Fundamentals of Human Geography
Fundamentals of Human Geography
Fundamentals of Human Geography
Geography:
Geography can be defined as the social science that focuses on the spatial distribution of human
and physical phenomenon. It consists of two branches: Human Geography: It is the branch of the
geography that studies patterns and processes that shape the human body.
Physical Geography: It is the branch of the geography that deals with the physical characteristics of
the earth and also studies the characteristics on the earth’s surface and beneath the surface.
Geography as a discipline is concerned with three sets of questions:
(i) Some questions are related to the identification of the patterns of natural and cultural
features as found over the surface of the earth. These are the questions about what?
(ii) (Some questions are related to the distribution of the natural and human/ cultural
features over the surface of the earth. These are the questions about where?
(iii) The third question is related to the explanation or the causal relationships between
features and the processes and phenomena. This aspect of geography is related to the
question, why?
Geography is considered as the bridge between Natural and Social Science:
Geography and Natural Science
Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and
understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical
evidence from observation and experimentation. All the branches of physical geography have
interface with natural sciences. The traditional physical geography is linked with geology,
meteorology, hydrology and pedology, and thus, geomorphology, climatology, oceanography and
soil geography respectively have very close link with the natural sciences as these derive their data
from these sciences. Bio-Geography is closely related to botany, zoology as well as ecology as
human beings are located in different locational niche. A geographer should have some proficiency
in mathematics and art, particularly in drawing maps. Geography is very much linked with the
study of astronomical locations and deals with latitudes and longitudes. The cartographic and
quantitative techniques require sufficient proficiency in mathematics, statistics and econometrics.
Geography and Social Science
Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and
the relationships among individuals within those societies. Each social science has interface with
one branch of geography. All the social science disciplines, viz. sociology, political science,
economics and demography study different aspects of social reality. The branches of geography,
viz. social, political, economic and population and settlements are closely linked with these
disciplines as each one of them has spatial attributes. The core concern of political science is
territory, people and sovereignty while political geography is also interested in the study of the
state as a spatial unit as well as people and their political behaviour. Economics deals with basic
attributes of the economy such as production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each of
these attributes also has spatial aspects and here comes the role of economic geography to study
the spatial aspects of production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Likewise, population
geography is closely linked with the discipline of demography.
Conclusion : Geography contains the subject matters of both natural sciences and social sciences.
The knowledge obtained from natural science aspect of Geography is used in the social science
1
whereas the knowledge obtained from social science aspect is used to predict the natural science
scope of geography. For eg: It is well known that people in hot regions tend to have dark skins and
culture of doing less work. Hot regions falls under the scope of natural science and dark skins and
culture of doing less work falls under social science. Some times the nature of the places can be
predicted with the help of these characteristics like dark skins and doing less works. In the
conclusion, geography is the subject bridge of natural science and social science.
Geography is divided into two branches
1. Human Geography
2. Physical Geography
1. Human Geography:
It is a branch of the geography which studies patterns and processes that shape the human society.
Sub-branches of human geography:
Sub-branches Definition
1. Economic Geography It studies the manner in which different products and services are
distributed in the various markets and also studies about the
distribution of wealth across the planet.
3. Political Geography In studies the political aspects of humans and involves boundaries of
the countries.
4. Religious Geography It studies the spread and distribution of religious groups, their
culture.
5. Medical Geography It studies the patterns and spread of epidemic and pandemics.
2. Physical Geography
It studies the physical characteristics of the earth and also studies the characteristics on the earth's
surface but also beneath the earth. It deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural
environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and geosphere.
Sub-branches of Physical Geography:
Sub-Branches Definition
1. Biogeography Study of animals and plants and their distribution and patterns on
the earth's surface.
2
2. Water-Resource Study of water resources and how the various water resources are
Geography managed and distributed across the physical earth.
3. Climate Geography Study of the weather patterns and how these weather affect the
climate
4. Geomorphology Study of the land and the processes that different land formations
go through
4
It studies the various elements of earth system liker air and their distributions.
2. Biogeography including environmental geography
It focuses on various kinds of forests, grasslands, distribution of flora and fauna, human nature
relationships, quality of living environment and its implications for human welfare.
3. Human Geography
It describe the human population, culture, dynamic social and political aspects.
4. Geographical methods and techniques
It is concerned with methods and techniques for field studies, qualitative, quantitative and
cartographic analysis.
b. Regional Approach
It is also known as ideographical approach. It was developed by Carl Ritter. Region could be
classified based on a single factor like relief, vegetation. Administrative units like states, districts
and taluks can be treated as region. The main sub-branches of regional geography are given below:
1. Regional studies
2. Regional Analysis
3. Regional development
4. Regional planning
Uniqueness and Interdependence of a place
Factors Affecting the Uniqueness of a Place
Factors Description
2. Land Topography It is shape and feature of land surfaces. A place can be located at hill
or mountains or terai.
3. Physical Geography It include landforms, soil and climate. For eg: Australia is located on
island and Mumbai is located on Coastal area.
5
7. Demographic It includes age structure, ethnicity
4. Ideas Urban planners, architects, business and artists bring ideas to shape
and change a place.
6. Distance Decay The farther away one group is from another the less likely the two
groups are to interact.
● Both subject focuses on building theories about spatial arrangement and distribution of
economic activities.
● Both subject examines the economic conditions of particular regions or countries of the world.
It deals with economic regionalization as well as local economic development.
● Both subject examines the history and development of spatial economic structure. Using
historical data, it
● Both subject examines how centers of population and economic activity shift, what patterns of
regional specialization and localization evolve over time and what factors explain these
changes.
● Bothe subject examines the cognitive processes underlying spatial reasoning, locational
decision making, and behavior of firms and individuals
2. Politics and Human Geography
Both subject focuses on the matters like:
● How and why states are organized into regional groupings, both formally (e.g. the European
Union) and informally (e.g. the Third World)
● The relationship between states and former colonies, and how these are propagated over time,
for example through neo-colonialism
● The relationship between a government and its people
● The relationships between states including international trades and treaties
● The functions, demarcations and policing of boundaries
● How imagined geographies have political implications
● The influence of political power on geographical space
● The political implications of modern media (e.g. radio, TV, ICT, Internet, social networks)
● The study of election results (electoral geography)
6
3. Population Studies and Human Geography
Both the subject focuses on the subject matters:
● Demographic phenomena (natality, mortality, growth rates, etc.) through both space and time
● Increases or decreases in population numbers
● The movements and mobility of populations
● Occupational structure
● The way in which places in turn react to population phenomena, e.g. immigration
5. Sociology and Human Geography
Both the subject studies the social theory which deals with the social phenomenon and its spatial
components, deals with the spatial interaction among groups and culture, tradition and language
of a particular society.
Human and the Environment:
Deterministic view:
It is the belief that the environment i.e. physical factors such as landforms and climate determines
the patterns of human culture and social development. Environmental determinists believe that
ecological, climate and geographical factors are responsible for human cultures and individual
decisions. Aristotle and Plato explained the environmental determinism by using climate factors.
The rise of most prominent stage of environmental determinsim in modern geography in the
beginning of the late 19th century when it was revived by Ratzel. It regarded men as a passive
agents who were not free and adapted according to the nature. Humans are naturalized according
to this theory. Example; Ibn Khaldun, an Arab Sociologists explained that the hot climate of Sub-
Saharan Africa caused dark human skin.
Conclusion: Human relationship with Nature in Deterministic view can be concluded in the
following ways:
Possibilism Approach
It began from 1920. It states that the environment sets limitations for cultural development but it
does not wholly define culture. Culture is defined by opportunities and decisions that humans
make in response to deal with such limitations. French Geographer Vidal de la Blache developed
this theory as a reaction to environmental determinism. According to this theory, nature got
humanized. Technology, capital and efficient organizational skills widens limits of the human and
expands range. It regarded environment as the medium by which man is presented with
opportunities. Man’s choice and effort has realized these opportunities. So behaviour is hardly
determined by the environment.
Conclusion: Human relationship with nature in Possibilistic view can be concluded in the
following ways:
7
a. Nature gave opportunities and human used that opportunities with their skills, technology
and knowledge.
b. Humans are active and nature is passive.
c. Nature is humanized.
3. Neo-Determinism
It was put forward by Griffith Taylor. He argued that possibilists had developed their ideas in
temperate environment such as North-Western Europe which had offer several viable alternative
forms of human occupance but such environments are rare in the most of the world and the
environment is much more extreme. This theory shows neither there is a situation of absolute
necessity nor is there a condition of absolute freedom. It states that possibilities can be created
within the limits which do not damage the environment. It attempts to bring a balance nullifying
the "either" "or" dichotomy.
Fundamental Concepts of Human Geography
1. Location
It is defined as the particular place or position. It is an important term in geography. Most of the
geographic starts with the study of location. Location is of two types:
a. Absolute Location
It provides a definite reference to locate a place. The reference can be latitude or longitude.
b. Relative Location
It describes a place with respect to its environment and its connection to the other place.
2. Place
It refers to the physical and human aspects of the location. It is associated with toponym, site and
situation of the place. Each place in the world has its own characteristics. Place usually have :
a. Human Characteristics
It includes the human designed cultural features of a place like livelihood, political system,
transportation.
b. Physical Characteristics
It includes the description of the things such as mountain, rivers, beaches, etc
3. Accessibility
It is defined as the ability to reach a place with respect to another place. It refers to the ease of
reaching destinations. It determines equal access and opportunity. It determines equal access and
opportunity. The main component of accessibility in geography is location and distance.
4. Spatial Interaction
It involves the wide range of flows between nodes which includes human movement and
movement of goods. These flows are important aspects of urban and regional dynamics. It is
explained based on analogy with Newton's model of the Gravitational Attraction between body.
Methods used in Human Geography:
8
1. Technique of Explanation
• Deduction- It is based on the principle of “From general to particular”. In this method, a tentative
and general statement (or hypothesis) is made and study is done around this statement and the
characteristics of the particular place, people and its interaction between them are developed on
the basis of this findings.
• Descriptive technique – In this method, there is simply the description of place, people and the
interaction.
• Inferential technique- It is used to that how far samples represent whole and how far hypothesis
fit reality. Figure;
2. Spatial Analysis
It is a type of geographical analysis which seeks to explain patterns of human behavior and its
spatial expression in terms of mathematic and geometry. It is also called area analysis and
locational analysis. It includes looking at human trends in specific place. It explains how and why
settlement and economic activates distribution as they are. Spatial analysis uses concepts of
location, distance, space, accessibility and interaction
1. Location
It is the place where particular point or object exists. It is considered more precise than
place. Location is divided into two types:
Absolute Location: It is the exact place on the Earth.
Relative Location: It is the description of place in relative terms.
1. Place
It describes the physical and human characteristics of the location. Physical characteristics
include description of mountains, rivers, beaches, etc. Human characteristics includes the
human designed cultural features of a place which is land use, folk ways, livelihood.
1. Site and Situation
Site: It is the physical characteristics of a location .i.e. soil, vegetation, climate, water
resources.
Situation: It is the location of a place relative to characteristics that aid human activities
such as accessibility to transportation routes.
1. Accessibility
It is the opportunity for contact or interaction from a given point or location in relation to
other locations. It is affected by:
a. Distance between points or locations
b. Connectivity via nodes and topological space .i.e. transportation
c. Economic, Social and Cultural factors
Theories and Models:
Theories and models are useful and have added much to our understanding of human
geography. They provide an integral part of environmental study and give of a foundation to
academic analysis. For eg: Von thunen theory provides insight about how the farmer will
choose the best location for the farming.
Many theories and models used in human geography an borrowed from other disciplines.
9
Fundamental Concepts in Geography:
1. Location
It is the place where particular point or object exists. It is considered more precise than
place. Location is divided into two types:
Absolute Location: It is the exact place on the Earth.
Relative Location: It is the description of place in relative terms.
2. Place
It describes the physical and human characteristics of the location. Physical characteristics
include description of mountains, rivers, beaches, etc. Human characteristics includes the
human designed cultural features of a place which is land use, folk ways, livelihood.
3. Site and Situation
Site: It is the physical characteristics of a location .i.e. soil, vegetation, climate, water
resources.
Situation: It is the location of a place relative to characteristics that aid human activities
such as accessibility to transportation routes.
4. Accessibility
It is the opportunity for contact or interaction from a given point or location in relation to
other locations. It is affected by:
a. Distance between points or locations
b. Connectivity via nodes and topological space .i.e. transportation
c. Economic, Social and Cultural factors
1. Relief Low land which is flat. E.g. Ganges High land i.e mountainous makes
Valley in India. Coastal environments difficult to construct buildings and
and those with rivers provide good roads.
access and allow trading to occur
encouraging the growth of economic
activities.
2. Resources Areas rich in resources tend to be Areas with few resources tend to
densely populated. The availability of have sparsely populated.
10
natural resources encourages a higher
density of population to settle there.
3. Climate Areas with temperate climates tend to Areas with extreme climates of hot
be densely populated as there is enough an cold tend to be sparsely
rain and heat to grow crops. populated because it makes difficult
to grow crops.
4. Soil Fertile land is densely populated as food Infertile land is sparsely populated
can be produced. as people are unable to grow food.
5. Vegetation Areas with less vegetation help to access Areas with dense vegetation
and provide services and make human provide challenges in terms of
inhabitation easy. access and lack of services makes
human inhabitation difficult.
7. Water supply A reliable water supply encourages a Lack of water supply discourages
high population density as water can be people to settle
used for drinking, washing,
transportation and irrigation.
3. Security Area with low crime rates are Areas with high level of crime
usually densely populated. rates are usually sparsely
populated.
11
6. Stability Countries with stable government Countries with instable
tend to be densely populated. government have low
population density.
7. Social Group of people want to live close Other groups of people prefer
to each other. to be isolated.
8. Conflict Areas with no conflict tend to have Areas with conflict tend to
a high density of population. have low density of population.
1) Pre-transtional stage
In this stage, there is high birth and death rates as a result the growth of population is not possible.
2) Transitional stage
In this stage, there is declining birth and death rates. In this stage, the death rates declines fastly
than birth rate due to this there is a rapid population growth.
3) Post-transitional stage
It has high birth and death rates and has a stable population. Agriculture base economy and less
per capita country is said to be in this stage. In recent years, most of the countries in this world
has crossed this stage.
12
2) The Early Expanding Stage
In this stage, there is high birth but death rate is rapidly declining due to this there is a rapid
population growth. The reason behind this is the improvement in health facilities. Countries like
Nepal, India and Bangladesh are in this stage.
In this stages, there is slowly declining birth rates and rapidly declining death rates as a result the
population is slowly increasing. The countries like USA, Canada, Japan etc are said to be in this
stage.
This stage has low and equal birth and death rates. There is no actual growth in the population.
Countries like Australia, Germany, New Zealand are in this stage.
In this stage, the death rate exceeds birth rates. Developing countries like Hungary, France etc fall
in this category.
13
3) This theory is linked to the experience of western countries whose historical demographic
trends were by themselves far from uniform.
4) It doesnot provide a time frame for a country to move from one stage to another.
15
1. Infrastructure Less focus will be given in the There will be lack of
development of infrastructure. infrastructure.
The developed infrastructure
will be used less.
5. Psychology There will be brain drain It will receive more people due
which means people will to brain drain in the place of
migrate for further origin.
generation.
6. Lifestyle There will be change in the The migrate people will observe
lifestyle of those people who a great change in the lifestyle.
has return from the migration.
16
7. Culture There will be assimilation of There will be assimilation of
culture. culture.
8. Mental health The family whose member has The migrated person will miss
migrated will miss their his/her family.
member.
According to the Population Census of 2011, about 33.5% of the rural people migrate to urban area.
The causes of unskilled migrants from rural to urban areas in Nepal are given below:
1. For Income
In the rural areas, the income earned from agriculture is very low and does not fulfill the
need of their households so in order to earn more money they migrate to urban areas
although they are unskilled.
2. For Employment
Besides agriculture, there is comparatively less or no employment in the rural areas than
urban areas. People who wants to earn more money and have another employment besides
agriculture migrate to the urban areas.
3. For better life
For rural area people, urban is just like a heaven as urban areas have better facilities than
18
rural area. People of rural areas want to secure their children’s future by giving them quality
of education. People of rural areas want to have better and reachable health facilities.
People of rural areas want to have social security in their life as a result they migrate to the
urban areas.
4. For safe and easy place
In rural place, the geographical accessibility is very hard. The land topography of rural place
is usually difficult. People have to walk long for water. People have to suffer from natural
disasters. A better example is the recent flood and landslides in Nepal which attacked many
rural areas. Due to this reason unskilled people of rural area migrate to urban area.
In a nutshell, unskilled people from rural areas migrate to urban areas due to the following
reasons:
a. People of rural areas have to move or commute daily for hours from their home in
search of better job opportunities from their countryside.
b. Transportation is another big problem in the rural area. There are fewer services for
public transport from one place to another.
c. Medical facilities are not equipped with modern instruments and infrastructure. It can
be extremely fata for anyone who is living in the country and doesnot have any hospitals
near their home.
d. Most of the schools in the villages have schools up to primary education. For secondary
or college education one has to migrate to the city.
a. No Job Security
Since the rural migrants are unskilled, they get job which has low salaries, no security and
sometimes limited for time. In some cases, they are not paid for their work. As a result, they
do not earn according to their expectations.
b. Long Working Hours
Migrants who are unskilled always have to suffer the problem of working long hours. They
have to work long hours with limited break time.
c. Bad Working and Housing Conditions
Rural migrant workers are forced to live and work in bad and unhygienic places. Their
health is compromised. In urban areas, they can’t find a suitable place to live as a result they
end up living in the slum areas.
d. Discrimination
The migrated people always have to suffer from discrimination. In the urban areas, the rural
migrants are often discriminated in various fields from various persons. They are often
called Pakhay from their fellow friends.
19
1. Intensive High inputs or yields for given area of land.
4. Substinence Cultivating crops or rearing animals for consumption by the farmer and his
family.
a. Temperature: It affects various growth processes in crops such as seed dormancy breakage,
photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration and seed germination. Plants mature earlier in higher
temperature because photosynthesis and translocation occur faster. Most of the plants cannot
grow if the temperature falls below 6C. In higher latitudes, the shortness of summer is
compensated by the longer duration of the day and the total amount of the heat received is enough
for ripening crops. In lower latitude, where the winters are never too cold to arrest the growth of
the vegetation, the whole year becomes the growing period and the agricultural operations are
timed according to the supply of rainfall. In the high temperature places like SriLanka and Brazil,
there is more greenery and rice farming is possible.
b. Air
Crops require oxygen during respiration to produce energy used in growth and development
processes. During photosynthesis, plants require 𝐶𝑂2 to manufacture food.
c. Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor air can hold at any given temperature. Relative
humidity influences the closing and opening of stomata regulating water loss in crops during
photosynthesis and transpiration.
d. Light
e. Wind
It is the movement of air resulting from differences in heating and pressure gradients. It promotes
pollination and exchanges gas in crops. Strong winds hamper plan photosynthesis is due to little to
20
no CO2 diffusion intro leaves and also foster water loss. Severe hurricane can physically destroy
thousand of acres of farmland.
f.Water Rainfall
Water is obviously a key factor in the plant growth. The greater the average temperature greater
the amount of water is required for the plant growth. Seasonal variation is important as different
crops require water at different times. For eg: Rice is the principle crop in the tropics because it
requires substantial quantities of water for high yielding whereas Coffee must have a period of
drought before and during harvest.
g.Altitude
This affects temperature so it also affects farming. For eg: In the Alps, dairy farming is found in
valley bottoms and coniferous forestry further up.
2. Topography
It relates to how difficult it is to till land, soil erosion and poor transportation networks and
facilities. Mechanization of land entirely depends on the land topography. If the land is high than
there is more chance of soil erosion. For eg: On rough Hilly lands, the use of agricultural
machinery is impossible. It the land is high then there is more chances of soil erosion. In the
mountainous region of Nepal, the agriculture is very difficult.
3. Soil
A rich soil is the chief requirement of successful agriculture. Soils with poor texture and harsh
chemicals are low in productivity. For example: In Kathmandu valley, the soil is very fertile as a
result vegetable farming is very much suitable in this region.
21
It determines the character of agriculture. Intensive agriculture is labor intensive and shows the
human pressure on the land. Agriculture requires skilled labor that can appreciate the relations of
season and soils with the crops and adopt the required cultural patterns.
5. Commodity prices
Commodity crops earn farmers losses or profits based on the prevailing price of the output that
industrial buyers are willing to pay.
Theory of Agricultural Location
Introduction:
The model was developed by Johann Vonthunen in early 1800s and was translated into English
until 1966. It is also known as "concentric rings theory of agricultural land use" It outlines an
ideal state whose plan revolves around farming practices focusing on which farming makes most
profit. It explains the development of agricultural towns and cities. The main aim of this theory
is to show how and why agricultural land use varies with the distance from the market.
Assumptions:
1. Land must be isotropic.
2. The State must be isolated surrounded by unoccupied wilderness.
3. The soil and climate must be consistent.
4. The transport cost must be proportional to the distance.
5. All the farmers should have equal access to transport.
6. Farmers act to maximize the profit.
7. Farmers are rational.
The Four Rings:
In an isolated state, Von Thunen hypothesized that a pattern of rings around the city would
develop:
1. Dairying and intensive farming occur in the ring closest to the city because vegetables, fruit,
milk and other dairy products must get to the market quickly as there was no refrigerator in that
time.
2. Timber and firewood in the second ring because before industrialization , wood was a very
important fuel for heating and cooking and wood is very hard to transport.
3. Crops in the third ring because grains last longer than diary products and are much lighter
than wood.
4. Livestock in the final ring because they can walk to the central city for sale or butchering.
Modification of the Model:
It was created before factories, highways and roads. Isotropic plain and the central city received
a lot of criticism. The modified model encompassed roads and rivers that might decrease
transportation costs to some locations.
22
Criticisms:
1. The conditions described in this theory is hardly available in any region of the world.
2. It is not necessary that all types of farming systems as described by Von Thunen exists in all
regions.
3. Not only physical but also social, political and cultural factor effect agricultural location.
The production occurs in small scale. The production occurs in large scale.
There is use of local raw materials. There is use of excessive raw materials
imported from every place.
There is use of traditional tools. There is use of modern machines and tools.
24
Regular source of power is the requirement for the most of the industries. Most of the industries
tend to be located at the source of power. The main source of power is coal, mineral oil and
hydroelectricity.
c. Accessibility
The site of new factory needs to be accessible so that importing of raw materials and exporting of
finished product is easy, safe and at low cost.
d. Water
Many industries are established near rivers, canals and lakes because of water.
e. Climate
Harsh climate is not much suitable for the establishment of industries. There can be no industrial
development in extremely hot, humid or dry or cold climate that is why there is no industries in
mountainous region of Nepal.
f. Site
Generally, site should be flat, well adequate transport facilities and cheap. Large areas are required
to build factories. Now, there is a tendency to set up industries in rural areas because the cost of
land has risen in urban centers.
2. Socio-Economic Factors
a. Capital
Modern industries are capital intensive and require huge investment. Companies cannot set up
their chosen industry without investment of money. Capitalist are available in urban centers and
this is why big industries are located in urban centers.
b. Government Policies
Government can greatly influence the location of industry by giving tax incentives, cheap rent and
other benefits, reducing regional disparities and eliminating air and water pollution in certain
areas of the country.
c. Labor Supply
It is important in two aspects:
a. Workers in large numbers are often required.
b. People with skill or technical expertise are needed.
Labor intensive industries are located inside the cities because there is a huge pool of potential
workers.
d. Market
The entire process of manufacturing is useless until the finished goods reach the market. Nearness
to market is essential for quick selling of manufacture goods because it helps in reducing the
transport cost and enables the consumer to get things at cheaper cost.
e. Banking facilities
25
Establishment of industries involves daily exchange of crores of rupees which is possible through
banking facilities. So the areas with better banking facilities are better suited to the establishment
of industries.
Theory of Industrial Location
Introduction:
A German Economist Alfred Weber developed this theory explaining the location of industry. The
basis of this theory is the study of general factors which pull an industry towards different
geographical regions. It is based on the least cost principle which is used to account for a location
of a manufacturing industry. The basis principle is that firm would choose location where costs are
the least.
Assumptions:
1. Location of raw material is fixed.
2. Markets are found only in specific places.
3. The condition and size of consuming centers are known.
4. There is perfect competition.
5. Labor is found only in certain location with unlimited quantity.
6. There is isotropic plain by physically, socially, politically and culturally.
7. Some raw materials are found everywhere.
Factors influencing Industrial Location
1. Primary Factors
a. Transportation Cost
It is influenced by the weight to be transported and distance to be covered. Weber has proposed
the condition in which the location and nature of raw materials.
Condition 1: One Raw Material and One Market
It gives rise to the three situations:
i. Raw Material is available everywhere
The industry should be located at the market.
ii. Raw Material is Fixed and Pure
The industry will be located either at the market or the source.
iii. Raw Material is Fixed and loses weight while processing
The industry will be located at the source of raw material
Condition 2: One Market and Two Raw Materials (𝑅1and 𝑅2 )
i. Both 𝑅1and 𝑅2 are available everywhere
The industry will be located at the market.
ii. 𝑅1 is fixed, 𝑅2 is available everywhere and both are pure.
The industry will be located at the market.
iii. Both 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are fixed and pure
26
The industry will be at market.
iv. Both 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are fixed and gross
M
𝑅1 P 𝑅2
This is a complex situation for which Weber introduced the " Location Triangle". Base line of
triangle ( 𝑅1and 𝑅2) represents the places where fixed raw materials are found.
M= Market is at the apex of the triangle
P= Industrial Location
If the industry is located at the raw material source 𝑅1, then raw material 𝑅2 must be
transported to industrial location 𝑅1 and the finished products must be transported to the
market M which causes more transportation costs. Likewise, the same thing happens when
industry is located at 𝑅2.
If the industry is located at M, then 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 must be transported to M which results more
transport costs. If the industry is located at the halfway between R1 and 𝑅2, then the transport
cost to bring the raw materials from R1 and R2 is equal. Transport cost involved in transporting
the finished goods to the market decreases because of the small distance to the market. In the
final analysis, the transport cost for raw materials to the industrial location P and the finished
products to market M from P together is the least when industry is located at P. There is thus a
chance for increased profit for the industry.
b. Labor Cost
It also affects the location of industries. If transportation costs are favorable but labor cost is
unfavorable then the problem of location becomes difficult to have solution. Industries want to get
located at the place where labor costs are low but labor and transportation costs should be low for
an ideal situation. The labor costs may differ due to the difference in the wage rates and difference
in the level of efficiency. To determine the role of locational pattern of labor force on
27
manufacturing location, Weber's locational triangle is placed in concentric pattern of rising
transportation cost outwards from the center. It is assumed that the labor force is dispersed
outwards from the center represents savings of labor cost decreases and a point L comes where the
savings on labor cost overcome the handicap of rising transportation cost. This is more profitable
location transportation cost.
2. Agglomerative or Degglomerative Factors (Secondary Factor)
Agglomerative factor makes industry centralize at a particular place. Eg: bank, insurance, etc
Degglomerative factors make industry to decentralize. Eg: rent of land, labor cost, transport
cots
Criticism:
1. It is simple, unrealistic and imaginary.
2. Transportation cost excludes land topography.
3. Excludes important cause of transportation like climate, capital
4. It is artificial and unnatural.
5. It is not a deductive theory.
2. Semi-Compact Settlement
It is a transitional phase in the growth of compact settlement. As the new technology is
developing and population is increasing, the settlement starts taking the shape of compact
settlement. It arises due to the difference of semi-arid regions from humid regions and
marginal productive land to that of fertile land.
• In rural areas with poor land capability, the rural landscape consists of the houses
which are clustered in hamlets
• Here, large land areas need to be cultivated to support small human groups and to
avoid the travel distance and to save on time, energy, there is diffusion and dispersal
of population
• Here, ‘Rn’ is between 1.5 to 2.5
30
• The hydrology of the area with a dispersed settlement type is poor.
• The area under dispersed settlement type is in a transitional phase in the growth of
the compact settlement.
• With increasing population and adoption of new technologies, the scattered
settlements starts taking the shape of semi-compact settlements.
• Examples of semi-compact settlements are
• East of Aravallis in Rajasthan
• Hilly tracts of Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura, the valley of Brahmaputra.
• Malwa plateau
• Bundelkhand plateau
• Drier parts of Deccan plateau.
3. Dispersed Settlement
It is generally found in the extreme climate, hilly tracks, thick forest, grassland, plateaus
and infertile lands. Overpopulation is one of the reasons for dispersed settlements. If a part
of the population left the village to found a new one, they are often found in dispersed
rather than a new village.
• Villages having dispersed or scattered settlements have farmstead scattered over a
much wider area. It reflects poor hydrology and land capability.
• ‘Rn’ for this type of settlement is greater than 2.5.
• Number of houses per unit area in these types of settlements is very low and there is
a wide gap between the houses.
• Such Rural Settlements are the characteristics of deserts/semi-arid land with poor
land capability or regions affected by natural hazards.
• Such villages are common in:
• Areas of extreme climate
• Hilly tracts
• Deserts
• Thick forests
• Grasslands
• Areas of extensive agriculture.
• Poor agriculture land
• Areas where it is essential for farmers to live on agricultural land rather
than distant village settlement
31
• The dispersed Rural Settlements are usually of recent age since people are moving
away from dense settlements in the search of new spaces. With the development of
technology, people have found a way to live in deserts also.
• Steppe grasslands on the east of the Urals in Uzbekistan, Russia came into
being during the late 19th century. Similarly, dispersed settlements are
found in extensive agricultural regions of Prairies (US, Canada), Pampas of
Argentina, Downs of Australia, etc.
• Semi-desert regions of Rajasthan, forest lands of North East India,
Shiwaliks, Jammu, and Kashmir, and parts of Peninsular India also have
dispersed types of settlements.
• Dispersed type of settlements is also found in underpopulated areas of
northern Canada, Central Australia, Scandinavian countries and the
Western USA.
• Some areas with productive land and good climate also have these
settlements, mainly due to historical or socio-cultural reasons. E.g. when
an overcrowded part population leaves the village to develop a new
settlement, often a dispersed one. Such settlements can be observed in the
Northern plains in between two large compact settlements.
• Similarly, when people move into marshy lands, Khadar tracts, or marginal
upland farms, then they need a larger area for sustenance (isolated farms).
• The Western Ghats in the rain shadow area, Leh-Ladhak, Kutchh, and
Western Rajasthan has dispersed settlement types
1. Linear pattern: In such settlement’s houses are located along a road, railway line, river,
canal edge of a valley or along a levee.
2. Rectangular pattern: Such patterns of rural settlements are found in plain areas or wide
inter montane valleys. The roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles.
3. Circular pattern: Circular villages develop around lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is
planned in such a way that the central part remains open and is used for keeping the
animals to protect them from wild animals.
4. Star like pattern: Where several roads converge, star shaped settlements develop by the
houses built along the roads.
5. T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements: T-shaped settlements develop
at tri-junctions of the roads. While Y-shaped settlements emerge as the places where two
roads converge on the third one and houses are built along these roads. Cruciform
settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses extend in all the four direction.
6. Double village: These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a
ferry.
32
Difference between Urban and Rural Settlement:
BASIS FOR
URBAN SETTLEMENT RURAL SETTELEMENT
COMPARISON
• Rural settlements in the developing countries are large in number and poorly equipped with
infrastructure. They represent a great challenge and opportunity for planners.
• Supply of water to rural settlements in developing countries is not adequate. People in
villages, particularly in mountainous and arid areas have to walk long distances to fetch
drinking water. Water borne diseases such as cholera and jaundice tend to be a common
problem.
• The countries of South Asia face conditions of drought and flood very often.
• Crop cultivation sequences, in the absence of irrigation, also suffer.
• The general absence of toilet and garbage disposal facilities cause health related problems.
33
• The houses made up of mud, wood and thatch, remain susceptible to damage during heavy
rains and floods, and require proper maintenance every year. Most house designs
are typically deficient in proper ventilation.
• Unmetalled roads and lack of modern communication network creates a unique problem.
During rainy season, the settlements remain cut off and pose serious difficulties in
providing emergency services.
• It is also difficult to provide adequate health and educational infrastructure for their large
rural population.
Problems of Urban Settlements
1. Economic Problems:
•
o The decreasing employment opportunities in the rural as well as smaller urban areas
of the developing countries consistently push the population to the urban areas.
o The enormous migrant population generates a pool of un-skilled and semi-skilled
labour force, which is already saturated in urban areas
2. Socio-cultural Problems
•
o Cities in the developing countries suffer from several social ills. Insufficient financial
resources fail to create adequate social infrastructure catering to the basic needs of
the huge population.
o The available educational and health facilities remain beyond the reach of the urban
poor. Health indices also, present a gloomy picture in cities of developing countries.
o Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates. Male selective
migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in these cities.
3. Environmental Problem:
•
o Vulnerability to risk posed by the increasing man-made and natural disasters.
According to UNDP, 70 % of Indian population is at risk to floods and 60%
susceptible to earthquakes.
•
o The risk is higher in urban areas owing to density and overcrowding. Urban areas are
becoming heat islands, ground water is not being recharged and water crisis is
persistent. Here making, water harvesting compulsory will be beneficial
o Environmental concerns such as urban areas becoming heat islands, rising
air pollution, groundwater pollution and persistent water crisis.
Settlement Hierarchies
A settlement hierarchy is a way of arranging settlements into a hierarchy based upon their
population or some other criteria. A settlement hierarchy is a simple way of classifying
settlements into a hierarchy based on their population, function, size or other criteria.
Settlements come in many different sizes and these can be ranked according to their
population and the level of services available.
34
Settlement Definition Number of People
3. Metropolis A city and surrounding towns that are 1-3 million people
in close proximity and have started to
merge into each other.
4. Large city A city with large population and many 300000-1 million people
services.
35
1. Site is the exact location of a city while situation is the surround features which is both man
made and natural.
2. Site has features that are inherent to its location while situation has features that are external to
the settlement.
3. Site is the land that the settlement was build upon while situation contains the surrounding
areas of the city.
Can every small city change into mega city? Give your view with proper example
No every small city can change into mega city.
In order to develop a city, a place needs to have two features: site and situation.
Site
It is the actual location of settlement on the earth. It includes the physical characteristics of the
land specific to the area. It includes landforms, climate, vegetation, availability of water, soil
quality, minerals and water. It leads to the development of large cities but also create challenges
people. If the site of the city is geographical difficult although that place has a better social and
economic relationship with other places that city can’t develop into mega city. For example:
Mugling Bazar, Waling Bazar, Beni Bazar have great economic relationship with other cities but
due to the geographical limitations that city can’t grow bigger.
Situation
It is the location of a place relative to its surroundings and other places. It includes the factors:
accessibility of the location, extent of a place's connections with other and how close an area may
be to the raw material. If the city have a great site but still the situation of that city is bad then the
city cannot grow into mega city. For example: Lekhnath has a great site for to be grown into the
city but people of Lekhnath are attracted to Pokhara for every economic activities as a result
Lekhnath could not grow into the mega city.
Introduction:
It was first developed by the German Geographer Walter Christaller in 1933 AD. It is a spatial
theory in urban geography that attempts to explain the reasons behind the distribution patterns,
sizes and a number of cities and towns around the world. Christaller developed this theory after
the study of settlement patterns in Southern German which analysed the relationship between
settlements of different sizes and related their economic activites with the population.
Assumptions:
● An even (flat) terrain
● Evenly distributed population
● Evenly distributed resources
● Similar purchasing power
● Preference for the nearest market
● Equal transportation cost
36
● Perfect competition
Two main concepts of Central Place Theory
As per Walter Christaller, Central Place Theory is based on 2 fundamental concepts which are
“Threshold” and “Range”
Threshold – The minimum population needed to make a service viable at a particular place. If this
size is not reached then a particular activity will not start or it will be closed down.
Range – This is the maximum distance a consumer is willing to travel to purchase good or avail a
service, beyond this distance consumer will not travel as the distance traveled for good/service will
outweigh the benefit. Range has two limits, Upper Limit denotes an area beyond which there will be
no buyer willing to travel. And, Lower Limit denotes an area need for a firm to make profits and have
sufficient demand.
Walter Christaller gave a system with 5 sizes of settlements based on population. The smallest unit
is Hamlet which is considered a rural community and the largest unit is Regional Capital. The rank
order of central places in ascending order include:
1. Hamlet
2. Village
3. Town
4. City
5. Regional Capital/ Metropolis
The arrangement of the Central places/ settlements:
As transport is equally easy in all direction, each central place will have a circular market area as
shown in C in the following diagram:
37
However, the circular shape of the market areas results in either un-served areas or over-served
areas. To solve this problem, Christaller suggested the hexagonal shape of the markets as shown in
D in the above diagram. Within a given area there will be fewer high order cities and towns in relation
to the lower order villages and hamlets. For any given order, theoretically, the settlements will be
equidistant from each other. The higher order settlements will be further apart than the lower order
ones.
Christaller’s theory gives 3 principles which are the marketing principle, transport principle and
administrative principle for orderly arrangements and the formation of hierarchy. Settlements are
regularly spaced – equidistant spacing between same order centers, with larger centers farther apart
as compared to smaller centers. The market area is hexagonal shaped as it is free from overlapping,
most efficient in both number and function. Three Principles of Christaller for determining
distribution of central places in a region.
● Marketing principle: If the distribution is entirely based on the range of the good, then it
would result in evenly spaced central places with hexagonal markets area.
● Traffic principle: If any central place (city) is smaller in size than expected than it be
because of lower accessibility (not falling on major transport route) and vice-versa
● Separation principle: Spacing and sizing of Central places can sometimes be distorted due
to socio-political consideration.
The different layouts predicted by Christaller have K- values which show how much the Sphere of
Influence of the central places takes in — the central place itself counts as 1 and each portion of a
satellite counts as its portion:
Transport Principle (K=4): It states that the distribution of central place is most favorable when as
many important places lie on traffic route between two important towns as a result the route will be
straight and cheap. When central places are arranged according to the traffic principle, the lower
order centers are located at the midpoint of each side of the hexagon rather than at the center. Thus,
the transport principle produces a hierarchy organized in a k=4.
Administrative Principle (K=7): This principle emphasizes that each center should have control of
the 6 surrounding area and no divided allegiance exists. There should be no power sharing between
lower and higher order. The center governs itselve and hence the “k” value is 7.
39
Criticisms
Urban Settlement: It is a densely populated area comprising mostly man made structures.
Factors or Causes of Urbanization
i. Natural Increase in Population
41
One important cause of rapid urbanization is the natural increase in population. The number by
which the birth rate exceeds the death rate in urban area gives natural increase in population.
ii. Migration from Rural Areas
In developing countries, urbanization usually occurs when people migrate from village to settle in
cities in hope of gaining a better standard of living. Migration is influence by economic growth and
development an by technological change and by conflict and social disruption.
iii. Boundary Changes
As cities expanded, the outlaying rural areas have been included in the urban areas. They may even
continue to retain the most of the characteristics of villages but they are counted as urban
population by virtue of being classified as urban areas.
iv. Industrialization
It is a trend representing the shift from old agricultural economy to novel non-agricultural
economy which creates modernized society. Through industrial revolution, more people have been
engaged in secondary activities and are attracted to move from rural to urban areas on the account
of employment opportunities.
v. Commercialization
Commerce and trade play a major role in urbanization. The distribution of goods and services and
commercial transcations in the modern era has developed the modern marketing institutions and
exchange methods that have tremendously given rise to the growth of town and cities.
Commercialization comes with the two perception that towns and cities offer better commercial
opportunities and returns compared to the rural areas.
vi. Social benefit and services
There are numerous social benefit found in the life of towns and cities like education, better living
standards, health care , etc. On this account, more and more people of rural area are prone to
migrate into cities and towns for achieving those benefits.
vii. Modernization and changes in the mode of living
As urban area is becoming more technology known with highly sophisticated communication,
infrastructure and liberalization, people believe that they can lead a happy life in cities. As a result,
people migrate to other cities and the cities grow by absorbing the growing number of people.
42
• Environmental degradation: Industrial complexes remain in towns. Skyscraper
winds and many other patterns of wind have emerged. Acid rain, temperature
increase, air pollution, etc. are of concern. This leads to health problems.
• Demographic problems: inverse age pyramid is an outcome. Old-age occupants
dominate the town. This is called neo population explosion. The impact is labour
shortage. As a result:
• Most of the developed countries have liberalized their immigration laws.
E.g.- Australia earlier had a White Australian policy, under which only
whites can settle in Australia. But, later in 1975, this policy was ended.
• Family system is breaking- nuclear families are emerging. The European
system is facing social disorder.
Urbanization Problems in developing countries
• Population explosion: of the large-sized urban centers, particularly the metropolitan
cities and capital cities. This is due to both rural-urban and urban-rural migration.
Capital cities attract due to both social and political reasons. Also, capital centres
attract many industrial complexes due to better infrastructure and market
• Environmental degradation: it includes problems such as:
• Slum growth
• Housing shortage
• Inadequate Public Utility Services
• Urban poverty
• Pollution
• Unplanned land use
• Transport problems: the insufficient transport infrastructure leads to capacity
overloading, causing problems such as road accidents, traffic jams, etc. E.g. as per
World Disaster Report, per 10000 licensed vehicle, there has been a maximum
number of fatal accidents in Ethiopia (needs update)
• Outer expansion of towns: there is no planned urban sprawl, the rapid growth of
RUF, and unplanned settlement outside the town.
• Urbanization is not at all problems, but unsustainable and unplanned urbanization
creates the following problems:
• Urban Sprawl
• Congestion
• Shortage of houses
• Vertical expansion
• Growth of slums and substandard houses
• Illegal settlements
43
Remedies for Urbanization
• Urban centers of developing countries first need to check the rural-urban migration.
It needs rural development and the development of smaller town areas. The legal
framework for town planning should be strictly enforced for better land use. Slum
recreation, poverty eradication, house construction is to be done. Global help for
capital and technology is needed for housing and job creation. It needs a
multidimensional approach.
• Rapid Mass Transport (RMT) for better transportation system.
• Reform of the urban water sector.
• Efficient use of urban land – Scientific town planning & Sustainable
development of urban planning needed.
• Long term strategic urban planning with the overall regional planning
perspective.
• The environmental sustainability of urban development.
• Investment in new urban infrastructure assets and maintenance of assets.
• Need to strengthen urban governance
• To strengthen the ‘soft infrastructure’
• Improvements of urban utilities such as water and sewerage NUHM
(National Urban Health Mission) for better urban public health.
• Need to fulfill the basic needs of the urban poor.
• Migration needs to be regulated
• Smart city concept if implemented effectively
• Provision of Urban Amenities to Rural Areas (PURA)
• Population control
44
• Innovation needed to control pollution and waste handling
• Rurbanization: Provide like urban facilities in rural areas or make rural
areas smart is called rurbanization.
Some additional topics
45
6. Financial Town: It is defined as the town with the strategic location leading financial
institutions, reputed stock exchanges, dense concentration of public and private banks and
trading and insurance companies. Eg: London, Singapore
7. Mining Town: It is defined as a town that houses miners and is rich in minerals. Eg: Dragon
City of USA
8. Agricultural Town: It is the agglomeration in a rural environment with a population
sometimes several thousand strong but whose main occupation is agriculture. Eg: Alcala of
Spain,Eboli of Italy
9. Religious Town: It is defined as a town important to the history or faith of a specific
religion. Eg: Vanaras, Vetican City
10. Tourism Town: It is defined as a town where tourism or vacationing is the primary
component of the local culture and economy. Eg: Pokhara, Nainital
11. Recreational Town
12. Diversified Town
13. Construction Town
46
• Often can be seen inside • This kind of region
one another diminishes in importance
outward
47
Examples: States, Countries, Cities,
Counties and Provinces
Topography Sex Ratio, fertility ratio, birth rate, the death rate Frontiers
48
Methods of Regionalization
• Regional delineation is the first step in the preparation of any regional development
plan to ensure the tentative operational area of planning. within the planning region,
the frame of all regional studies could be undertaken and development envisaged.
• Regionalization is the process of dividing complexity with respect to a region into
simple understandable forms.
• The essence of regionalization is uniformity/homogeneity of a region so the method
should be such that the region so created has marked dissimilarity with the
neighboring area (Area 1 and Area 2).
49
• It was based on observation and assessment for the purpose of
demarcation of a region.
• Here the region is demarcated based on the observation of the people.
• The drawback of this approach lies in the fact that there is no clear
demarcation of a region based on this method
• Statistical approach
• Due to the Quantitative Revolution gravity models were used for the
precise demarcation of a region.
• After the 2nd World War geographers used scientific techniques and
precisely demarcated a region from its neighbor regions.
• The sphere of influence of a region was demarcated by using the law of
retail trade which states the area of influence of a city or a region in
providing goods and services (trade) to adjacent regions by using statistical
methods (formulas).
• Empirical cum statistical approach:
• With Critical Revolution in geography, geography is a subject in humanity
where some flexibility is required as man is involved, and the scientific
approach does not last long.
• Thus, there was a need for empirical cum statistical approach. This
approach got tremendous support. For example demarcation of the NCR
region of Delhi involves both a statistical approach (area to be included in
NCR) and an empirical approach (migration of people in NCR).
• Due to the complexity and contradictory nature of elements constituting the region,
only vague and transitional boundaries can be delineated.
• E.g. it is difficult to draw linear boundaries for a cultural region due to the
transitional nature of the zones of cultural regions (Buddhist cultural zones
in India).
• The methods involved in the delimitation of the naive region are
• Flow analysis
• In this method first, the core is identified, and based on primary
data it is estimated that how far flow of goods and services or the
traits of culture can be identified
• This method can be used for classifying even the functional
region.
• E.g. R L Singh analysis of Sphere of Influence or
Umland (write about vegetable supply, newspaper
supply, etc.)
• For the cultural region the elements of culture are identified say
language, religion, dressing sense, etc. and based on their
50
occurrence in surroundings, the regional boundaries can be
vaguely drawn
• Relative intensity analysis
• Let’s suppose (i) and (j) are the two segments of the space and Yi
and Yj are the per capita income. The equation Yi-Yj gives the
value which is the difference between the Per Capita Income of
the two segments.
• A geographer can fix criteria or a limit beyond which the
heterogeneity between (i) and (j) is so high that they can be
differentiated and classified as regions.
• If the value is less than the criteria, (i) and (j) are homogeneous
and can’t be differentiated into two regions. This is the most
accepted method which is applied to delimit the naive regions.
Although, the boundaries can’t be defined as the naive regions
don’t have boundaries that are clear.
52
• Cluster method is one of the most easiest and common techniques adopted
by geographers and cartographers. E.g. agriculture, minerals, industrial
map, rainfall, and soil map to get land-use of area.
• Suppose if the map of India is taken, if we draw the rainfall map of India
and above rainfall map, if we plot the soil map and above soil map if we
plot water availability map, then we will find that there will be some area
with high land use which have high availability of rainfall, soil, and water.
• Various thematic maps superimposed of one variable layer over another
helps in demarcating the boundary most common to all phenomena of the
region.
Factor Analysis Method
• In this method, each parameter is mapped out separately and then all the maps are
kept one over the other. The common region that will be carved out after this exercise
will form a region.
• It is a more sophisticated approach.
• Smith used this method for delineating economic-health regions.
• Smith identified 14 industrial criteria on a local employment exchange area
base and 14 socio-economic criteria on a local authority base. Many of
these criteria are interdependent.
• The factor analysis method can be used to isolate these factors and to
group areas on the basis of factor loadings.
• Smith identified ‘industrial change’ and industrial structure’ as major
industrial factors, and ‘population change’ and ‘social structure’ as major
socio-economic factors. These factors help in delineating economic health
regions.
Delineation of functional region
• The delineation of the functional region involves grouping together of local units that
display a considerable degree of interdependence.
• The concern is thus more with flows linked to a central point rather than with
uniformity of the region as a whole
• Two basic approaches to functional regional outlines:
• Flow analysis based on actual observations of what people do
• Gravitational analysis based on theoretical observation of what people
might do.
Flow analysis
• Flow analysis builds up functional regions on the basis of the direction and intensity
of flows between the dominant centre and surrounding satellites.
• Each flow will show decreasing intensity as it becomes more distant from the main
centre and increasing intensity as it approaches another centre.
• The boundary of the sphere of influence of the dominant centre will be where the
flow intensity at a minimum. When the flow significantly drops that means
interaction/origin’s influence drops. In terms of distance, in a particular direction,
there is the influence of the node and there onwards it drops. This gives cut off
points. Tentative delineation is done.
• In the flow analysis, the processional regions are demarcated based on the direction
and intensity of flow between the principal center and the sub-cities around it. The
flow decreases according to the distance from the principal center and the effect
increases as it approaches the other center. Where the flow intensity around the
principal center is minimal, there is a limit to the circumference of the effect of that
center.
• This flow can be of any kind,
• economic – such as cargo or passenger, road or rail.
• objective/Purpose – shopping or commuting
53
• social – the flow of students or hospital patients
• political – the flow of government expenditure
• Information – telegrams, newspaper, telephone calls, etc.
Gravitational analysis
• The basis of the origin of gravity analysis lies in Newton’s theory. It is based on
the possible value of human interaction.
• It is concerned with theoretical forces of attraction between centres rather than
actual flow.
• As such it is regarded as 2nd best approach but if used with care as it can provide a
good guide to actual flows and more importantly the potential flows between centres.
• This rapidly developing field of “social physics” as developed by Zipf, Reilly, Stewart,
Stouffer and others is based on a probability view of human interactions and
originates from the application of analogous reasoning to Newtonian physics. It
means that this method is based on the probability of attraction of flow (flow of
goods, services, people, etc) by centre from nearby areas.
• This gravity model assumes that interaction between two centres is proportional to
the mass of centres like population, employment, income, expenditure, retail trading,
etc. and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between centres like
miles, time and intervening opportunities.
● Historical factors
○ History of development played a great role in the development of certain
regions. E.g. in India Bombay, Calcutta, Madras are classic examples.
56
○ The backwash effect thereafter showed its impact (backwash effect refers
to sucking of resources by developed area from nearby areas rendering
them backward whereas spread effect refers to the spread of development
from more developed area to nearby areas). North-West India including
Delhi has a long agricultural and industrial history of development.
○ Further, this region remained the seat of power since medieval times. A
sound work culture involved in this region.
○ The Zamindari system in Bihar with a large suppressed class has its own
role in the backwardness of the state.
● Physical factors:
○ Physical factors include climate, soil, natural resource endowments,
hydrology, location, accessibility.
○ Plains invite civilization, mountains push them away, deserts deny them
and coasts augment them. River valleys act as cradles of civilization.
○ Availability of groundwater, river water, river transport, fertile land, and
fertile soil always attracted man’s settlement and development.
○ Attitude of people, work ethos, risk-bearing capacity also play an
important role. E.g. Green revolution succeeded in North-Western India
and not in Eastern parts. The enterprising nature of Gujaratis, Marwaris,
Jains led to the development of industries and business in their region.
○ Vidal De La Blache says that “river basins have functional homogeneity
and are the gravity centers of civilization where nature is protective and
supportive to man”.
○ Soil is the most important natural resource.
○ Most river valleys and coastal areas have harbored most of humanity.
● Economic factors: economic factor includes
○ Low wage rate
○ Poor land man ratio
○ Low standard of living
○ Low per capita income
○ Poor per capita consumption
○ Trade pattern
○ Industrialization
○ Agriculture pattern and development
○ Transport network
○ In India, the industries are concentrated in few regions which have led to
regional imbalances.
● Demographic factors: demographic factors include
○ High dependency ratio
○ Low wage rate
○ Unemployment
○ Negative sex ratio
○ Young age ratio (age structure pyramid)
● Socio-cultural factors: It includes
○ Primitive mode of living (tribes)
○ Inward outlook of society
○ Low acceptability of innovation
57
○ Poor education facility
○ Poor health facility
● Political factors:
○ The planned period after independence in terms of government policies
led to regional imbalances.
○ Government policies also play a major role such as the 2nd Five Year Plan
called for the development of industries in the backward areas for their
regional development, Green revolution also led to regional imbalances
since it succeeded in North-Western India and not in Eastern parts.
○ Geopolitics leading to war, cutting off supplies (oil crisis) also leads to
draining of countries resources which in turn leads to reduced government
expenditure for the development of backward areas leading to regional
imbalances.
● Religion factors:
○ Religion dogma and the religious perceptions which induce the cultural
values and govern the social ethos are also responsible for regional
imbalances.
58
● Under-Developed Infrastructure: Rural and backward areas do not have 24 hours
power, proper houses, safe drinking water, sanitation, hospitals, doctors, telephone,
and internet facilities.
● Aggregation of the imbalance: Once an area is prosperous and has adequate
infrastructure for development, more investments pour in neglecting the less
developed regions. So an area which is already prosperous develops further. For
example, the rate of growth of metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata,
Chennai, Bangalore, and Hyderabad is higher compared to other metro cities of
India.
● A country based on the primary sector is usually underdeveloped. The primary sector
cannot generate income and production of a high order which leads to the low
purchasing power of people.
● Regions heavily dependent on the secondary and tertiary sectors have high demand,
high income, and high export potential, which leads to the advancement of the
economy. Thereafter the quaternary and quinary sector develops.
● Productivity and imbalance– If the efficiency of labor is more then it will increase the
productivity in an economy. Good health of workers is directly proportional to high
productivity and growth of a region
60
Trajectory of Nepalese Planning Practices:
Planned development in Nepal may be traced to before the second World War when Rana family government announced
development of twenty-year plan. In 1949, the Rana Prime Minister, Shri Mohan Shamsher, established National
Planning Committee for the purpose of creating fifteen-year plan for the development of the country. In 1952, Ministry
of Planning and Development was founded to support the government in planning and development while in 1955, King
Mahendra issued a royal proclaimed for ‘necessity of a five-year plan for Nepal for attaining national sufficiency and
establishing a welfare state. Nepal’s historic first five-year plan was produced in 1956. The table below summarizes all
the periodic plans developed with perspective of rural and regional development (Okuda, 1973).
62
monitoring and evaluation of district level programs were very important aspects in the context of
regional development .
- But, after 1996 the targeted policies and plans in the regional level have failed and have not been
fully implemented due to extreme political instability.
Tenth Plan - This plan set the main objective of the long-term development is to free the nation from the clutches
of existing poverty, and to establish a cultured, modern, and competent society
(2002-2007) - The plan has focused on the balanced regional development through the utilization of the potential
resources in different regions.
- The plan aimed for local development to minimize poverty by making available local people,
particularly the people of socially and economically backward areas, caste, nationalities groups an
access to services and benefits made locally available
- The plan adopted four strategies: i) high, sustainable, and broader economic growth, ii) social sectors
and rural infrastructure development, iii) targeted programs, iv) good governance
- The plan also adopted twelve priority sectors: i) agriculture development, natural resources
management and biodiversity, ii) rural infrastructure development and rural energy, iii) population
management, social services and basic social security, iv) tourism, water resources, information
technology, industry and commerce, v) human resource development and women empowerment, vi)
targeted programme to uplift the excluded and marginalized groups, vii) strengthen local bodies,
NGOs and CBOs, viii) Thrust on area wise development and remote areas, ix) use of better high-tech
technology in rural areas, x) reform and assurance of good governance, xi) protection and
conservation of environment, xii) development of national and regional infrastructure
- Three core regional strategies have been prepared to reduce the regional imbalances. These core
strategies were:
i. Increasing people's participation in the social and political decision-making processes
ii. Interregional economic relations among the rural, urban and backward regions through the
infrastructure development particularly transport and communication.
iii. Allocating resource in view of reducing regional imbalance
Eleventh Plan - The plan was developed to mainstream people’s aspiration after second historic people’s movement
(2007/08- in 2006 and aimed to utilize the opportunities emerged after end of decade long armed conflict
2009/10) - Three years interim plan was developed and implemented
- The major objectives of the plan were to reduce poverty, unemployment, and inequality for social
and economic transformation.
- The plan focused on target program to the marginalized people, social mobilization, infrastructure
development, strengthening to local bodies, regional development, reconstructing local
infrastructure, and reformation of local governance for rural development and change
- The plan adopted six key strategies: i) to give special emphasis on relief, reconstruction and
reintegration, ii) to achieve employment-oriented, pro-poor and broad-based economic growth, iii)
To promote good-governance and effective service delivery, iv) to increase investment in physical
infrastructures, v) to give emphasis on social development, vi) to adopt an inclusive development
process and carry out targeted programs
- The plan proposes special targeted programs for areas falling in the shadow of development and
social section which are far below living in extreme poverty, inequality, and exclusion
- The plan emphasized the need of new regional development policy but did not elaborated much
63
Twelfth Plan - The plan aimed to upgrade the Nepalese economy from least developed to developing within two
(2011-2013) decades with priority in abolishment of different discrimination and inequalities
- The objective of the plan was to establish sustainable peace and contributing in poverty eradication
through employment generation centered inclusive and equitable economic growth
- This plan prioritized six strategies: i) with public, private and cooperative partnership initiatives for
employment generation focused and poverty eradication oriented sustainable and wider economic
growth, ii) development of physical infrastructures to support future federalism and growth across
provinces, iii) promote inclusive and equitable development for sustainable peace, iv) social and
economic transformation of society, v) foster result based development and good governance
practices, vi) mainstream support for private and cooperative sector and industry, trade and service
- The plan developed result framework and key indicator targets disaggregated geographic regions
Thirteenth - The plan aimed to upgrade Nepal in developing country from least developed country by 2022
Plan (2013/14 - Reducing economic and human poverty was one of the major goals of the plan
-2015/16) - The plan adopted six strategies to achieve its goals. These strategies are: i) partnership of public,
private and cooperative sector for wider, inclusive and sustainable growth, ii) development of
infrastructures to promote regional balance, iii) improving access to social services, iv) promoting
good governance, v) empowerment of targeted groups, areas and sections of society, and vi) promote
climate change adaptation in development
- The plan prioritized balanced regional and provincial development through integrated province
development plans, identify and promote sectors of competitive advantage, prioritize investment in
least developed areas
- The economic progress during the period was not satisfactory however social development and
infrastructure development was satisfactory.
- Agenda of social participation, inclusion and representation of marginalized groups in governance
was satisfactory
Fourteenth - First plan developed after promulgation of new constitution of Nepal in 2015
Plan (2016/17- - This plan aimed in rolling out the recent constitutional provisions and mandate of progressive, self-
2018/2019) reliant, sustainable, and just society with welfare-based economy
- The plan prioritized the agenda of employment promotion and just resource distribution with three
pillars public, private and cooperative partnership
- The areas priorities for public investment are i) enabling environment for citizens to exercise
fundamental rights and entitlements, ii) addressing energy crisis, iii) road and other network
infrastructures iv) agriculture development and employment generation v) investment in sectors
producing immediate economic growth, vi) social development (health, education, WASH), vii)
recovery and reconstruction from earthquake, viii) regional balanced and inclusive development
- In result framework, the plan adopted five strategies: i) production growth, ii) infrastructure
development, iii) human development, iv) good governance, v) interdependent issues (includes
regional balance)
Fifteenth Plan - The first plan developed with long-term vision of ‘Prosperous Nepal Happy Nepali’. The national
(2019/20 – vision has been targeted to succeed by addressing the people’s expectations from comprehensive
2023/24) socio-economic transformation, achievement of high economic growth, insurance of coordinated
distribution and redistribution with complete justice
64
- The plan aims to upgrade Nepal in developing country from least developed country by 2022, to
upgrade the country in the level of middle earning by 2030 and developed country by 2043
- The plan has adopted the foundation of transforming Nepal into socialism-oriented welfare state with
prosperous economy and social justice
- In result framework, the plan prioritized 10 result areas: i) high and equitable national income, ii)
human capital formation and use of opportunities, iii) accessible infrastructures and intense
interconnection , iv) high and sustainable production and productivity , v) improved and dignified
life, vi) safe, civilized and just society, vii) clean and balanced environment, viii) good governance,
ix) Strong democracy, and x) national unity, security and pride
The trajectory of Nepalese Periodic Planning can be summarized in diagram 3 below. Based on the
nature of political system and planning principles adopted, the trajectory of planning practices can be
categorized into four different phases namely: i) Before 1950, ii) 1950 – 1990, iii) 1990 – 2015, iv)
2015 onwards.
i) Before 1950:
65
Before 1950s, the country was being ruled under autocratic regime of Rana family. Around the end of the
regime, immediately before and after of Second World War, the country began to think about on long-term
planning. In 1949, the Rana Prime Minister, Shri Mohan Shamsher, established National Planning Committee
for the purpose of creating fifteen-year plan for the development of the country. It can be said that the thinking of
regional and rural development issues was not even conceptualized until end of the regime.
ii) 1950 – 1990:
The real conceptual thinking of planned development was started in the country after 1950 and during first periodic
plan was developed in 1955-56 to bring about systematic change in the underdeveloped socio-economic condition
(Acharya, 2008). The constitution of 1962 created a four-tier system of development committees (Panchayats).
These includes 4,000 village and town committees (Gaun Panchayat), 75 District committees (Jilla Panchayat), 14
Zonal committees (Anchal Panchayat), and the National committee (Rastriya Panchayat). At each tier, Panchayats
were supposed to serve as working committees of the respective assemblies (Sabha). However, the latter mostly
played advisory roles. Subsequently, five development regions were also created. However, since district offices
of line ministries reported directly to their head offices in Kathmandu, zonal and regional tiers were not strong
(MoFAGA, 2019).
Third plan gave prominence to regional aspects in the national development plan by dividing the country into three
watershed regions like Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali with an aim of attaining the balance regional development.
While Fifth Plan (FY1975–FY1980) adopted a 4-point regional policy as specified in the original strategy paper.
These were: (i) reduction of inter-regional disparity, (ii) integration of the national economy, (iii) breaking the
vicious circle, and (iv) elimination of imbalances among projects (NPC, 1975). It was the first periodic plan to
estimate resource allocation by development regions (Gurung, 2006). However, there was no integration of the
socioeconomic projects/programs along the growth axes.
With creation of Ministry of Panchayat and Local Development in 1980, the Decentralization Act of 1982 was
enforced, and which strengthened the role of district level by giving it responsibility for preparing and
implementing annual and multi-year (periodic) plans. While this was essentially a top-down planning process, it
allowed some user-level participation in project implementation and monitoring, through the institution of User
Committees (MoFAGA, 2019). The Seventh Plan (1985-1990) envisaged the concept of rural-urban linkage as
a strategy to achieve the objectives of urban-based rural development policy (MOUD, 2016).
During the period, the planning practices shifted from more centralized, and top-down approach to more
decentralized participatory and bottom-up approach. The agenda of equity, inclusion and regional balance
heightened with country moving into new political system. However, during this period in Nepal, the political
volatility and instability developed from frequent change of government disturbed the smooth implementation of
different periodic plans developed. Furthermore, the armed conflict in the country raised the awareness among the
population and civil society to take actions on issues related to poverty, inequality, exclusion, and marginalization
based on gender, caste, ethnicity, religion, and region.
People’s democratic movement in 1990 established the parliamentary democratic system in Nepal and gave more
priorities to the rural and regional development through more decentralization and empowerment of the local
bodies. Policies, which aim to the empowerment of the local people and local government in the development
66
process, were formulated to bring about a balanced regional development. During this period, the 1990 constitution
gave new impetus to local self-government, in particular, in implementation of the constitutional promise of
popular participation through decentralization, with amendments to the District Act, Village Act, and Municipality
Act in 1991-92, allowed for local democratic elections to take place in 1992. The three Acts were later consolidated
into the Local Self Governance Act (LSGA) of 1999. The previous Village Panchayats turned into 3,915 Village
Development Committees (VDC), town Panchayats turned into 58 Municipalities, and the District Panchayats
turned into the 75 District Development Committee (DDC) (MoFAGA, 2019).
The Eighth Plan (1992-1997) also continued the need for developing urban and rural areas complementary to each
other. With its goal to achieve sustainable development, poverty alleviation and reduction of regional disparity, the
Eighth Plan called for the establishment of national urban system and market-oriented urban sub-systems. It
emphasized sectoral investments to promote self-reliant social, economic and market services in rural areas through
road connectivity to facilitate rural-urban linkages for balanced regional development (MOUD, 2016).
This phase of the Nepalese planning practices set historical benchmarks in addressing poverty, inequalities,
regional disparities, environmentally friendly and sustainable development. Ninth and Tenth periodic plan were
the historic periodic plans that primarily focused on eradication of poverty but less effectively implemented due to
political instability and armed conflict.
The new Constitution of Nepal came into effect in September 2015, with aspirations of sustained peace, good
governance, development and prosperity. It has been implementing a republican, inclusive, competitive multiparty
democratic federal system with three tiers of government: federal, provincial and local. It guarantees inclusive
socio-political and economic development and a wide range of basic and fundamental rights, including rights to
equality, justice, property, freedom of religion, a clean environment, education and rights against discrimination.
The constitution further upholds the right to food, education, equality, environment and health, employment and
social security, among others. The constitution provides us with an effective and strong foundation for the main
thrust of the SDGs i.e. ‘Leaving No One Behind.’ It upholds and promotes the agenda of social justice, inclusion,
and a rights-based approach, including 33 percent of women representation in the parliaments (NHDR, 2020).
As this is the very beginning of the new political system, only two periodic plans are formulated till date. The 14th
periodic plan was the first plan developed after promulgation of new constitution of Nepal in 2015. This plan aimed
in rolling out the recent constitutional provisions and mandate of progressive, self-reliant, sustainable, and just
society with welfare-based economy. The plan prioritized the agenda of employment promotion and just resource
distribution with three pillars public, private and cooperative partnership. The 15 th Plan of Nepal has adopted 8
strategies to achieve its goal. Among them, ‘Good Governance, Provincial Balance and National Unity’ is one of
them in which (NPC, 2019).
This phase has created enormous opportunities to tackle the regional disparities, inequalities, exclusion, and
marginalization through introduction of evidence-based policies and spatial plans integrating diverse sectors. There
is need of new paradigm of thinking and practice of spatial planning in context of rural and regional planning.
67
Regional planning is a tool that would provide the regional development framework for the balanced and integrated
national development. Many countries of the world are preparing regional development frameworks that can be
used to minimize the regional inequalities based on the existing resources, local knowledge, infrastructure, and
service available in the areas. Spatial dimension of planning approach came from the less well integrated economies
where regional differences of production and welfare have been found (Dahal, 2007).
In Nepal, the idea of regional development came in 1960s during the preparation of second periodic plan (1962-
1965). Subsequently, the country was divided into 3,474 Panchayats, 75 Districts and 14 Zones with the view to
promoting development activities at the grassroots level. Nepal was divided into three ecological regions
(mountain, hills, and terai), five administrative regions (eastern, central, western, mid-western and far western) and
15 different sub-regions. These division of regions has been done mainly for understanding the different social,
economic, and ecological condition of Nepal which could be useful to prepare and implement the national plans
and policies for development to reduce the regional disparity. The main purpose of the regional division in Nepal
is a balanced and integrated national development. Regional development approach fulfills three basic objectives,
first, identification of poverty and backward areas, second, analysis of the existing and potential resources and
third, formulation of the relevant development strategies (Shrestha, 1998).
After the promulgation of the Constitution of Nepal in 2015, and its firmer grounds for political stability as well
as guarantees of fundamental rights and empowerment, the national agenda has been to usher in a new era of
prosperity and human well-being (NHDR, 2020). This new constitution transformed the political, administrative,
and regional division of the country. As shown in the figure 4 below, the previous administrative division of country
transformed from 3467 local government units to 753 local levels, 75 districts to 77 districts, five development
regions to seven provinces.
Figure 4: Comparing Old and New Spatial Planning Units Nepal
Figure 5: Planning Levels, Constitutional Mandate, Planning Authorities (Nepal Gazette, 2015)
68
The constitution assigns important functional responsibilities to provincial and local governments and mandates
that they have significant autonomy in deciding how services will be delivered. To date, the new system is
characterized by a combination of devolution of some powers to PLGs and retention of others by the federal
government. The three levels of governments (federal, province and local) are independent and interdependent
with their own constitutional authority, mandate, and responsibility. As shown in the figure below, the constitution
has specified different degree (individual and concurrent) power under the schedule 5, 6 7, 8 and 9.
Figure 6: Interrelation among federal, province and local level (left) and 7-step local planning process
(right) (NPC, 2018; LDTA, 2018)
69
In relation to the planning authorities, after the declaration of new constitution with federal democratic republic,
the degree of devolution of political power increased and opened the opportunity for new planning authorities i.e.
National Planning Commission at national level, Province Planning Commission at regional level, and Integrated
70
Planning Committee at Local level with support of sectoral ministries and line agencies. Furthermore, ‘National
Natural Resource and Fiscal Commission’ support which ensure the fairness, equality, equity, and justice in
resource sharing to minimize the regional inequality and disparities. To facilitate the planning in context of
implementing aspiration of new constitution, National Planning Commission has developed new periodic planning
guideline to support province and local government in periodic plan. The diagram 6 depicts the interrelation among
federal, province and local level periodic planning. Through this guideline, National Planning Commission
promotes the adoption of national priorities, programs, and targets to be incorporated into the province and local
periodic plans which minimizes the degree of independency of local and province planning process.
However, this guideline contradicts the bottom-up and participatory planning principles adopted in local planning
process (as presented in the diagram 6) where, federal and province levels can only provide the ceilings of resources
and directives related to planning not imposing the national priority agenda into local plans. Of course, there should
be synchronization and complementarity among all three levels of periodic plans but by following the guideline
issued by NPC (for both provincial and local periodic planning), it is difficult to maintain such a balance.
The table below (table 2), depicts the different sectors identified in the periodic planning guidelines at different
level (federal, province and local) developed by National Planning Commission. Analyzing the table it can be seen
that there is partial-coherence on sectoral focus from federal level to province and local level but these sectoral
priorities are difficult to be spatially integrated, coordinated and responsive to rural and regional development.
Table 2: Sector Identified in Planning Guidelines of Different Level (NPC, 2018a; NPC, 2018b; NPC, 2020)
71
Emergence of New and Complex Ruralities with New Opportunities (NACOR)
As happening across globe, the rural-urban dynamics in Nepal is rapidly changing. Although being country of rural
dominance, the country has been moving to urban oriented development policies, principles, and plans. This can
be understood from the name of the local level governments itself. The previously named Village Development
Committees (rural areas) are now named as Rural Municipality. Where, municipality refers to the urban nature of
settlement, services, and other characteristics. But the rural municipalities are completely rural in nature. The Map
2 depicts the rural urban situation of local governments in Nepal.
Figure 8: Settlement in Birendranagar Municipality, Surkhet, Karnali Province (Source: Google Earth Web, 2020)
72
Figure 7: Settlement Characteristics of Chandannath Municipality Jumla (Source: Google Earth Web, 2020)
Table 3: Comparing three municipalities with different features (OAG, 2020; Thuli Bheri, 2018;
Municipal Profiles, 2017)
73
Figure 9: Municipal Center of Thuli Bheri Municipality, Dolpa
The figure 7, figure 8 and figure 9 represent the core area of three different municipalities (one in Jumla, one in
Surkhet and one in Dolpa) with different population size, topography, local resources, and opportunities. But the
current categorization of local levels by the government considers both local levels as same urban areas and
issued same guidelines for the development of the local periodic plans.
Comparing these three municipalities (Table 3), it can be clearly seen that there is diverse socio-economic and
geographic condition in which rural features are more prevailing than urban features. This diverse and rural
predominance in urban municipalities needs tailor-made planning practices to enhance sustainable rural-urban
linkages however the current planning guidelines do provide the opportunity to develop such context specific local
plans.
74
Conclusion and Discussion:
Nepal is a country with majority of population in rural areas. The uneven distribution of development outcomes
has been persistently creating rural-urban and regional disparities within the country. Six decade long planned
development practice of Nepal lately adopted the regional and rural development strategy during 1980s. The
Government’s efforts for regional development have not been effective mainly due to an inadequate policy
framework to implement the concept. Also, there is lack of integrated and coherent policy framework for regional
development based on a thorough assessment of regional conditions and policies and programs are still fragmental
and unfocused.
With promulgation of new constitution in 2015, many of the local government units with rural features are now
classified as less urban (Rural Municipalities) and more urban (Municipalities, Sub-metropolis, and metropolis)
areas. However, there is no sharp distinction between rural and urban areas in Nepal as they are intertwined,
interrelated, and interdependent in spatial, economic, cultural, social, and financial aspects. In contrast, the recent
periodic planning guidelines issued by National Planning Commission are more general in nature, focused on
different sectoral issues in isolation to each-other, and are less oriented towards regional development and spatial
planning perspective. But, in terms of resource allocation for development intervention and planning priorities,
National Natural Resource and Fiscal Commission (NNRFC) has been putting effort to minimize the regional
disparity through allocation of resources in an equitable and just manner. It is challenging, especially when the
administrative capacities of provincial and local governments to deliver and manage services are not yet well
developed, and where the federal government has little experience with managing an intergovernmental system.
Nepal has set a long-term vision of a ‘Prosperous Nepal, Happy Nepali' centers on human development, and aims
to transform Nepal into a developed country in 25 years, as envisioned in the current 15th Five-Year Plan.
Nationally, there is consensus that structural transformation of the economy, promotion of equitable society, broad-
based participation in all national activities and sustainable use of natural resources are key to rapid progress and
sustainable development. However, to reflect this aspiration in practice socio-economic planning is not coordinated
and integrated with spatial planning at regional or sub-regional level with due consideration to functional hierarchy
of settlements.
With emerging rural and urban features, Nepalese planning principles and practices has opportunity to develop
spatial plans that fulfill territorial functions under a national system of cities and human settlements, promoting
rural-urban linkages, ensuring sustainable management of resources within and across territories for balanced and
sustainable development. There is need of developing concrete spatial planning frameworks to guide the upcoming
plans developed at different levels, especially at local level, to contribute to inclusive, balanced and sustainable
development.
75
Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.
Alternative Proxies: