Rectangular Waveguides

H VINOD KUMAR
Assistant Professor
TCE DSCE
Waveguides
Introduction

At frequencies higher than 3 GHz, transmission

of electromagnetic energy along the
transmission lines and cables becomes difficult.

This is due to the losses that occur both in the

solid dielectric needed to support the conductor
and in the conductors themselves.

A metallic tube can be used to transmit

electromagnetic wave at the above frequencies
 Definition

A Hollow metallic tube of uniform

cross section for transmitting
electromagnetic waves by
successive reflections from the
inner walls of the tube is called
waveguide.
 Basic features
Waveguides may be used to carry energy between pieces of
equipment or over longer distances to carry transmitter power
to an antenna or microwave signals from an antenna to a
receiver

Waveguides are made from copper, aluminum or brass.

These metals are extruded into long rectangular or circular
pipes.

An electromagnetic energy to be carried by a waveguide is

injected into one end of the waveguide.

The electric and magnetic fields associated with the signal

bounce off the inside walls back and forth as it progresses
down the waveguide.
EM field configuration within the
waveguide

In order to determine the EM field configuration

within the waveguide, Maxwell’s equations should
be solved subject to appropriate boundary
conditions at the walls of the guide.

Such solutions give rise to a number of field

configurations. Each configuration is known as a
mode. The following are the different modes
possible in a waveguide system
Components of Electric and
Magnetic Field Intensities in an EM
wave
 Possible Types of modes

1. Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM) wave:

Here both electric and magnetic fields are directed
components. (i.e.) E z = 0 and Hz = 0
2. Transverse Electric (TE) wave: Here only the electric field is purely
transverse to the direction of propagation and the magnetic field is not
purely transverse. (i.e.) E z = 0, Hz ≠ 0
 Possible Types of modes

3. Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave: Here only magnetic field is

transverse to the direction of propagation and the electric field is
not purely transverse. (i.e.) E z ≠ 0, Hz = 0.

4. Hybrid (HE) wave: Here neither electric nor

magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of propagation.
(i.e.) E z ≠ 0, Hz ≠ 0.
Rectangular Waveguides

Any shape of cross section of a

waveguide can support electromagnetic
waves of which rectangular and circular
waveguides have become more common.

A waveguide having rectangular cross

section is known as Rectangular
waveguide
 Rectangular waveguide

Dimensions of the waveguide which

determines the operating frequency range
 Dimensions of the waveguide which determines
the operating frequency range:

1. The size of the waveguide determines its

operating frequency range.
2. The frequency of operation is determined by the
dimension ‘a’.
3. This dimension is usually made equal to one –
half the wavelength at the lowest frequency of
operation, this frequency is known as the
waveguide cutoff frequency.
4. At the cutoff frequency and below, the waveguide
will
not transmit energy. At frequencies above the
cutoff
frequency, the waveguide will propagate energy.
Wave paths in a waveguide at various
frequencies

(a) At high
frequenc
y
(b) At medium
frequency

( c ) At low
frequency

(d) At cutoff
frequency
Wave propagation

When a probe launches energy into the

waveguide, the electromagnetic fields bounce
off the side walls of the waveguide as shown in
the above diagram.

The angles of incidence and reflection depend

upon the operating frequency. At high
frequencies, the angles are large and
therefore, the path between the opposite walls
is relatively long as shown in Fig.
At lower frequency, the angles decrease and the path between the sides
shortens.

When the operating frequency is reaches the cutoff frequency of the

waveguide, the signal simply bounces back and forth directly between the
side walls of the waveguide and has no forward motion.

At cut off frequency and below, no energy will propagate.

 Cut off frequency

The exact size of the wave guide is selected

based on the desired operating frequency.
The size of the waveguide is chosen so that
its rectangular width is greater than one –
half the wavelength but less than the one
wavelength at the operating frequency.
This gives a cutoff frequency that is below
the operating frequency, thereby ensuring
that the signal will be propagated down the
line.
 E&TCE, DSCE

PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

WAVEGUIDES

■ EM waves propagate through multiple reflections inside the waveguide. Thus

there can be a number of distinct field configurations or “modes” existing
inside the waveguide.
■ Only TE and TM waves can propagate inside the waveguide.
■ TEM waves cannot propagate inside the waveguide.
■ Wavelength inside the waveguide called the guide wavelength, λg will always
be greater than free space wavelength, λ0
■ Physical velocity inside the waveguide will be less than ‘c’.
■ Waves propagating through the waveguide have wave impedance called
“characteristic wave impedance.”
■ If one end of the waveguide is closed using shorting plate, there will be
complete reflection of waves resulting in standing waves. If the other end is
also closed, then it results in a hollow space where the waves resonate, and
the waveguide is called as “cavity resonator”.
■ Since there is no wave propagation in the waveguide below the cut-off
frequency fc, waveguide can be regarded as a HPF.

17
 Representation of modes

The general symbol of representation will be TE m,

n
or TM m, n where the subscript m indicates the
number of half wave variations of the electric field
intensity along the b ( wide) dimension of the
waveguide.
The second subscript n indicates the number of
half wave variations of the electric field in the a
(narrow) dimension of the guide.
The TE 1, 0 mode has the longest operating
wavelength and is designated as the dominant
mode. It is the mode for the lowest frequency that
can be propagated in a waveguide.
Waveguide components

Rectangular waveguide Waveguide to coax adapter

Waveguide bends E-tee

More waveguides
Uses

■ To reduce attenuation loss

⚪ High frequencies
⚪ High power
■ Can operate only above certain
frequencies
⚪ Acts as a High-pass filter
■ Normally circular or rectangular
⚪ We will assume lossless rectangular
 Rectangular WG
■ Need to find the fields
components of the
em wave inside the
waveguide
⚪ E z Hz Ex Hx Ey Hy
■ We’ll find that
waveguides don’t
support TEM waves
 Rectangular Waveguides:
Fields inside
Using phasors & assuming waveguide
filled with
■ lossless dielectric material and

■ walls of perfect conductor,

the wave inside should obey…

 Waveguide Field Equations

Beginning with Maxwell’s equations, develop the time

harmonic field equations for rectangular waveguide. For
simplicity, consider the guide filled with lossless, charge free
media and the walls to be perfect conductors.
Waveguide Field Equations (Cont’d..)

For conventional rectangular waveguide, the field components

in Cartesian coordinates are:

Inserting these equations into previous Maxwell’s equation..

Waveguide Field Equations (Cont’d..)

From previous divergence equations,

Waveguide Field Equations (Cont’d..)

From the first expanded Maxwell’s equations,

Waveguide Field Equations (Cont’d..)

Then, consider the fields only propagate in the z direction, in

harmonic fields:

The partial derivative with respect to z is:

Substitute these into the expanded Maxwell’s equations

Waveguide Field Equations (Cont’d..)

Those equations can be reduced to:

Other components
From Faraday and Ampere Laws we can find the
remaining four components:

*So once we know

Ez and Hz, we can
find all the other
fields.
Then applying on the z-component…
Fields inside the waveguide
Substituting
Modes of propagation
From these equations we can conclude:
■ TEM (E =H =0) can’t propagate.
z z

■ TE (Ez=0) transverse electric

⚪ In TE mode, the electric lines of flux are
perpendicular to the axis of the waveguide

■ TM (Hz=0) transverse magnetic, Ez exists

⚪ In TM mode, the magnetic lines of flux are
perpendicular to the axis of the waveguide.

■ HE hybrid modes in which all components

exists
 TM Mode

■ Boundary
conditions:
From these, we conclude:
X(x) is in the form of sin kxx,
where kx=mπ/a, m=1,2,3,…
Y(y) is in the form of sin kyy,
where ky=nπ/b, n=1,2,3,…
So the solution for Ez(x,y,z) is
TM Mode
■ Substituting
TMmn
■ Other components are
TM modes
■ The m and n represent the mode of propagation
and indicates the number of variations of the
field in the x and y directions
■ Note that for the TM mode, if n or m is zero, all
fields are zero.
 TM Cutoff

■ The cutoff frequency occurs when

■ Evanescent (attenuation mode):

⚪ Means no propagation, everything is attenuated

■ Propagation:

⚪ This is the case we are interested since is when the wave is allowed to
travel through the guide.
 attenuation Propagation

Cutoff of mode mn

fc,mn

■ The cutoff frequency is the frequency below

which attenuation occurs and above which
propagation takes place. (High Pass)

■ The phase constant becomes

Phase velocity and impedance
■ The phase velocity is defined as

■ And the intrinsic impedance of the mode

is
 Summary of TM modes
Wave in the dielectric Inside the waveguide
medium
TM11 field lines

End view

Side view

43
 Related example of how fields look:
Parallel plate waveguide - TM modes

Ez
m=1
0 a x

m=2

m=3
z a x
 TE Mode

■ Boundary
conditions:
From these, we conclude:
X(x) is in the form of cos kxx,
where kx=mπ/a, m=0,1,2,3,…
Y(y) is in the form of cos kyy,
where ky=nπ/b, n=0,1,2,3,…
So the solution for Ez(x,y,z) is
TE Mode
■ Substituting

■ Note that n and m cannot be both zero

because the fields will all be zero.
TEmn
■ Other components are
 attenuation Propagation

Cutoff of mode mn

fc,mn

■ The cutoff frequency is the same

expression as for the TM mode

■ But the lowest attainable frequencies are

lowest because here n or m can be zero.
Dominant Mode

■ The dominant mode is the mode with

lowest cutoff frequency.
■ It’s always TE10
■ The order of the next modes change
depending on the dimensions of the
guide.
 Summary of TE modes
Wave in the dielectric Inside the waveguide
medium
TE10 field lines

End view

Side view

Top view

51
Variation of wave impedance

■ Wave impedance varies with

frequency and mode
η
ηTE

η’
ηTM

0 fc,mn
Example:
Consider a length of air-filled copper X-band
waveguide, with dimensions a=2.286cm,
b=1.016cm operating at 10GHz. Find the
cutoff frequencies of all possible propagating
modes.
Solution:
■ From the formula for the cut-off frequency
Example
An air-filled 5-by 2-cm waveguide has

at 15GHz
■ What mode is being propagated?
■ Find β
■ Determine E /E
y x
 Group velocity, ug
■ Is the velocity at which
the energy travels.

■ It is always less than u’

 Group Velocity

■ As frequency is increased,
the group velocity increases.
 Power transmission
■ The average Poynting vector for the waveguide
fields is

[W/m2]

■ where η = ηTE or ηTM depending on the mode

[W]
Attenuation in Lossy
waveguide
■ When dielectric inside guide is lossy, and walls
are not perfect conductors, power is lost as it
travels along guide.

■ The loss power is

■ Where α=αc+αd are the attenuation due to ohmic

(conduction) and dielectric losses
■ Usually αc >> αd
Attenuation for TE10
■ Dielectric attenuation, Np/m Dielectric
conductivity!

■ Conductor attenuation, Np/m

Waveguide Cavities
■ Cavities, or resonators, are
used for storing energy
■ Used in klystron tubes,
band-pass filters and
frequency meters
■ It’s equivalent to a RLC
circuit at high frequency
■ Their shape is that of a
cavity, either cylindrical or
cubical.
Cavity TM Mode to z
 TMmnp Boundary Conditions

From these, we conclude:

kx=mπ/a
ky=nπ/b
kz=pπ/c
where c is the dimension in z-axis

c
Resonant frequency

■ The resonant frequency is the same

for TM or TE modes, except that the
lowest-order TM is TM111 and the
lowest-order in TE is TE101.
Cavity TE Mode to z
 TEmnp Boundary Conditions

From these, we conclude:

kx=mπ/a
ky=nπ/b
kz=pπ/c
where c is the dimension in z-axis

c
Quality Factor, Q

■ The cavity has walls with finite

conductivity and is therefore losing
stored energy.
■ The quality factor, Q, characterized the
loss and also the bandwidth of the
cavity resonator.
■ Dielectric cavities are used for
resonators, amplifiers and oscillators at
microwave frequencies.
A dielectric resonator antenna
with a cap for measuring the
radiation efficiency
Quality Factor, Q
■ Is defined as
 Example
For a cavity of dimensions; 3cm x 2cm x 7cm filled with
air and made of copper (σc=5.8 x 107)
■ Find the resonant frequency and the quality factor
for the dominant mode.
Answer:
 Problem

The dimensions of the waveguide are 2.5 cm × 1 cm.

The frequency is 8.6 GHz. Find (i) possible modes
and (ii) cut – off frequency for TE waves.
Solution:

Given a = 2.5 cm , b = 1 cm and f = 8.6 GHz

Free space wavelength
 Solution

The condition for the wave to propagate is

that λC > λ0
For TE01 mode

Since λC < λ0, TE01 does not propagate

 For TE10 mode, λC = 2a = 2 × 2.5 = 5 cm
Since λC > λ0 , TE10 mode is a possible mode.
Cut – off frequency
=
Cut-off =
wavelength
for TE11 mode

For TE11 λC < λ0 , TE11 is not possible.

The possible mode is TE10 mode.
The cut – off frequency = 6 GHz
 Example

For the dominant mode propagated in an air filled

circular waveguide, the cut – off wavelength is 10 cm.
Find (i) the required size or cross sectional area of the
guide and (ii) the frequencies that can be used for this
mode of propagation
The cut – off wavelength = λC = 10 cm

The radius of the circular waveguide ,

r =
Solution
■ Area of cross section =

The cut – off frequency

= = 3 GHz

Therefore the frequency above 3 GHz can be

propagated through the waveguide.

Area of cross section = 26.97 cm2

Cut – off frequency = 3 GHz
 Problem
A rectangular waveguide has a = 4 cm and b =
3 cm as its sectional dimensions. Find all the
modes which will propagate at 5000 MHz.

Hint:

The condition for the wave to propagate is that λC > λ0

Here λ0 = 6 cm ; λC for TE01 mode = 6 cm
Hence λC is not greater than free space wavelength λ0 .
TE01 mode is not possible.
 Problem

For the dominant mode of operation is an air

filled circular waveguide of inner diameter 4
cm. Find (i) cut – off wavelength and (ii) cut –
off frequency.

Hint: λC = 6.8148 cm and fc = 4.395 GHz

Microwave Hybrid Circuits
Microwave circuits consists of several
microwave devices connected in some way to
achieve the desired transmission of a
microwave signal
The interconnection of two or more microwave
devices may be regarded as a microwave
junction.
Waveguide Tees as the E-plane tee, H-plane
tee, Magic tee, hybrid ring tee(rat-race circuit),
directional coupler and the circulator
Hybrid components
Hybrid components
Hybrid components
 Two port device

H,Y,Z and ABCD parameters

Device parameters
Device parameters….
All these network parameters relate total
voltages and total currents at each of the two
ports. For eg,

If the frequencies are in the microwave range,

however………………..
Statements
…….. The H,Y and Z parameters cannot be
measured for the following reasons:
1. Equipment is not readily available to
measure total voltage and total current at the
ports of the network.
2. Short and Open circuits are difficult to
achieve over a broad band of frequencies.
3. Active devices, such as power transistors
and tunnel diodes, frequently will not have
stability for a short or open circuit.
Statements
New method of characterization is needed
The logical variables to use at the microwave
frequencies are travelling waves rather than
total voltages and total currents.
These are the S parameters,
S parameters of a two port network
Waveguide Tee
1. H-plane Tee
2. E-plane Tee
3. Magic Tee
4. Hybrid Rings
5. Corners
6. Bends
7. Twists
Tee Junction
A waveguide or coaxial-line junction with three
independent ports
Matrix of third order, containing nine elements,
six of which should be independent.
The characteristics of a three port junction can
be explained by three theorems of the tee
junction.
These theorems are derived from the
equivalent-circuit representation of the tee
junction
Statements
1. A short circuit may always be placed in one
of the arms of a three-port junction in such a
way that no power can be transferred
through the other two arms.
2. If the junction is symmetric about one of its
arms, a short circuit can always be placed in
that arm so that no reflections occur in
power transmission between the other two
arms. (i.e the arms present matched
impedances.)
Statements
3. It is impossible for a general three-port
junction of arbitrary symmetry to present
matched impedances at all three arms.
E-plane Tee
Series Tee
A waveguide tee in which the axis of its side
arm is parallel to the E-field of the main guide.
E-plane Tee..
If the collinear arms are symmetric about the
side arm, there are two different transmission
characteristics

Two way
Transmission of
E-plane tee
a) i/p-main arm
b) i/p-side arm
E-plane Tee..
If E-plane tee is perfectly matched with the aid
of screw tuners or inductive or capacitive
windows at the junction, the diagonal
components of the S-matrix, S11, S22 and S33
are zero because there will be no reflection.
When the waves are fed into the side arm (port
3), the waves appearing at port1 and port2 of
the collinear arm will be in the opposite phase
and in the same magnitude. Therefore,

S13 = -S23 (both have opposite signs)

 E-plane Tee..
For a matched junction, the S matrix is given by

Symmetry property
S12 = S21, S13 = S31 and S23 = S32
Zero property,
The sum of (each term of any column (row)
multiplied by the complex conjugate of the
corresponding terms of any column(row) is
zero. )
E-plane Tee..
S11S12* + S21S22* + S31S32* = 0

Hence,
S13S23* = 0
i.e S13 = 0 or S23 = 0 or both = 0
E-plane Tee..
Unity property,
The sum of the products of each term of any
one row (column) multiplied by its complex
conjugate is unity

S21S21* + S31S31* = 1 I
S12S12* + S32S32* = 1 II
S13S13* + S23S23* = 1 III

Subst zero property in unitary property

E-plane Tee..

IV

Eq III and IV are contradictory

If S13 = 0 then S23 = 0 and thus eqn III is false.

Similarly, if S23 = 0, then S13 = 0 and hence

eq IV is also not true.
This inconsistency proves the statement that
the tee junction cannot be matched to the three
arms.Diagonal elements are not all zero
E-plane Tee…
When an E-plane is constructed of an empty
waveguide, it is poorly matched at the tee
junction.

Hence
However since the collinear arm is usually
symmetric about the side arm,

Thus,
H-Plane Tee
Shunt tee
A waveguide tee in which the axis of its side
arm is “shunting” the E-field or parallel to the
H-field of the main guide.
H-Plane Tee…
If two input waves are fed into port 1 and port 2
of the collinear arm, the output wave at port 3
will be in phase and additive.
If the input is fed into port 3, the wave will split
equally into port 1 and port 2 in phase and in
the same magnitude.
Therefore the S matrix of H-plane tee is similar
to E-plane tee except

S13 = S23
Magic Tees (Hybrid Tees)
Combination of E-plane tee and H-plane tee.
Characteristics
1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the
same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2,
the output will be zero at port 3 and additive
at port 4
2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (H arm), it will be
divided equally between port 1 and port 2 of
the collinear arms and will not appear at port
3 (E arm).
3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (E arm), it will
produce an output of equal magnitude and
opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. Output
at port 4 is zero i.e S43 = S34 = 0.
Characteristics..
4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms
at port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in the other
collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E
arm causes a phase delay while the H arm
causes the phase advance. i.e S12 = S21 = 0.

S matrix of magic tee is

Application
Mixing
Duplexing
Impedance measurements.
Radar transmitters
Application
Hybrid Rings (Rat-Race Circuits)
Annular line of proper electrical length to
sustain standing waves, to which four arms are
connected at proper intervals by means of
series or parallel junctions.

Hybrid ring
With series
junctions
Hybrid Rings (Rat-Race Circuits)
Characteristics similar to hybrid tee.
When a wave is fed into port 1, it will not
appear at port 3 because the difference of
phase shifts for the waves travelling in the
clockwise and anticlockwise directions is 180.

Thus the waves are cancelled at port 3.

Similarly the waves fed into port 2 will not

emerge at port 4 and so on.
Hybrid Rings (Rat-Race Circuits)
S matrix for an ideal hybrid ring

Phase cancellation occurs only at designated

frequency for an ideal hybrid ring.
In actual hybrid rings there are small leakage
couplings, and hence the zero elements in the
matrix above are not quite equal to zero.
Waveguide Corners, Bends, and Twists

E plane Corner

H-plane corner
Bends, and Twists

Bend

Continuous twist
Bends, and Twists..
These waveguide components are normally
used to change the direction of the guide
through an arbitrary angle.
In order to minimize reflections from the
discontinuities, it is desirable to have the mean
length L between continuities equal to an odd
number of quarter wavelengths.
i.e
Bends, and Twists..
If the mean length L is an odd number of
quarter wavelengths, the reflected waves from
both ends of the waveguide section are
completely cancelled.
For the waveguide bend, the minimum radius of
curvature for a small reflection is given by
Southworth as

Where a and b are the dimensions of the bend.

Power Dividers and
Directional Couplers
Divider or
Divider or coupler
coupler
Power
Power
combining
division

115
Directional Couplers
Coupling factor and directivity
Different Types of Directional couplers
 Four-Port Network (Directional Couplers)
Assume all ports are
matched

146
147
 Inpu 1 2
Through
t
or
Isolate direct
Couple
d 4 3
d
Directional
Coupler

148
149
Directional Couplers
4
P 3 Pf
b

P P
i 1 2 t

150
151
152
 Directional Couplers
Two-hole Waveguide
b Couplers
Port P Port P
b 3 K
K
4 f
4 0 f f
-βL
aK a1 b3
1
b
-2
βL Kf -βL
a1
a1
L b
Port a1 0 a1 -βL Port
2
1
P 2
P
i
t

Kf and are the

Kr forward
and reverse aperture coupling
coeffiecients
153
154