lead to the Treaty of Waitangi.[113][114]

A majority of the Papua New Guinea population is indigenous, with more than 700 different
nationalities recognized in a total population of 8 million.[115] The country's constitution and key
statutes identify traditional or custom-based practices and land tenure, and explicitly set out to
promote the viability of these traditional societies within the modern state. However, conflicts and
disputes concerning land use and resource rights continue between indigenous groups, the
government, and corporate entities.

Indigenous rights and other issues

Indigenous peoples confront a diverse range of concerns
associated with their status and interaction with other cultural
groups, as well as changes in their inhabited environment. Some
challenges are specific to particular groups; however, other
challenges are commonly experienced.[116] These issues include
cultural and linguistic preservation, land rights, ownership and
exploitation of natural resources, political determination and
autonomy, environmental degradation and incursion, poverty,
The New Zealand delegation, health, and discrimination.
including Māori members, endorses
the United Nations Declaration on The interactions between indigenous and non-indigenous
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples insocieties throughout history and contemporarily have been
2010. complex, ranging from outright conflict and subjugation to some
degree of mutual benefit and cultural transfer. A particular aspect
of anthropological study involves investigation into the
ramifications of what is termed first contact, the study of what occurs when two cultures first
encounter one another. The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or
contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about
primacy and ownership of the land and resources.

Wherever indigenous cultural identity is asserted, common societal issues and concerns arise from
the indigenous status. These concerns are often not unique to indigenous groups. Despite the
diversity of indigenous peoples, it may be noted that they share common problems and issues in
dealing with the prevailing, or invading, society. They are generally concerned that the cultures and
lands of indigenous peoples are being lost and that indigenous peoples suffer both discrimination and
pressure to assimilate into their surrounding societies. This is borne out by the fact that the lands and
cultures of nearly all of the peoples listed at the end of this article are under threat. Notable
exceptions are the Sakha and Komi peoples (two northern indigenous peoples of Russia), who now
control their own autonomous republics within the Russian state, and the Canadian Inuit, who form a
majority of the territory of Nunavut (created in 1999). Despite the control of their territories, many
Sakha people have lost their lands as a result of the Russian Homestead Act, which allows any
Russian citizen to own any land in the Far Eastern region of Russia. In Australia, a landmark case,
Mabo v Queensland (No 2),[117] saw the High Court of Australia reject the idea of terra nullius. This
rejection ended up recognizing that there was a pre-existing system of law practised by the Meriam
people.

A 2009 United Nations publication says:[30]

 Although indigenous peoples are often portrayed as a hindrance to development, their
cultures and traditional knowledge are also increasingly seen as assets. It is argued that it
is important for the human species as a whole to preserve as wide a range of cultural
diversity as possible, and that the protection of indigenous cultures is vital to this
enterprise.

Human rights violations

The Bangladesh Government has stated that there are "no

indigenous peoples in Bangladesh".[118] This has angered the
indigenous peoples of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh,
collectively known as the Jumma.[119] Experts have protested
against this move of the Bangladesh Government and have
questioned the Government's definition of the term "indigenous
peoples".[120][121] This move by the Bangladesh Government is
seen by the indigenous peoples of Bangladesh as another step by Indigenous peoples march for their
the Government to further erode their already limited rights.[122] right to self-determination in Davao
City (2008).
Hindus and Chams have both experienced religious and ethnic
persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current
Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confiscating Cham property and forbidding Cham
from observing their religious beliefs. Hindu temples were turned into tourist sites against the wishes
of the Cham Hindus. In 2010 and 2013 several incidents occurred in Thành Tín and Phươc Nhơn
villages where Cham were murdered by Vietnamese. In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village
stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator, and also raped Cham girls.[123] Cham in the
Mekong Delta have also been economically marginalised, with ethnic Vietnamese settling on land
previously owned by Cham people with state support.[124]

The Indonesian government has outright denied the existence of indigenous peoples within the
countries' borders. In 2012, Indonesia stated that ‘The Government of Indonesia supports the
promotion and protection of indigenous people worldwide ... Indonesia, however, does not recognize
the application of the indigenous peoples concept  ... in the country'.[125] Along with the brutal
treatment of the country's Papuan people (a conservative estimate places the violent deaths at
100,000 people in West New Guinea since Indonesian occupation in 1963, see Papua Conflict) has led
to Survival International condemning Indonesia for treating its indigenous peoples as the worst in the
world.[125]

The Vietnamese viewed and dealt with the indigenous Montagnards from the Central Highlands as
"savages", which caused a Montagnard uprising against the Vietnamese.[126] The Vietnamese were
originally centered around the Red River Delta but engaged in conquest and seized new lands such as
Champa, the Mekong Delta (from Cambodia) and the Central Highlands during Nam Tien. While the
Vietnamese received strong Chinese influence in their culture and civilization and were Sinicized, and
the Cambodians and Laotians were Indianized, the Montagnards in the Central Highlands maintained
their own indigenous culture without adopting external culture and were the true indigenous of the
region. To hinder encroachment on the Central Highlands by Vietnamese nationalists, the term Pays
Montagnard du Sud-Indochinois (PMSI) emerged for the Central Highlands along with the
indigenous being addressed by the name Montagnard.[127] The tremendous scale of Vietnamese Kinh
colonists flooding into the Central Highlands has significantly altered the demographics of the
region.[128] The anti-ethnic minority discriminatory policies by the Vietnamese, environmental
degradation, deprivation of lands from the indigenous people, and settlement of indigenous lands by
an overwhelming number of Vietnamese settlers led to massive protests and demonstrations by the
Central Highland's indigenous ethnic minorities against the Vietnamese in January–February 2001.
This event gave a tremendous blow to the claim often published by the Vietnamese government that
in Vietnam "There has been no ethnic confrontation, no religious war, no ethnic conflict. And no
elimination of one culture by another."[129]

In May 2016, the Fifteenth Session of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
(UNPFII) affirmed that indigenous peoples are distinctive groups protected in international or
national legislation as having a set of specific rights based on their linguistic and historical ties to a
particular territory, prior to later settlement, development, and or occupation of a region.[130] The
session affirms that, since indigenous peoples are vulnerable to exploitation, marginalization,
oppression, forced assimilation, and genocide by nation states formed from colonizing populations or
by different, politically dominant ethnic groups, individuals and communities maintaining ways of life
indigenous to their regions are entitled to special protection.

Health issues

In December 1993, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the International Decade of the
World's Indigenous People, and requested UN specialized agencies to consider with governments and
indigenous people how they can contribute to the success of the Decade of Indigenous People,
commencing in December 1994. As a consequence, the World Health Organization, at its Forty-
seventh World Health Assembly, established a core advisory group of indigenous representatives with
special knowledge of the health needs and resources of their communities, thus beginning a long-term
commitment to the issue of the health of indigenous peoples.[131]

The WHO notes that "Statistical data on the health status of indigenous peoples is scarce. This is
especially notable for indigenous peoples in Africa, Asia and eastern Europe," but snapshots from
various countries (where such statistics are available) show that indigenous people are in worse health
than the general population, in advanced and developing countries alike: higher incidence of diabetes
in some regions of Australia;[132] higher prevalence of poor sanitation and lack of safe water among
Twa households in Rwanda;[133] a greater prevalence of childbirths without prenatal care among
ethnic minorities in Vietnam;[134] suicide rates among Inuit youth in Canada are eleven times higher
than the national average;[135] infant mortality rates are higher for Indigenous peoples
everywhere.[136]

The first UN publication on the State of the World's Indigenous Peoples revealed alarming statistics
about indigenous peoples' health. Health disparities between indigenous and non-indigenous
populations are evident in both developed and developing countries. Native Americans in the United
States are 600 times more likely to acquire tuberculosis and 62% more likely to commit suicide than
the non-Indian population. Tuberculosis, obesity, and type 2 diabetes are major health concerns for
the indigenous in developed countries.[137] Globally, health disparities touch upon nearly every health
issue, including HIV/AIDS, cancer, malaria, cardiovascular disease, malnutrition, parasitic infections,
and respiratory diseases, affecting indigenous peoples at much higher rates. Many causes of
indigenous children's mortality could be prevented. Poorer health conditions amongst indigenous
peoples result from longstanding societal issues, such as extreme poverty and racism, but also the
intentional marginalization and dispossession of indigenous peoples by dominant, non-indigenous
populations and societal structures.[137]
Racism and discrimination

Indigenous peoples have frequently been subjected to various

forms of racism and discrimination. Indigenous peoples have been
denoted primitives, savages[138] or uncivilized. These terms
occurred commonly during the heyday of European colonial
expansion, but still continue in use in certain societies in modern
times.[139]

During the 17th century, Europeans commonly labeled indigenous "Savages of Mokka and Their
peoples as "uncivilized". Some philosophers, such as Thomas House in Formosa", pre-1945,
Hobbes (1588-1679), considered indigenous people to be merely Taiwan under Japanese rule
"savages". Others (especially literary figures in the 18th century)
popularised the concept of "noble savages". Those who were close
to the Hobbesian view tended to believe themselves to have a duty to "civilize" and "modernize" the
indigenous. Although anthropologists, especially from Europe, used to apply these terms to all tribal
cultures, the practice has fallen into disfavor as demeaning and is, according to many anthropologists,
not only inaccurate, but dangerous.

Survival International runs a campaign to stamp out media portrayal of indigenous peoples as
"primitive" or "savages".[140] Friends of Peoples Close to Nature considers not only that indigenous
culture should be respected as not being inferior, but also sees indigenous ways of life as offering
frameworks in sustainability and as a part of the struggle within the "corrupted" western world, from
which the threat stems.[141]

After World War I (1914-1918), many Europeans came to doubt the morality of the means used to
"civilize" peoples. At the same time, the anti-colonial movement, and advocates of indigenous peoples,
argued that words such as "civilized" and "savage" were products and tools of colonialism, and argued
that colonialism itself was savagely destructive. In the mid-20th century, European attitudes began to
shift to the view that indigenous and tribal peoples should have the right to decide for themselves
what should happen to their ancient cultures and ancestral lands.[142]

Cultural appropriation

The cultures of indigenous peoples provides appeal for New Age advocates seeking to find ancient
traditional truths, spiritualities and practices to appropriate into their worldviews.[143]

Environmental injustice

At an international level, indigenous peoples have received increased recognition of their

environmental rights since 2002, but few countries respect these rights in reality. The UN Declaration
on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, established
indigenous peoples' right to self-determination, implying several rights regarding natural resource
management. In countries where these rights are recognized, land titling and demarcation procedures
are often put on delay, or leased out by the state as concessions for extractive industries without
consulting indigenous communities.[137]
Many in the United States federal government are in favor of exploiting
oil reserves in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, where the Gwich'in
indigenous people rely on herds of caribou. Oil drilling could destroy
thousands of years of culture for the Gwich'in. On the other hand, some
of the Inupiat Eskimo, another indigenous community in the region,
favor oil drilling because they could benefit economically.[145]

The introduction of industrial agricultural technologies such as fertilizers,

pesticides, and large plantation schemes have destroyed ecosystems that
indigenous communities formerly depended on, forcing resettlement.
Development projects such as dam construction, pipelines and resource
extraction have displaced large numbers of indigenous peoples, often
without providing compensation. Governments have forced indigenous Helena Gualinga, an
peoples off of their ancestral lands in the name of ecotourism and indigenous environmental
national park development. Indigenous women are especially affected by and human rights
land dispossession because they must walk longer distances for water and activist[144]
fuel wood. These women also become economically dependent on men
when they lose their livelihoods. Indigenous groups asserting their rights
has most often resulted in torture, imprisonment, or death.[137]

The building of dams can hurt indigenous peoples by hurting the ecosystems that provide them water,
food. For example the Munduruku people in the Amazon rainforest are opposing the building of
Tapajós dam[146] with the help of Greenpeace.[147]

Most indigenous populations are already subject to the deleterious effects of climate change. Climate
change has not only environmental, but also human rights and socioeconomic implications for
indigenous communities. The World Bank acknowledges climate change as an obstacle to Millennium
Development Goals, notably the fight against poverty, disease, and child mortality, in addition to
environmental sustainability.[137]

Use of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is considered as very important for issues linked with sustainability.[148][149]
Professor Martin Nakata is a pioneer in the field of bringing indigenous knowledge to mainstream
academics and media through digital documentation of unique contributions by aboriginal
people.[150]

The World Economic Forum supports using indigenous knowledge and giving to the indigenous
peoples ownership of their land for protecting nature.[151]

Knowledge reconstruction

The Western and Eastern Penan are two major groups of indigenous populations in Malaysia. The
Eastern Penan are famous for their resistance to loggers threatening their natural resources,
specifically Sago palms and various fruit bearing trees. Because of the Penan's international fame,
environmentalists often visited the area to document such happenings and learn more about and from
the people there, including their perspective on the land's invasion. Environmentalists such as Davis
and Henley, lacking dialectical connections needed to deeply understand the Penan, additionally
lacked full knowledge of the situation's specific weight to the indigenous peoples.
On a good intent, the two embarked on a mission to propagate conservation of the Penan's land
resources, and mostly likely feeling a deep but inexpressible richness in the people's traditions, Davis
and Henley were among the many who reconstructed indigenous knowledge into fitting a Western
narrative and agenda. For example, Davis and Henley romanticized and misconstrued the traditional
Penan concept of molong, meaning: to preserve. Brosius observed this concept as the Penan marked
trees for personal use and to preserve them for future harvesting of fruits or for materials.[152] Davis
and Henley made inferences beyond the truth of this tradition in their accounts while also lumping all
native groups of Malaysia into one homogenous group with the same ideas and traditions. In other
words, they made no distinction between the Eastern and Western Penan in their descriptions.

Another common occurrence is to extend indigenous knowledge beyond its limits and into spiritually
profound and sacredness. This tendency of journalists extends beyond Davis and Henley. It serves
non-natives to add a narrative and value beyond that which already exists within the knowledge base
of indigenous peoples, while also bridging many various gaps in understanding not understood
otherwise. Not only do these false recounts of indigenous knowledge and traditions skew the beliefs of
onlookers, but they also reconstruct the idea native peoples have of their own traditions by erasing its
original value system and replacing it with a westernized version.[152]

See also
Collective rights
Colonialism
Cultural appropriation
Ethnic minority
Ecotourism
Genocide of indigenous peoples
Human rights
The Image Expedition
Indigenism
Indigenous Futurisms
Indigenous intellectual property
Indigenous Peoples Climate Change Assessment Initiative
Indigenous rights
Intangible cultural heritage
International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples
Canadian National Indigenous Peoples Day
U.S. Indigenous Peoples' Day
Isuma
List of active NGOs of national minorities
List of ethnic groups
List of indigenous peoples
Missing and murdered Indigenous women
Uncontacted peoples
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
Virgin soil epidemic
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Further reading
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (2003). "Report of the African Commission's
Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20070926115913/http://www.achpr.org/english/Special%20Mechanisms/Indegenous/ACHPR%20
Report%20ENG.pdf) (PDF). ACHPR & IWGIA. Archived from the original (http://www.achpr.org/en
glish/Special%20Mechanisms/Indegenous/ACHPR%20Report%20ENG.pdf) (PDF) on 26
September 2007.
Baviskar, Amita (2007). "Indian Indigeneitites: Adivasi Engagements with Hindu NAtionalism in India".
In Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn (ed.). Indigenous Experience today. Oxford, UK: Berg
Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84520-519-5.
Bodley, John H. (2008). Victims of Progress (5th. ed.). Plymouth, England: AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-
0-7591-1148-6.
de la Cadena, Marisol; Orin Starn, eds. (2007). Indigenous Experience Today. Oxford: Berg
Publishers, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. ISBN 978-1-84520-519-5.
Clifford, James (2007). "Varieties of Indigenous Experience: Diasporas, Homelands, Sovereignties".
In Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn (ed.). Indigenous Experience today. Oxford, UK: Berg
Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84520-519-5.
Coates, Ken S. (2004). A Global History of Indigenous Peoples: Struggle and Survival. New York:
Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-333-92150-0.
Farah, Paolo D.; Tremolada Riccardo (2014). "Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and
Intangible Cultural Heritage". Rivista di Diritto Industriale (2, part I): 21–47. ISSN 0035-614X (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-614X). SSRN 2472388 (https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472388).
Farah, Paolo D.; Tremolada Riccardo (2014). "Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural
Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs". Transnational Dispute Management. 11 (2). ISSN 1875-
 4120 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1875-4120). SSRN 2472339 (https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472
339).
Groh, Arnold A. (2018). Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-3-
319-72774-5.
Gerharz, Eva; Nasir Uddin; Pradeep Chakkarath, eds. (2017). Indigeneity on the move: Varying
manifestations of a contested concept. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78533-723-9.
Henriksen, John B. (2001). "Implementation of the Right of Self-Determination of Indigenous Peoples"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100602192104/http://www.iwgia.org/graphics/Synkron-Library/Doc
uments/publications/Downloadpublications/IndigenousAffairs/selfdetermination.pdf) (PDF).
Indigenous Affairs. Vol. 3/2001 (PDF ed.). Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous
Affairs. pp. 6–21. ISSN 1024-3283 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1024-3283). OCLC 30685615 (h
ttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/30685615). Archived from the original (http://www.iwgia.org/graphics/
Synkron-Library/Documents/publications/Downloadpublications/IndigenousAffairs/selfdeterminatio
n.pdf) (PDF) on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 1 September 2007.
Hughes, Lotte (2003). The no-nonsense guide to indigenous peoples (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=VFRft8e1vtgC). Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-438-0.
Howard, Bradley Reed (2003). Indigenous Peoples and the State: The struggle for Native Rights.
DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-87580-290-9.
Johansen. Bruce E. (2003). Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Issues: An Encyclopedia (https://
archive.org/details/indigenouspeople0000joha). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
ISBN 978-0-313-32398-0.
Martinez Cobo, J. (198). "United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations" (http://social.un.
org/index/IndigenousPeoples/Library/Mart%C3%ADnezCoboStudy.aspx). Study of the Problem of
Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations. UN Commission on Human Rights.
Maybury-Lewis, David (1997). Indigenous Peoples, Ethnic Groups and the State. Needham Heights,
Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 978-0-205-19816-0.
Merlan, Francesca (2007). "Indigeneity as Relational Identity: The Construction of Australian Land
Rights". In Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn (ed.). Indigenous Experience today. Oxford, UK:
Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84520-519-5.
Pratt, Mary Louise (2007). "Afterword: Indigeneity Today". In Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn (ed.).
Indigenous Experience today. Oxford, UK: Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84520-519-5.
Tsing, Anna (2007). "Indigenous Voice". In Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn (ed.). Indigenous
Experience today. Oxford, UK: Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84520-519-5.

External links
Awareness raising film by Rebecca Sommer for the Secretariat of the UNPFII (https://web.archive.
org/web/20120305050618/http://social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/NewsandMedia/Video.as
px) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130727044905/http://web.archive/) 27 July 2013 at
the Wayback Machine
"First Peoples" from PBS (https://www.pbs.org/show/first-peoples/)
"The Indigenous World" from International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (https://www.iwgia.or
g/en/resources/indigenous-world.html)
"Oaxaca: A Land of Amazing Diversity" by John P. Shmal

Institutions
 IFAD and indigenous peoples (International Fund for Agricultural Development, IFAD) (https://ww
w.ifad.org/en/indigenous-peoples)
IPS Inter Press Service (https://web.archive.org/web/20060810100556/http://ipsnews.net/new_foc
us/indigenous_peoples/index.asp) News on indigenous peoples from around the world

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