Fundamentals of Human Geography

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Unit I : Introduction to Human Geography

Geography:
Geography can be defined as the social science that focuses on the spatial distribution of human
and physical phenomenon. It consists of two branches: Human Geography: It is the branch of the
geography that studies patterns and processes that shape the human body.
Physical Geography: It is the branch of the geography that deals with the physical characteristics of
the earth and also studies the characteristics on the earth’s surface and beneath the surface.
Geography as a discipline is concerned with three sets of questions:
(i) Some questions are related to the identification of the patterns of natural and cultural
features as found over the surface of the earth. These are the questions about what?
(ii) (Some questions are related to the distribution of the natural and human/ cultural
features over the surface of the earth. These are the questions about where?
(iii) The third question is related to the explanation or the causal relationships between
features and the processes and phenomena. This aspect of geography is related to the
question, why?
Geography is considered as the bridge between Natural and Social Science:
Geography and Natural Science
Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and
understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical
evidence from observation and experimentation. All the branches of physical geography have
interface with natural sciences. The traditional physical geography is linked with geology,
meteorology, hydrology and pedology, and thus, geomorphology, climatology, oceanography and
soil geography respectively have very close link with the natural sciences as these derive their data
from these sciences. Bio-Geography is closely related to botany, zoology as well as ecology as
human beings are located in different locational niche. A geographer should have some proficiency
in mathematics and art, particularly in drawing maps. Geography is very much linked with the
study of astronomical locations and deals with latitudes and longitudes. The cartographic and
quantitative techniques require sufficient proficiency in mathematics, statistics and econometrics.
Geography and Social Science
Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and
the relationships among individuals within those societies. Each social science has interface with
one branch of geography. All the social science disciplines, viz. sociology, political science,
economics and demography study different aspects of social reality. The branches of geography,
viz. social, political, economic and population and settlements are closely linked with these
disciplines as each one of them has spatial attributes. The core concern of political science is
territory, people and sovereignty while political geography is also interested in the study of the
state as a spatial unit as well as people and their political behaviour. Economics deals with basic
attributes of the economy such as production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each of
these attributes also has spatial aspects and here comes the role of economic geography to study
the spatial aspects of production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Likewise, population
geography is closely linked with the discipline of demography.
Conclusion : Geography contains the subject matters of both natural sciences and social sciences.
The knowledge obtained from natural science aspect of Geography is used in the social science
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whereas the knowledge obtained from social science aspect is used to predict the natural science
scope of geography. For eg: It is well known that people in hot regions tend to have dark skins and
culture of doing less work. Hot regions falls under the scope of natural science and dark skins and
culture of doing less work falls under social science. Some times the nature of the places can be
predicted with the help of these characteristics like dark skins and doing less works. In the
conclusion, geography is the subject bridge of natural science and social science.
Geography is divided into two branches
1. Human Geography
2. Physical Geography
1. Human Geography:
It is a branch of the geography which studies patterns and processes that shape the human society.
Sub-branches of human geography:

Sub-branches Definition

1. Economic Geography It studies the manner in which different products and services are
distributed in the various markets and also studies about the
distribution of wealth across the planet.

2. Population It studies the demographic distribution of people and includes the


study of migration, population growth.
Geography

3. Political Geography In studies the political aspects of humans and involves boundaries of
the countries.

4. Religious Geography It studies the spread and distribution of religious groups, their
culture.

5. Medical Geography It studies the patterns and spread of epidemic and pandemics.

2. Physical Geography
It studies the physical characteristics of the earth and also studies the characteristics on the earth's
surface but also beneath the earth. It deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural
environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and geosphere.
Sub-branches of Physical Geography:
Sub-Branches Definition

1. Biogeography Study of animals and plants and their distribution and patterns on
the earth's surface.

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2. Water-Resource Study of water resources and how the various water resources are
Geography managed and distributed across the physical earth.

3. Climate Geography Study of the weather patterns and how these weather affect the
climate

4. Geomorphology Study of the land and the processes that different land formations
go through

5. Soil Geography Study of the soil

6. Hydrology Study of the amount and quality of water moving

7. Glaciology Study of the glaciers

Scope of Human Geography:


The scope of human geography is very wide. The core concern of human geography as a discipline
is to understand the earth as home of human beings and to study all those elements that have
sustained them.
1. Greek and Roman scholars like Aristotle, Herodotus, Strabo recognized the close relationship
between man and his physical environment.
2. The Arab Scholars like Al Masudi, Al Bruni also established the relationship between physical
environment and cultural characteristics.
3. In the classical period of modern geography, German Geographers Humboldt and Ritter focused
on the relationship between social groups and their physical environment. He concluded that the
earth and its inhabitants stand in closest reciprocal relation and one cannot be truly presented in
all its relationships without the other.
4. German Geographer Ratzel established human geography as an independent discipline.
5. French Geographer Vidalde La Blache published " Principles de Geographie Humaine" which
has three major parts:
a. Distribution of men on the globe
b. Forms of civilization
c. Circulation
6. Brunches gave the clear idea of geography of a man with the identification of following scope of
human geography:
a. On the basis of Evolution of Civilization
i. Geography of the first vital necessity
It includes primary needs like food, cloth and shelter.
ii. Geography of the Exploitation
It includes the human activities and efforts in which human beings satisfy their needs based on
exploitation of natural resources.
iii. Geography of Social and Economic needs
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It includes interdependence, cooperation, division of labor and civic system.
iv. Political and Historic Needs
It includes description of political and historical events in relation to geographical facts.
b. On the basis of Positive Classification
i. Facts of unproductive occupation of the soil
ii. Facts of plan and animal conquest
iii. Facts of destructive exploitation
7. Finch and Trewath classified the elements of human geography in the three groups:
a. Physical Elements
It includes topography, climate, soil, minerals, water bodies, natural vegetation and animals.
b. Population
It includes growth, distribution, density, migration and composition.
c. Cultural Elements
It includes settlements, agriculture, manufacturing, industry, trade and commerce.
8. Ellsworth Huntngton took a comprehensive view of physical conditions, forms of life and
human responses while determining the elements of human geography. According to him, all
elements of bio-physical environment are interrelated and affect each other and their combined
affect is reflected in various responses. He grouped these human responses into four categories
and identified 21 responses as scope of human geography:
a. Material needs
i. Food and Drink, ii. Clothing, iii. Shelter, iv. Tools and v. Means of Transportation
b. Fundamental Occupation
vi. Hunting, vii. Fishing, viii. herding, ix. Farming, x. Lumbering, xi. Mining, xii. Manufacturing
and xiii. Trade and Commerce
c. Efficiency
xiv. Efficiency, xv. Cultural stimulus and xvi. Recreation
d. Higher Needs
xvii. Government, xviii. Education, xix. Science, xx. Religion and xxi. Art and Literature
Approaches to the study of Human Geography:
a. Systematic Approach
It is also known as nomethic approach. It was introduced by Alexander Von Humboldt. In this
approach, a particular phenomenon is considered for detailed understanding. The study of specific
natural or human phenomenon that gives rise to certain spatial patterns and structures on the
earth surface is called the systematic study. It is divided into four main branches:
1. Physical Geography

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It studies the various elements of earth system liker air and their distributions.
2. Biogeography including environmental geography
It focuses on various kinds of forests, grasslands, distribution of flora and fauna, human nature
relationships, quality of living environment and its implications for human welfare.
3. Human Geography
It describe the human population, culture, dynamic social and political aspects.
4. Geographical methods and techniques
It is concerned with methods and techniques for field studies, qualitative, quantitative and
cartographic analysis.
b. Regional Approach
It is also known as ideographical approach. It was developed by Carl Ritter. Region could be
classified based on a single factor like relief, vegetation. Administrative units like states, districts
and taluks can be treated as region. The main sub-branches of regional geography are given below:
1. Regional studies
2. Regional Analysis
3. Regional development
4. Regional planning
Uniqueness and Interdependence of a place
Factors Affecting the Uniqueness of a Place
Factors Description

1. Location It is defined as a particular place or position. It consists of site and


situation.

2. Land Topography It is shape and feature of land surfaces. A place can be located at hill
or mountains or terai.

3. Physical Geography It include landforms, soil and climate. For eg: Australia is located on
island and Mumbai is located on Coastal area.

4. Land use It is defined as the management and modification of natural


environment into built envirionment. For eg: Kathmandu's land is
used for settlement and Dhanusa's land is used for agriculture

5. Built Environment It refers to the human made environment.

6. Infrastructure It includes road and rail networks, waterways, airports.

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7. Demographic It includes age structure, ethnicity

Factors Affecting Interdependence of a place


Factors Description

1. People Migrant workers come from outside

2. Capital Investment from a business based outside the area.

3. Resources Raw materials of one place is transported to another place.

4. Ideas Urban planners, architects, business and artists bring ideas to shape
and change a place.

5. Diffusion The process by which a characteristics spreads across space.

6. Distance Decay The farther away one group is from another the less likely the two
groups are to interact.

Relation of Human Geography with Other Social Sciences:


1. Economics and Human Geography

● Both subject focuses on building theories about spatial arrangement and distribution of
economic activities.
● Both subject examines the economic conditions of particular regions or countries of the world.
It deals with economic regionalization as well as local economic development.
● Both subject examines the history and development of spatial economic structure. Using
historical data, it
● Both subject examines how centers of population and economic activity shift, what patterns of
regional specialization and localization evolve over time and what factors explain these
changes.
● Bothe subject examines the cognitive processes underlying spatial reasoning, locational
decision making, and behavior of firms and individuals
2. Politics and Human Geography
Both subject focuses on the matters like:

● How and why states are organized into regional groupings, both formally (e.g. the European
Union) and informally (e.g. the Third World)
● The relationship between states and former colonies, and how these are propagated over time,
for example through neo-colonialism
● The relationship between a government and its people
● The relationships between states including international trades and treaties
● The functions, demarcations and policing of boundaries
● How imagined geographies have political implications
● The influence of political power on geographical space
● The political implications of modern media (e.g. radio, TV, ICT, Internet, social networks)
● The study of election results (electoral geography)
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3. Population Studies and Human Geography
Both the subject focuses on the subject matters:

● Demographic phenomena (natality, mortality, growth rates, etc.) through both space and time
● Increases or decreases in population numbers
● The movements and mobility of populations
● Occupational structure
● The way in which places in turn react to population phenomena, e.g. immigration
5. Sociology and Human Geography
Both the subject studies the social theory which deals with the social phenomenon and its spatial
components, deals with the spatial interaction among groups and culture, tradition and language
of a particular society.
Human and the Environment:
Deterministic view:
It is the belief that the environment i.e. physical factors such as landforms and climate determines
the patterns of human culture and social development. Environmental determinists believe that
ecological, climate and geographical factors are responsible for human cultures and individual
decisions. Aristotle and Plato explained the environmental determinism by using climate factors.
The rise of most prominent stage of environmental determinsim in modern geography in the
beginning of the late 19th century when it was revived by Ratzel. It regarded men as a passive
agents who were not free and adapted according to the nature. Humans are naturalized according
to this theory. Example; Ibn Khaldun, an Arab Sociologists explained that the hot climate of Sub-
Saharan Africa caused dark human skin.
Conclusion: Human relationship with Nature in Deterministic view can be concluded in the
following ways:

a. Human actions were guided by the nature.


b. Nature is active and Humans are passive.
c. Humans were naturalized.
d. Determinism views that ecological, climate and geographical factors alone are responsible
for human cultures and individual decision.

Possibilism Approach

It began from 1920. It states that the environment sets limitations for cultural development but it
does not wholly define culture. Culture is defined by opportunities and decisions that humans
make in response to deal with such limitations. French Geographer Vidal de la Blache developed
this theory as a reaction to environmental determinism. According to this theory, nature got
humanized. Technology, capital and efficient organizational skills widens limits of the human and
expands range. It regarded environment as the medium by which man is presented with
opportunities. Man’s choice and effort has realized these opportunities. So behaviour is hardly
determined by the environment.

Conclusion: Human relationship with nature in Possibilistic view can be concluded in the
following ways:
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a. Nature gave opportunities and human used that opportunities with their skills, technology
and knowledge.
b. Humans are active and nature is passive.
c. Nature is humanized.

3. Neo-Determinism
It was put forward by Griffith Taylor. He argued that possibilists had developed their ideas in
temperate environment such as North-Western Europe which had offer several viable alternative
forms of human occupance but such environments are rare in the most of the world and the
environment is much more extreme. This theory shows neither there is a situation of absolute
necessity nor is there a condition of absolute freedom. It states that possibilities can be created
within the limits which do not damage the environment. It attempts to bring a balance nullifying
the "either" "or" dichotomy.
Fundamental Concepts of Human Geography
1. Location
It is defined as the particular place or position. It is an important term in geography. Most of the
geographic starts with the study of location. Location is of two types:
a. Absolute Location
It provides a definite reference to locate a place. The reference can be latitude or longitude.
b. Relative Location
It describes a place with respect to its environment and its connection to the other place.
2. Place
It refers to the physical and human aspects of the location. It is associated with toponym, site and
situation of the place. Each place in the world has its own characteristics. Place usually have :
a. Human Characteristics
It includes the human designed cultural features of a place like livelihood, political system,
transportation.
b. Physical Characteristics
It includes the description of the things such as mountain, rivers, beaches, etc
3. Accessibility
It is defined as the ability to reach a place with respect to another place. It refers to the ease of
reaching destinations. It determines equal access and opportunity. It determines equal access and
opportunity. The main component of accessibility in geography is location and distance.
4. Spatial Interaction
It involves the wide range of flows between nodes which includes human movement and
movement of goods. These flows are important aspects of urban and regional dynamics. It is
explained based on analogy with Newton's model of the Gravitational Attraction between body.
Methods used in Human Geography:
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1. Technique of Explanation

• Inductions- It is based on the principle of “From particular to general” . In this method,


particular characteristic of the environment are defined, measured and, mapped and based on
these findings general principle and laws are developed about the place, its people and interaction
between them.

• Deduction- It is based on the principle of “From general to particular”. In this method, a tentative
and general statement (or hypothesis) is made and study is done around this statement and the
characteristics of the particular place, people and its interaction between them are developed on
the basis of this findings.

• Descriptive technique – In this method, there is simply the description of place, people and the
interaction.

• Inferential technique- It is used to that how far samples represent whole and how far hypothesis
fit reality. Figure;

2. Spatial Analysis
It is a type of geographical analysis which seeks to explain patterns of human behavior and its
spatial expression in terms of mathematic and geometry. It is also called area analysis and
locational analysis. It includes looking at human trends in specific place. It explains how and why
settlement and economic activates distribution as they are. Spatial analysis uses concepts of
location, distance, space, accessibility and interaction
1. Location
It is the place where particular point or object exists. It is considered more precise than
place. Location is divided into two types:
Absolute Location: It is the exact place on the Earth.
Relative Location: It is the description of place in relative terms.
1. Place
It describes the physical and human characteristics of the location. Physical characteristics
include description of mountains, rivers, beaches, etc. Human characteristics includes the
human designed cultural features of a place which is land use, folk ways, livelihood.
1. Site and Situation
Site: It is the physical characteristics of a location .i.e. soil, vegetation, climate, water
resources.
Situation: It is the location of a place relative to characteristics that aid human activities
such as accessibility to transportation routes.
1. Accessibility
It is the opportunity for contact or interaction from a given point or location in relation to
other locations. It is affected by:
a. Distance between points or locations
b. Connectivity via nodes and topological space .i.e. transportation
c. Economic, Social and Cultural factors
Theories and Models:
Theories and models are useful and have added much to our understanding of human
geography. They provide an integral part of environmental study and give of a foundation to
academic analysis. For eg: Von thunen theory provides insight about how the farmer will
choose the best location for the farming.
Many theories and models used in human geography an borrowed from other disciplines.
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Fundamental Concepts in Geography:

1. Location
It is the place where particular point or object exists. It is considered more precise than
place. Location is divided into two types:
Absolute Location: It is the exact place on the Earth.
Relative Location: It is the description of place in relative terms.
2. Place
It describes the physical and human characteristics of the location. Physical characteristics
include description of mountains, rivers, beaches, etc. Human characteristics includes the
human designed cultural features of a place which is land use, folk ways, livelihood.
3. Site and Situation
Site: It is the physical characteristics of a location .i.e. soil, vegetation, climate, water
resources.
Situation: It is the location of a place relative to characteristics that aid human activities
such as accessibility to transportation routes.
4. Accessibility
It is the opportunity for contact or interaction from a given point or location in relation to
other locations. It is affected by:
a. Distance between points or locations
b. Connectivity via nodes and topological space .i.e. transportation
c. Economic, Social and Cultural factors

Unit II: Population growth, density and distribution


Population Density and factors affecting it
Population density is the measurement of population per unit area. It is an average number.
It is calculated by dividing the number of people area. It is usually shown as the number of
people per square kilometer.
Population Growth : It is increase in the number of individuals in the population. It is
measured in percent per year.
Population Composition: It is the description of the characteristics of a group of people in
terms of factors such as their age, sex, marital status, education and occupation.
Physical Factors affecting Population Density:
Factors High Density Low Density

1. Relief Low land which is flat. E.g. Ganges High land i.e mountainous makes
Valley in India. Coastal environments difficult to construct buildings and
and those with rivers provide good roads.
access and allow trading to occur
encouraging the growth of economic
activities.

2. Resources Areas rich in resources tend to be Areas with few resources tend to
densely populated. The availability of have sparsely populated.
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natural resources encourages a higher
density of population to settle there.

3. Climate Areas with temperate climates tend to Areas with extreme climates of hot
be densely populated as there is enough an cold tend to be sparsely
rain and heat to grow crops. populated because it makes difficult
to grow crops.

4. Soil Fertile land is densely populated as food Infertile land is sparsely populated
can be produced. as people are unable to grow food.

5. Vegetation Areas with less vegetation help to access Areas with dense vegetation
and provide services and make human provide challenges in terms of
inhabitation easy. access and lack of services makes
human inhabitation difficult.

6. Natural Regions that experience no or few Regions that experience regular


Disaster natural disaster are morel likely to have natural disaster can discourage
a higher population density as they are people from settling in that area.
safe.

7. Water supply A reliable water supply encourages a Lack of water supply discourages
high population density as water can be people to settle
used for drinking, washing,
transportation and irrigation.

d. Social, Cultural and Economic Factors that affect Population Density


Factor High Density Low Density

1. Employment Good job opportunities encourage Limited job opportunities


Opportunities people to settle there as people are cause people to migrate as they
able to secure a regular income. are unable to secure regular
income.

2. Infrastructure Location with effective Location with little or no


infrastructure are usually densely infrastructure is usually
populated. sparsely populated.

3. Security Area with low crime rates are Areas with high level of crime
usually densely populated. rates are usually sparsely
populated.

4. Public Services Effective public services encourages Poor public services


people to settle there. discourage people from living
in that area.

5. Government A safe and reliable government Government corruption can


leads in high population density. lead to a low population
density.

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6. Stability Countries with stable government Countries with instable
tend to be densely populated. government have low
population density.

7. Social Group of people want to live close Other groups of people prefer
to each other. to be isolated.

8. Conflict Areas with no conflict tend to have Areas with conflict tend to
a high density of population. have low density of population.

Theory of Demographic Transition:


It is the theory of the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a
country or regions develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system. Most
developed countries have completed the demographic transition and
have low birth rates, most developing countries are in the process of this transition.

History of the Theory

This theory is based on an interpretation of demographic history developed in 1929 by American


demographer Warren Thompson. Laundry also made similar observations in 1934. In the 1940s
and 1950s. Notestein developed a more formal theory of demographic transition.

Explanation Of The Theory

This theory is based on the following assumption;


1) When the birth and death rates decreases, death rate decreases first.
2) Due to social, economic and other changes in any country, the existing high birth and death
rates decrease to low birth and death rates.

Notestein distinguished three demographic state:

1) Pre-transtional stage

In this stage, there is high birth and death rates as a result the growth of population is not possible.

2) Transitional stage

In this stage, there is declining birth and death rates. In this stage, the death rates declines fastly
than birth rate due to this there is a rapid population growth.

3) Post-transitional stage

In this stage, there is low birth rates and death rates.

In 1947 C.P. Blacker identified five stages of demographic transition

1) High Stationary Stage

It has high birth and death rates and has a stable population. Agriculture base economy and less
per capita country is said to be in this stage. In recent years, most of the countries in this world
has crossed this stage.
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2) The Early Expanding Stage

In this stage, there is high birth but death rate is rapidly declining due to this there is a rapid
population growth. The reason behind this is the improvement in health facilities. Countries like
Nepal, India and Bangladesh are in this stage.

3) The Late Expanding Stage

In this stages, there is slowly declining birth rates and rapidly declining death rates as a result the
population is slowly increasing. The countries like USA, Canada, Japan etc are said to be in this
stage.

4) The Low Stationary Stage

This stage has low and equal birth and death rates. There is no actual growth in the population.
Countries like Australia, Germany, New Zealand are in this stage.

5) The Declining Stage

In this stage, the death rate exceeds birth rates. Developing countries like Hungary, France etc fall
in this category.

Limitation/ Criticism of this theory

1) It is a model rather than theory.


2) It is not supported by the history of all countries such as in France, birth rate fall faster than
death rate.

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3) This theory is linked to the experience of western countries whose historical demographic
trends were by themselves far from uniform.
4) It doesnot provide a time frame for a country to move from one stage to another.

Unit III: Population Movement


Migration
It is the movement of persons away from their usual place of residence, either access on
international border or within a state.
Elements of Migration According to U.N:
a. Leaving the usual place of residence.
b. Crossing the geographical/political boundary
c. Time Frame at least 6 Months
Types of Migration:
a. On the basis of Territory
i. Internal Migration
It is the movement of people within a country involving the establishment of a new temporary or
permanent residence. It is divided into following types:
● Inter-State/District: Migration of people across state or district boundary
● Intra-State/District: Migration within the state or district boundary.
ii. International Migration
It is the movement of person away from their place of usual residence and across an international
border to a country of which they are not nationals.
● Immigration: Movement to a destination country of which they are not natives or do not
possess citizenship (from the view of place of destination)
● Emigration: Movement from one’s country to the destination country (from the view of
place of origin)
b. On the basis of Continent
i.Inter-Continental Migration
Movement of people across continents such as from Asia to Europe
ii. Intra-Continental
Movement of the same or within the continent such as from Asia to Asia.
c. On the basis of Law
i.Regular Migration : Migration that occurs in accordance with the laws of the country of origin,
transit and destination.
ii.Irregular Migration: Movement of person that takes place outside the laws, regulations or
international agreements governing the entry into or exit from the place of origin, transit or
destination.
d. On the basis of Place of Residence
i. Rural to Rural Migration: Movement of people from rural area to another rural area.
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ii. Rural to Urban Migration: Movement of people from rural area to urban area.
iii. Urban to Rural Migration: Movement of people from urban area to rural area.
iv. Urban to Urban Migration: Movement of people from urban area to another urban area.
e. On the basis of Duration:
i.Permanent Migration: Movement from one place to another place and has no plans to
return their original home.
ii.Temporary Migration: Movement of people from one place to another and has plans to
return their original home often limited by time.
f. On the basis of Scales:
i.Mass Migration: Large movement of people over a short-period of time due to natural
disasters and social disasters which have huge social and economic costs in both place of
origin and destination.
ii.Individual Migration: Planned or unplanned movement of people due to many reasons.
g. On the basis of Time Period
i.Short Term Migration: Movement of people for a short period of time especially at least
three months less than a year due to agricultural or other reasons.
ii.Long-term Migration: Movement of people from one place to another for a period of time
at least a year so the place of destination effectively becomes his/her new place of residence.
h. On the basis of Series/Pattern
i.Step-Migration: Migration that takes place in a person’s life which are shorter less extreme
and takes place from a person’s place of origin to his/her place of destination.
ii.Chain Migration: Migration that takes place within a family or defined group of people in
which usually one family member migrates to another place and later he/she brings other
family members/community members to the new location.
i. On the basis of factors Affecting:
i.Forced Migration/ Involuntary Migration: Movement of people from one place to another
in a large group when a government or authority of a place force them to migrate based on
their religion or ethnicity.
ii.Impelled Migration/Reluctant Migration: Movement of people from one place to another
in which people leave the place because of unfavorable situations such as warfare, hunger,
natural disaster.
j. On the basis of Skill
i.Skilled Migration: Movement of skilled people from one place to another.
ii.Semi-Skilled Migration: Movement of semi-skilled people from one place to another.
Migrant
Person who moves away from his/her usual place of residence whether within a country or
across an international border temporarily or permanently due to variety of reasons. This
term includes a number of well defined categories of people such as migrant workers,
smuggled migrants, international students.

Consequences or Effects of Migration:

1. Social Consequence of Migration:

Social Aspect Place of Origin Place of Destination

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1. Infrastructure Less focus will be given in the There will be lack of
development of infrastructure. infrastructure.
The developed infrastructure
will be used less.

2. Security There will be mixed feeling There will be less feeling of


about security because there security because of the
are less people which existence of crime.
ultimately leads to the less
chance of crime.

3. Education Quality education will be less Quality education will be hard


easy to achieve because no one to achieve de to the crowding of
focuses on the development of the people but there is the
infrastructure for education. presence of: qualified and
Existence of large physical experienced teachers, staff;
distance of students to school. good internet connection; large
Difficulty in finding teachers, number of schools; sufficient
poor internet connection and study materials.
lack of study materials.

4. Health Shortage of health facilities, Abundant health facilities,


no medical personnel qualified medical personnel but
crowding of people.

5. Psychology There will be brain drain It will receive more people due
which means people will to brain drain in the place of
migrate for further origin.
generation.

6. Lifestyle There will be change in the The migrate people will observe
lifestyle of those people who a great change in the lifestyle.
has return from the migration.

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7. Culture There will be assimilation of There will be assimilation of
culture. culture.

8. Mental health The family whose member has The migrated person will miss
migrated will miss their his/her family.
member.

9. Breaking/Unification The person who has migrated There will be family


of family will observe the breaking of reunification.
family.

2. Economic Consequences of Migration:


Economic Aspect Place of Origin Place of Destination
1. Labor There will be shortage of There will be more labor
labor and occupation like force especially semi-
agriculture will be based skilled and also causes
upon women, old and unemployment.
child.
2. Raw Material Most of the raw materials Most of the raw material
won’t be utilized due to the will be utilized due to the
lack of the labor force. presence of more labor
force.
3. Flow of Money It will gain money through The money flow will
remittances. procced towards another
place in the form of
remittances.
4. Economic Growth There will be economic There will be huge
growth due to the economic growth due to
remittances. the mass production.
5. Living Standard The living standard of the There are 2 faces:
family whose member has
migrated will increase. a. Since,
unemployment
increases living
standard decreases

b. Since, growth of the


economy increases,
the tendency of
17
living standard also
increase.
6. Mode of Production The destruction of the The flourishment and
(World System traditional mode of empowerment of capitalist
Theory) production. mode of production.

3. Demographic Consequences of Migration


Aspects Place of Origin Place of Destination
1. Size of Population There will be huge number There will be increase in
of absentees in the the population due to the
population. new migrant.
2. Disbalance in Internal Migration: Girls Internal Migration: It will
Gender will migrate to another achieve women migrant
place because of marriage. due to the marriage.

International Migration: International Migrant: It


Men will go to abroad will achieve men migrant.
especially for employment.
3. Age People of age group 15-29 It will achieve people of
will leave the place of age group 15-29.
origin in both internal and
international migration.
4. Marital Status I will lose single married It will achieve single
and never married people married and never married
in internal and people in internal and
international migration. international migration.
5. Place of Residence Place of origin is rural Place of destination is
areas as most of the people urban areas most of the
migrate from this place. people migrate to this
place.

According to the Population Census of 2011, about 33.5% of the rural people migrate to urban area.
The causes of unskilled migrants from rural to urban areas in Nepal are given below:

1. For Income
In the rural areas, the income earned from agriculture is very low and does not fulfill the
need of their households so in order to earn more money they migrate to urban areas
although they are unskilled.
2. For Employment
Besides agriculture, there is comparatively less or no employment in the rural areas than
urban areas. People who wants to earn more money and have another employment besides
agriculture migrate to the urban areas.
3. For better life
For rural area people, urban is just like a heaven as urban areas have better facilities than

18
rural area. People of rural areas want to secure their children’s future by giving them quality
of education. People of rural areas want to have better and reachable health facilities.
People of rural areas want to have social security in their life as a result they migrate to the
urban areas.
4. For safe and easy place
In rural place, the geographical accessibility is very hard. The land topography of rural place
is usually difficult. People have to walk long for water. People have to suffer from natural
disasters. A better example is the recent flood and landslides in Nepal which attacked many
rural areas. Due to this reason unskilled people of rural area migrate to urban area.
In a nutshell, unskilled people from rural areas migrate to urban areas due to the following
reasons:
a. People of rural areas have to move or commute daily for hours from their home in
search of better job opportunities from their countryside.
b. Transportation is another big problem in the rural area. There are fewer services for
public transport from one place to another.
c. Medical facilities are not equipped with modern instruments and infrastructure. It can
be extremely fata for anyone who is living in the country and doesnot have any hospitals
near their home.
d. Most of the schools in the villages have schools up to primary education. For secondary
or college education one has to migrate to the city.

Sufferings faced by the Migrants in the Urban Areas:

a. No Job Security
Since the rural migrants are unskilled, they get job which has low salaries, no security and
sometimes limited for time. In some cases, they are not paid for their work. As a result, they
do not earn according to their expectations.
b. Long Working Hours
Migrants who are unskilled always have to suffer the problem of working long hours. They
have to work long hours with limited break time.
c. Bad Working and Housing Conditions
Rural migrant workers are forced to live and work in bad and unhygienic places. Their
health is compromised. In urban areas, they can’t find a suitable place to live as a result they
end up living in the slum areas.
d. Discrimination
The migrated people always have to suffer from discrimination. In the urban areas, the rural
migrants are often discriminated in various fields from various persons. They are often
called Pakhay from their fellow friends.

Unit VI: Economic activity: Agriculture


Agriculture
It is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. It came from a word "Agercultura" in
which "Ager" means field and "Cultura" means cultivate.
Types of Agriculture:
Type Definition

19
1. Intensive High inputs or yields for given area of land.

2. Extensive Low inputs or yields for given area of land.

3. Commercial Crops are cultivated and animals reared are sold.

4. Substinence Cultivating crops or rearing animals for consumption by the farmer and his
family.

5. Arable The cultivating of crops.

6. Pastoral The rearing of animals.

7. Mixed A combination of arable and pastoral.

Factors Affecting Agriculture:


Physical Influence on Agriculture:
1. Climate:

It includes temperature, air, relative humidity, wind, light and rainfall.

a. Temperature: It affects various growth processes in crops such as seed dormancy breakage,
photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration and seed germination. Plants mature earlier in higher
temperature because photosynthesis and translocation occur faster. Most of the plants cannot
grow if the temperature falls below 6C. In higher latitudes, the shortness of summer is
compensated by the longer duration of the day and the total amount of the heat received is enough
for ripening crops. In lower latitude, where the winters are never too cold to arrest the growth of
the vegetation, the whole year becomes the growing period and the agricultural operations are
timed according to the supply of rainfall. In the high temperature places like SriLanka and Brazil,
there is more greenery and rice farming is possible.

b. Air

Crops require oxygen during respiration to produce energy used in growth and development
processes. During photosynthesis, plants require 𝐶𝑂2 to manufacture food.

c. Relative Humidity

Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor air can hold at any given temperature. Relative
humidity influences the closing and opening of stomata regulating water loss in crops during
photosynthesis and transpiration.

d. Light

It influences phototropism, mineral absorption, stomatal movement and translocation. The


intensity, quality and daylength of light affects plant growth and development.

e. Wind

It is the movement of air resulting from differences in heating and pressure gradients. It promotes
pollination and exchanges gas in crops. Strong winds hamper plan photosynthesis is due to little to

20
no CO2 diffusion intro leaves and also foster water loss. Severe hurricane can physically destroy
thousand of acres of farmland.

f.Water Rainfall

Water is obviously a key factor in the plant growth. The greater the average temperature greater
the amount of water is required for the plant growth. Seasonal variation is important as different
crops require water at different times. For eg: Rice is the principle crop in the tropics because it
requires substantial quantities of water for high yielding whereas Coffee must have a period of
drought before and during harvest.

g.Altitude

This affects temperature so it also affects farming. For eg: In the Alps, dairy farming is found in
valley bottoms and coniferous forestry further up.

2. Topography

It relates to how difficult it is to till land, soil erosion and poor transportation networks and
facilities. Mechanization of land entirely depends on the land topography. If the land is high than
there is more chance of soil erosion. For eg: On rough Hilly lands, the use of agricultural
machinery is impossible. It the land is high then there is more chances of soil erosion. In the
mountainous region of Nepal, the agriculture is very difficult.

3. Soil

A rich soil is the chief requirement of successful agriculture. Soils with poor texture and harsh
chemicals are low in productivity. For example: In Kathmandu valley, the soil is very fertile as a
result vegetable farming is very much suitable in this region.

Social, Cultural and Economic Influence on Agriculture


1. Market
Relation to market generally determines the character of farming . Places away from the market
will generally grow crops which can afford the cost of transport to the market. Places near large
center of population generally develop market gardening and produce easily perishable goods
which can be transported to the market for short distances.
2. Transportation facilities
Commercial farming is impossible in those regions which are far from the market and is ill-
equipped with transportation facilities.
3. Capital
In the developed country, there is a well developed system of supportive banks, private investors
and government subsidies which means that agriculture is most likely to be capital intensive. In
the developing countries, the system of capital support are less developed and farmers have little
capital of their own which means the agriculture will be labor intensive.
4. Labor

21
It determines the character of agriculture. Intensive agriculture is labor intensive and shows the
human pressure on the land. Agriculture requires skilled labor that can appreciate the relations of
season and soils with the crops and adopt the required cultural patterns.
5. Commodity prices
Commodity crops earn farmers losses or profits based on the prevailing price of the output that
industrial buyers are willing to pay.
Theory of Agricultural Location
Introduction:
The model was developed by Johann Vonthunen in early 1800s and was translated into English
until 1966. It is also known as "concentric rings theory of agricultural land use" It outlines an
ideal state whose plan revolves around farming practices focusing on which farming makes most
profit. It explains the development of agricultural towns and cities. The main aim of this theory
is to show how and why agricultural land use varies with the distance from the market.
Assumptions:
1. Land must be isotropic.
2. The State must be isolated surrounded by unoccupied wilderness.
3. The soil and climate must be consistent.
4. The transport cost must be proportional to the distance.
5. All the farmers should have equal access to transport.
6. Farmers act to maximize the profit.
7. Farmers are rational.
The Four Rings:
In an isolated state, Von Thunen hypothesized that a pattern of rings around the city would
develop:
1. Dairying and intensive farming occur in the ring closest to the city because vegetables, fruit,
milk and other dairy products must get to the market quickly as there was no refrigerator in that
time.
2. Timber and firewood in the second ring because before industrialization , wood was a very
important fuel for heating and cooking and wood is very hard to transport.
3. Crops in the third ring because grains last longer than diary products and are much lighter
than wood.
4. Livestock in the final ring because they can walk to the central city for sale or butchering.
Modification of the Model:
It was created before factories, highways and roads. Isotropic plain and the central city received
a lot of criticism. The modified model encompassed roads and rivers that might decrease
transportation costs to some locations.

22
Criticisms:
1. The conditions described in this theory is hardly available in any region of the world.
2. It is not necessary that all types of farming systems as described by Von Thunen exists in all
regions.
3. Not only physical but also social, political and cultural factor effect agricultural location.

Unit VII: Economic activity: Industry


Industry
It refers to production of handy craft to aircraft. It is a group of organizations involved in
producing/manufacturing or handling the same type of product or service. It is a part of the
secondary activity. In a nutshell, industry can be defined as:
1. production of goods
2. extraction of minerals
3. provision of services
Classification of Industries:
1. On the basis of raw material
a. Agro-based Industries
It uses plants and animals based products as their raw materials.
b. Mineral based industries
It is based on mining and use mineral ore as raw materials and are used for heavy machinery and
building materials.
c. Marine based industries
It uses raw material from the forest like wood.
2. On the basis of Size
23
a. Small-scale industries
It has less capital and technology invested in them with less labor. It is also known as cottage
industry.
b. Large scale industry
It is the exact opposite of small scale industries with the large amount of capital invested and
advanced technology used.
Cottage Industry Large Scale Industry

It is based on leisure time. It is based on operation of 24 hours.

The production occurs in small scale. The production occurs in large scale.

There is use of local raw materials. There is use of excessive raw materials
imported from every place.

There is participation of family members. There is large number of participation.

There is use of traditional tools. There is use of modern machines and tools.

There is low amount of investment. There is high amount of investment.

There is supply on local level. There is supply on global level

3. On the basis of Ownership:


a. Private sector
It is owned and operated by an individual or group of individuals.
b. Public Sector
It is owned and managed by the government.
c. Joint Sector Industries
It is jointly operated by the state and the government.
d. Cooperative Sector Industries
It is operated by the suppliers, producers or workers.
Factors influencing the location of industries:
1. Physical factors
a. Raw materials
Modern industry is so complex that a wide range of raw materials is necessary for its growth and
production of goods. Sometimes the industry of location is simply determined by the location of
raw materials. Industries which use heavy and bulky raw materials in their primary stage in larger
qualities are usually located near the supply of the raw materials.
b. Power

24
Regular source of power is the requirement for the most of the industries. Most of the industries
tend to be located at the source of power. The main source of power is coal, mineral oil and
hydroelectricity.
c. Accessibility
The site of new factory needs to be accessible so that importing of raw materials and exporting of
finished product is easy, safe and at low cost.
d. Water
Many industries are established near rivers, canals and lakes because of water.
e. Climate
Harsh climate is not much suitable for the establishment of industries. There can be no industrial
development in extremely hot, humid or dry or cold climate that is why there is no industries in
mountainous region of Nepal.
f. Site
Generally, site should be flat, well adequate transport facilities and cheap. Large areas are required
to build factories. Now, there is a tendency to set up industries in rural areas because the cost of
land has risen in urban centers.
2. Socio-Economic Factors
a. Capital
Modern industries are capital intensive and require huge investment. Companies cannot set up
their chosen industry without investment of money. Capitalist are available in urban centers and
this is why big industries are located in urban centers.
b. Government Policies
Government can greatly influence the location of industry by giving tax incentives, cheap rent and
other benefits, reducing regional disparities and eliminating air and water pollution in certain
areas of the country.
c. Labor Supply
It is important in two aspects:
a. Workers in large numbers are often required.
b. People with skill or technical expertise are needed.
Labor intensive industries are located inside the cities because there is a huge pool of potential
workers.
d. Market
The entire process of manufacturing is useless until the finished goods reach the market. Nearness
to market is essential for quick selling of manufacture goods because it helps in reducing the
transport cost and enables the consumer to get things at cheaper cost.
e. Banking facilities

25
Establishment of industries involves daily exchange of crores of rupees which is possible through
banking facilities. So the areas with better banking facilities are better suited to the establishment
of industries.
Theory of Industrial Location
Introduction:
A German Economist Alfred Weber developed this theory explaining the location of industry. The
basis of this theory is the study of general factors which pull an industry towards different
geographical regions. It is based on the least cost principle which is used to account for a location
of a manufacturing industry. The basis principle is that firm would choose location where costs are
the least.
Assumptions:
1. Location of raw material is fixed.
2. Markets are found only in specific places.
3. The condition and size of consuming centers are known.
4. There is perfect competition.
5. Labor is found only in certain location with unlimited quantity.
6. There is isotropic plain by physically, socially, politically and culturally.
7. Some raw materials are found everywhere.
Factors influencing Industrial Location
1. Primary Factors
a. Transportation Cost
It is influenced by the weight to be transported and distance to be covered. Weber has proposed
the condition in which the location and nature of raw materials.
Condition 1: One Raw Material and One Market
It gives rise to the three situations:
i. Raw Material is available everywhere
The industry should be located at the market.
ii. Raw Material is Fixed and Pure
The industry will be located either at the market or the source.
iii. Raw Material is Fixed and loses weight while processing
The industry will be located at the source of raw material
Condition 2: One Market and Two Raw Materials (𝑅1and 𝑅2 )
i. Both 𝑅1and 𝑅2 are available everywhere
The industry will be located at the market.
ii. 𝑅1 is fixed, 𝑅2 is available everywhere and both are pure.
The industry will be located at the market.
iii. Both 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are fixed and pure
26
The industry will be at market.
iv. Both 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are fixed and gross
M

𝑅1 P 𝑅2
This is a complex situation for which Weber introduced the " Location Triangle". Base line of
triangle ( 𝑅1and 𝑅2) represents the places where fixed raw materials are found.
M= Market is at the apex of the triangle
P= Industrial Location
If the industry is located at the raw material source 𝑅1, then raw material 𝑅2 must be
transported to industrial location 𝑅1 and the finished products must be transported to the
market M which causes more transportation costs. Likewise, the same thing happens when
industry is located at 𝑅2.
If the industry is located at M, then 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 must be transported to M which results more
transport costs. If the industry is located at the halfway between R1 and 𝑅2, then the transport
cost to bring the raw materials from R1 and R2 is equal. Transport cost involved in transporting
the finished goods to the market decreases because of the small distance to the market. In the
final analysis, the transport cost for raw materials to the industrial location P and the finished
products to market M from P together is the least when industry is located at P. There is thus a
chance for increased profit for the industry.
b. Labor Cost

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

It also affects the location of industries. If transportation costs are favorable but labor cost is
unfavorable then the problem of location becomes difficult to have solution. Industries want to get
located at the place where labor costs are low but labor and transportation costs should be low for
an ideal situation. The labor costs may differ due to the difference in the wage rates and difference
in the level of efficiency. To determine the role of locational pattern of labor force on
27
manufacturing location, Weber's locational triangle is placed in concentric pattern of rising
transportation cost outwards from the center. It is assumed that the labor force is dispersed
outwards from the center represents savings of labor cost decreases and a point L comes where the
savings on labor cost overcome the handicap of rising transportation cost. This is more profitable
location transportation cost.
2. Agglomerative or Degglomerative Factors (Secondary Factor)
Agglomerative factor makes industry centralize at a particular place. Eg: bank, insurance, etc
Degglomerative factors make industry to decentralize. Eg: rent of land, labor cost, transport
cots
Criticism:
1. It is simple, unrealistic and imaginary.
2. Transportation cost excludes land topography.
3. Excludes important cause of transportation like climate, capital
4. It is artificial and unnatural.
5. It is not a deductive theory.

Unit IV: Human Settlement


Human Settlement
It is any form of human dwelling from the smallest house to the largest city. It is place
where people live from isolated farm house to mega city. It can either be temporary or
permanent.
Factors affecting settlement:
Settlement is mainly determined by site and situation of a place.
1. Wet Point sites:
Those places which have a good water supply tend to have many settlements.
2. Dry Point Sites
Settlements are also built in those places which are away from the risk of flooding.
3. Defensive site
Settlements are often found on higher grounds so that in the past enemies could be seen
from a distance.
4. Aspect
Settlements are also found in the sunny sides of the deep valley.
5. Shelter
Settlements are found in those places which protect from cold winds and rain.
6. Resources
Settlements are found in those places which have resources.
Settlement Types:
On the basis of Volume:
28
1. Compact or Nucleated Settlement
• It is based on farming comprises of houses, religious centers, fields for grazing
animals and growing cops surrounding the village building. The size of these
settlement depends on nature and resources of surrounding country. It has a high
degree of caste discrimination. It is found in hunting and fishing communities. These
are concentrated, fused, and compact type settlements.
• The rural houses or villages over the landscape have a high degree of
nucleation. Here ‘Rn’ is less than 1.
• The nucleated settlements have closely packed structures with little or no gap in
between.
Determinants of nucleation
• Site factors: The settlement near water bodies, fertile tracts will be high in
comparison to other areas.
• High land capability: In order to utilize the potential of land, the
settlement over the land with high capability would be nucleated with high
population density.
• Hydrology:
• Wet point settlements: The settlement around well, ponds, lakes,
etc. would be nucleated for utilization of water resources.
• Drypoint settlement: Settlement around water bodies (Oasis) in
dry or desert areas will be nucleated.
• Defense: Nucleated settlements provide a defense to the community living
in close proximity and surrounded by a common boundary in order to
protect them from the common enemy (e.g. tribal community make fences
around their settlement to protect them from wild animals)
• Historical continuity: The settlement of a place becomes nucleated due to
an increase in the population of that place over time. The continued
increase in population leads to the high degree of nucleation.
• Customs, beliefs, religious traits, caste: People of the same caste, following
the same customs and traditions prefer to live at the same place which
leads to the formation of nucleated settlements.
• Homogeneous ethnicity: The people with common ethnicity prefer to live
at commonplace leading to nucleated settlement. Example China Town in
Kolkata.
• Generally, a community place such as a religious building, pond, etc. forms the
nucleus around which other rural structures expand.

Distribution of nucleated settlements:


29
• Nucleated settlements are widely found in productive alluvial plains.
• The need for cooperation in agricultural activities like a tilting of land,
borrowing of agricultural implements, etc. brings the farmer communities
together.
• Uniform relief leads to similarities in lifestyles which foster a sense of
brotherhood.
• This is further strengthened by socio-economic bonds formed due to class,
kinship, and other linkages. E.g. Indo-Gangetic plains, Nile valley, Huwang
Ho valley, etc.
• Hunting and fishing communities:
• Hunting and fishing require collective effort in making, marinating, and
handling fishing boats.
• It requires cooperation, management and thus compactness is needed.
• It is observed among American Red Indians, along Brahmaputra, Hooghly
river valleys.
• Security:
• The need to defend against wild animals, common enemies leads to the
formation of compact or nucleated settlements. Example: Forests and
valleys of Shiwalik, western and eastern India, Rajasthan, Punjab,
Bundelkhand, etc.
• Compact settlements are found on hilltops and ridges in Nagaland for
protection against invasion of head hunters.
• Scarcity of resource:
• When the resources of an area are poor and scanty, the compactness of a
settlement enables the maximum utilization of resources.
• For example, people in arid region settle around the area with water
resources such as Oasis (in Sahara, Rajasthan)

2. Semi-Compact Settlement
It is a transitional phase in the growth of compact settlement. As the new technology is
developing and population is increasing, the settlement starts taking the shape of compact
settlement. It arises due to the difference of semi-arid regions from humid regions and
marginal productive land to that of fertile land.
• In rural areas with poor land capability, the rural landscape consists of the houses
which are clustered in hamlets
• Here, large land areas need to be cultivated to support small human groups and to
avoid the travel distance and to save on time, energy, there is diffusion and dispersal
of population
• Here, ‘Rn’ is between 1.5 to 2.5

30
• The hydrology of the area with a dispersed settlement type is poor.
• The area under dispersed settlement type is in a transitional phase in the growth of
the compact settlement.
• With increasing population and adoption of new technologies, the scattered
settlements starts taking the shape of semi-compact settlements.
• Examples of semi-compact settlements are
• East of Aravallis in Rajasthan
• Hilly tracts of Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura, the valley of Brahmaputra.
• Malwa plateau
• Bundelkhand plateau
• Drier parts of Deccan plateau.

3. Dispersed Settlement
It is generally found in the extreme climate, hilly tracks, thick forest, grassland, plateaus
and infertile lands. Overpopulation is one of the reasons for dispersed settlements. If a part
of the population left the village to found a new one, they are often found in dispersed
rather than a new village.
• Villages having dispersed or scattered settlements have farmstead scattered over a
much wider area. It reflects poor hydrology and land capability.
• ‘Rn’ for this type of settlement is greater than 2.5.
• Number of houses per unit area in these types of settlements is very low and there is
a wide gap between the houses.
• Such Rural Settlements are the characteristics of deserts/semi-arid land with poor
land capability or regions affected by natural hazards.
• Such villages are common in:
• Areas of extreme climate
• Hilly tracts
• Deserts
• Thick forests
• Grasslands
• Areas of extensive agriculture.
• Poor agriculture land
• Areas where it is essential for farmers to live on agricultural land rather
than distant village settlement

31
• The dispersed Rural Settlements are usually of recent age since people are moving
away from dense settlements in the search of new spaces. With the development of
technology, people have found a way to live in deserts also.
• Steppe grasslands on the east of the Urals in Uzbekistan, Russia came into
being during the late 19th century. Similarly, dispersed settlements are
found in extensive agricultural regions of Prairies (US, Canada), Pampas of
Argentina, Downs of Australia, etc.
• Semi-desert regions of Rajasthan, forest lands of North East India,
Shiwaliks, Jammu, and Kashmir, and parts of Peninsular India also have
dispersed types of settlements.
• Dispersed type of settlements is also found in underpopulated areas of
northern Canada, Central Australia, Scandinavian countries and the
Western USA.
• Some areas with productive land and good climate also have these
settlements, mainly due to historical or socio-cultural reasons. E.g. when
an overcrowded part population leaves the village to develop a new
settlement, often a dispersed one. Such settlements can be observed in the
Northern plains in between two large compact settlements.
• Similarly, when people move into marshy lands, Khadar tracts, or marginal
upland farms, then they need a larger area for sustenance (isolated farms).
• The Western Ghats in the rain shadow area, Leh-Ladhak, Kutchh, and
Western Rajasthan has dispersed settlement types

Patterns of Rural Settlement

1. Linear pattern: In such settlement’s houses are located along a road, railway line, river,
canal edge of a valley or along a levee.
2. Rectangular pattern: Such patterns of rural settlements are found in plain areas or wide
inter montane valleys. The roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles.

3. Circular pattern: Circular villages develop around lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is
planned in such a way that the central part remains open and is used for keeping the
animals to protect them from wild animals.
4. Star like pattern: Where several roads converge, star shaped settlements develop by the
houses built along the roads.
5. T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements: T-shaped settlements develop
at tri-junctions of the roads. While Y-shaped settlements emerge as the places where two
roads converge on the third one and houses are built along these roads. Cruciform
settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses extend in all the four direction.
6. Double village: These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a
ferry.

32
Difference between Urban and Rural Settlement:

BASIS FOR
URBAN SETTLEMENT RURAL SETTELEMENT
COMPARISON

Meaning A settlement where the population is An area located in the


very high and has the features of a outskirts, is known as rural.
built environment, is known as
urban.

Includes Cities and towns Villages and hamlet

Life Fast and complicated Simple and relaxed

Environment Greater isolation from nature. Direct contact with nature.

Associated with Non-agricultural work, i.e. trade, Agriculture and livestock.


commerce or provision of services.

Population size Densely populated Sparsely populated

Development Planned settlement exists in urban Developed randomly, based


areas, that are developed according on availability of natural
to the process of urbanization and vegetation and fauna in the
industrialization. area.

Social mobility Highly intensive Less intensive

Division of labor Always present at the time of job No such division.


allotment.

Problems of Rural Settlements:

• Rural settlements in the developing countries are large in number and poorly equipped with
infrastructure. They represent a great challenge and opportunity for planners.
• Supply of water to rural settlements in developing countries is not adequate. People in
villages, particularly in mountainous and arid areas have to walk long distances to fetch
drinking water. Water borne diseases such as cholera and jaundice tend to be a common
problem.
• The countries of South Asia face conditions of drought and flood very often.
• Crop cultivation sequences, in the absence of irrigation, also suffer.
• The general absence of toilet and garbage disposal facilities cause health related problems.
33
• The houses made up of mud, wood and thatch, remain susceptible to damage during heavy
rains and floods, and require proper maintenance every year. Most house designs
are typically deficient in proper ventilation.
• Unmetalled roads and lack of modern communication network creates a unique problem.
During rainy season, the settlements remain cut off and pose serious difficulties in
providing emergency services.
• It is also difficult to provide adequate health and educational infrastructure for their large
rural population.
Problems of Urban Settlements

1. Economic Problems:

o The decreasing employment opportunities in the rural as well as smaller urban areas
of the developing countries consistently push the population to the urban areas.
o The enormous migrant population generates a pool of un-skilled and semi-skilled
labour force, which is already saturated in urban areas

2. Socio-cultural Problems

o Cities in the developing countries suffer from several social ills. Insufficient financial
resources fail to create adequate social infrastructure catering to the basic needs of
the huge population.
o The available educational and health facilities remain beyond the reach of the urban
poor. Health indices also, present a gloomy picture in cities of developing countries.
o Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates. Male selective
migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in these cities.

3. Environmental Problem:

o Vulnerability to risk posed by the increasing man-made and natural disasters.
According to UNDP, 70 % of Indian population is at risk to floods and 60%
susceptible to earthquakes.

o The risk is higher in urban areas owing to density and overcrowding. Urban areas are
becoming heat islands, ground water is not being recharged and water crisis is
persistent. Here making, water harvesting compulsory will be beneficial
o Environmental concerns such as urban areas becoming heat islands, rising
air pollution, groundwater pollution and persistent water crisis.
Settlement Hierarchies

A settlement hierarchy is a way of arranging settlements into a hierarchy based upon their
population or some other criteria. A settlement hierarchy is a simple way of classifying
settlements into a hierarchy based on their population, function, size or other criteria.
Settlements come in many different sizes and these can be ranked according to their
population and the level of services available.

34
Settlement Definition Number of People

1. Megalopolis When conurbations have joined to +10 million people


become one

2. Conurbation A group of large cities and their 3-10 million people


suburbs that have strong link
connecting them to each other.

3. Metropolis A city and surrounding towns that are 1-3 million people
in close proximity and have started to
merge into each other.

4. Large city A city with large population and many 300000-1 million people
services.

5. City Have wide range of services but not as 100000-300000 people


many as a large city

6. Large town Much more varied range of shops 20000-100000 people


available to villages

7. Town Increase in services 1000-20000 people

8. Village Start to have some basic services 100-1000 people

9. Hamlet It have very few tiny populations and <100 people


few services

10 Isolated dwelling Tend to be farmhouse A few building

Site and Situation


Site
It is the actual location of settlement on the earth. It includes the physical characteristics of the
land specific to the area. It includes landforms, climate, vegetation, availability of water, soil
quality, minerals and water. It leads to the development of large cities but also create challenges
people.
Situation
It is the location of a place relative to its surroundings and other places. It includes the factors:
accessibility of the location, extent of a place's connections with other and how close an area may
be to the raw material.
Difference between the Site and Situation:

35
1. Site is the exact location of a city while situation is the surround features which is both man
made and natural.
2. Site has features that are inherent to its location while situation has features that are external to
the settlement.
3. Site is the land that the settlement was build upon while situation contains the surrounding
areas of the city.

Can every small city change into mega city? Give your view with proper example
No every small city can change into mega city.

In order to develop a city, a place needs to have two features: site and situation.

Site

It is the actual location of settlement on the earth. It includes the physical characteristics of the
land specific to the area. It includes landforms, climate, vegetation, availability of water, soil
quality, minerals and water. It leads to the development of large cities but also create challenges
people. If the site of the city is geographical difficult although that place has a better social and
economic relationship with other places that city can’t develop into mega city. For example:
Mugling Bazar, Waling Bazar, Beni Bazar have great economic relationship with other cities but
due to the geographical limitations that city can’t grow bigger.

Situation

It is the location of a place relative to its surroundings and other places. It includes the factors:
accessibility of the location, extent of a place's connections with other and how close an area may
be to the raw material. If the city have a great site but still the situation of that city is bad then the
city cannot grow into mega city. For example: Lekhnath has a great site for to be grown into the
city but people of Lekhnath are attracted to Pokhara for every economic activities as a result
Lekhnath could not grow into the mega city.

Central Place Theory

Introduction:
It was first developed by the German Geographer Walter Christaller in 1933 AD. It is a spatial
theory in urban geography that attempts to explain the reasons behind the distribution patterns,
sizes and a number of cities and towns around the world. Christaller developed this theory after
the study of settlement patterns in Southern German which analysed the relationship between
settlements of different sizes and related their economic activites with the population.
Assumptions:
● An even (flat) terrain
● Evenly distributed population
● Evenly distributed resources
● Similar purchasing power
● Preference for the nearest market
● Equal transportation cost
36
● Perfect competition
Two main concepts of Central Place Theory
As per Walter Christaller, Central Place Theory is based on 2 fundamental concepts which are
“Threshold” and “Range”

Threshold – The minimum population needed to make a service viable at a particular place. If this
size is not reached then a particular activity will not start or it will be closed down.

Range – This is the maximum distance a consumer is willing to travel to purchase good or avail a
service, beyond this distance consumer will not travel as the distance traveled for good/service will
outweigh the benefit. Range has two limits, Upper Limit denotes an area beyond which there will be
no buyer willing to travel. And, Lower Limit denotes an area need for a firm to make profits and have
sufficient demand.

Sizes of settlements/communities as per central place theory

Walter Christaller gave a system with 5 sizes of settlements based on population. The smallest unit
is Hamlet which is considered a rural community and the largest unit is Regional Capital. The rank
order of central places in ascending order include:
1. Hamlet
2. Village
3. Town
4. City
5. Regional Capital/ Metropolis
The arrangement of the Central places/ settlements:
As transport is equally easy in all direction, each central place will have a circular market area as
shown in C in the following diagram:

37
However, the circular shape of the market areas results in either un-served areas or over-served
areas. To solve this problem, Christaller suggested the hexagonal shape of the markets as shown in
D in the above diagram. Within a given area there will be fewer high order cities and towns in relation
to the lower order villages and hamlets. For any given order, theoretically, the settlements will be
equidistant from each other. The higher order settlements will be further apart than the lower order
ones.

Principles in the arrangement of the central places:

Christaller’s theory gives 3 principles which are the marketing principle, transport principle and
administrative principle for orderly arrangements and the formation of hierarchy. Settlements are
regularly spaced – equidistant spacing between same order centers, with larger centers farther apart
as compared to smaller centers. The market area is hexagonal shaped as it is free from overlapping,
most efficient in both number and function. Three Principles of Christaller for determining
distribution of central places in a region.
● Marketing principle: If the distribution is entirely based on the range of the good, then it
would result in evenly spaced central places with hexagonal markets area.
● Traffic principle: If any central place (city) is smaller in size than expected than it be
because of lower accessibility (not falling on major transport route) and vice-versa
● Separation principle: Spacing and sizing of Central places can sometimes be distorted due
to socio-political consideration.
The different layouts predicted by Christaller have K- values which show how much the Sphere of
Influence of the central places takes in — the central place itself counts as 1 and each portion of a
satellite counts as its portion:

1. Marketing Principle (K=3)


2. Transport Principle/ Traffic Principle (K=4)
3. Administrative Principle (K=7)
38
The three principles of central place theory are as follows
Marketing Principle (K=3): As per this the market area of a higher order occupies one-third (1/3
part) of the market area of each of the consecutive lower size place(node) which lies on its neighbor.
The lower size nodes (6 in numbers and 2nd larger circles) are located at the corner of the largest
hexagon around the high-order settlement. Each high-order settlement gets 1/3rd of each satellite
settlement (which are 6 in total), thus K = 1 + 6×1/3 = 3.
With K=3 the transport network is not efficient even when the distance traveled is reduced. This is
because of the absence of transport links (network) between the larger places (nodes).

Transport Principle (K=4): It states that the distribution of central place is most favorable when as
many important places lie on traffic route between two important towns as a result the route will be
straight and cheap. When central places are arranged according to the traffic principle, the lower
order centers are located at the midpoint of each side of the hexagon rather than at the center. Thus,
the transport principle produces a hierarchy organized in a k=4.
Administrative Principle (K=7): This principle emphasizes that each center should have control of
the 6 surrounding area and no divided allegiance exists. There should be no power sharing between
lower and higher order. The center governs itselve and hence the “k” value is 7.

39
Criticisms

1. It's assumptions are flawed and unrealistic.


2. Transportation costs are not equal in all direction.
3. Rural market are not evenly distributed.
4. People or resources are never perfectly distributed.

Unit V: Urban Settlement and Urbanization


Urban Areas: It is a human settlement with a high population density and infrastructure of built
environment. It is created through urbanization and is categorized by cities, towns, conurbations
or suburbs.
Urbanization: It is a process which involve two phases:
a. movement of people from rural to urban places where they involve in secondary activities
b. change in lifestyle that results from leaving the countryside
• In general usage, urbanization refers to the relative concentration of a territory’s
population in towns and cities (i.e. relative urban growth). It may also refer to
the process of being urban.
• As a demographic process, which is the commonest use of the term, urbanization
involves towns and cities growing in relative size within a space economy through,
first, an increasing proportion of the population living in an urban place and, second,
their concentration in the target urban settlement. The end of the sequence is an
almost completely urbanized society, with the great majority of the population living
in just a few larger places.
• Linked to these demographic processes (with migration the main contributor to
urban growth) are the structural changes in the society consequent upon the
development of capitalism (i.e. structural urbanization). Cities are the foci of
production, distribution, and exchange process, because of the economies of scale
and scope from agglomeration. Urbanization is the necessary component of
industrialization and development (though seen over urbanization)
• Finally, there is behavioral urbanization. Urban areas especially the larger ones are
centers of social change. Values, attitudes, and behavior patterns are modified in the
urban milieu (known as urbanism) and new forms (which may be reflected in
townscape as with architectural styles) then spread through the urban system
through diffusion processes.

• This three-part model of urbanization has demographic change as a dependent


variable within a process driven by structural imperatives. As a model, it is
40
particularly suited to the analysis of modern capitalism. It has been demonstrated for
example, that substantial urban growth and urbanization occurred in other parts of
the world, notably Asia long before the industrial revolution and rapid urbanization
in the North Atlantic area in the nineteenth and twentieth century.
• City growth is not the feature of industrial societies alone and large settlements have
characterized other forms of economic integration; similarly, rapid urban growth is
occurring in many parts of the Third World as migrants flock to cities with
aspirations for both better economic and social conditions than found in smaller
places. Thus, as the arguments over counter urbanization also shows demographic
urbanization can occur in a variety of contexts, and what is typical of one time and
place may not be typical of others.
Process of Urbanization:

• Urbanization as a structural process of change is generally related to industrialization, but it


is not always the result of industrialization.
• Urbanization results due to the concentration of large-scale and small scale industrial and
commercial, financial, and administrative set up in the cities; technological development in
transport and communication, cultural and recreational activities.
• Urbanization is an integral part of economic development, As the economy develops, there
is an increase in the per capita income and also the demand for non-farm goods in the
economy.
• Stages in urbanization: In many developed countries the process of urbanization is almost
at an end and the proportion of urban dwellers is beginning to fall. The progress has
followed the S-shaped curve and it seems to have tilted off at 80% of the total population.
There are 5 stages:
o Very slow growth with most people employed in agriculture.
o Rapid urbanization associated with economic development
o Urbanisation ends – the vast majority lives in towns and cities and are employed in
industry and services
o Counter urbanization occurs and the urban proportion decreases as same prefer to
commute.
o Re urbanization associated with the revival of urbanization.

As a socio-cultural It is a “melting pot” of people with diverse ethnic, linguistic,


phenomenon and religious backgrounds. E.g. kolkata

The city is a focal point of productive activities. It exists and


As an economic process grows on the strength of the economic activities existing
within itself. E.g. Mumbai

It deals with migration or change of location of residence of


As a geographical process people and involves the movement of people from one place to
another.

Urban Settlement: It is a densely populated area comprising mostly man made structures.
Factors or Causes of Urbanization
i. Natural Increase in Population
41
One important cause of rapid urbanization is the natural increase in population. The number by
which the birth rate exceeds the death rate in urban area gives natural increase in population.
ii. Migration from Rural Areas
In developing countries, urbanization usually occurs when people migrate from village to settle in
cities in hope of gaining a better standard of living. Migration is influence by economic growth and
development an by technological change and by conflict and social disruption.
iii. Boundary Changes
As cities expanded, the outlaying rural areas have been included in the urban areas. They may even
continue to retain the most of the characteristics of villages but they are counted as urban
population by virtue of being classified as urban areas.
iv. Industrialization
It is a trend representing the shift from old agricultural economy to novel non-agricultural
economy which creates modernized society. Through industrial revolution, more people have been
engaged in secondary activities and are attracted to move from rural to urban areas on the account
of employment opportunities.
v. Commercialization
Commerce and trade play a major role in urbanization. The distribution of goods and services and
commercial transcations in the modern era has developed the modern marketing institutions and
exchange methods that have tremendously given rise to the growth of town and cities.
Commercialization comes with the two perception that towns and cities offer better commercial
opportunities and returns compared to the rural areas.
vi. Social benefit and services
There are numerous social benefit found in the life of towns and cities like education, better living
standards, health care , etc. On this account, more and more people of rural area are prone to
migrate into cities and towns for achieving those benefits.
vii. Modernization and changes in the mode of living
As urban area is becoming more technology known with highly sophisticated communication,
infrastructure and liberalization, people believe that they can lead a happy life in cities. As a result,
people migrate to other cities and the cities grow by absorbing the growing number of people.

Urbanization Problems in developed countries


• Urban to rural migration (or urban sprawl): as the urban area is expanding, urban
culture is spreading. This leads to:
• Decline in agricultural land: In UK, more than 15% of fertile agricultural
land is under built-up area. West Europe is facing a food shortage.
• It is reducing rural-urban dichotomy and bringing about the rural-urban
continuum. This continuum in the long run is going to harm the
agricultural economy.
• Transportation cost increases.
• Urban pollutants are reaching in villages.
• Municipal revenue is declining.
• Problem of vacant houses.

42
• Environmental degradation: Industrial complexes remain in towns. Skyscraper
winds and many other patterns of wind have emerged. Acid rain, temperature
increase, air pollution, etc. are of concern. This leads to health problems.
• Demographic problems: inverse age pyramid is an outcome. Old-age occupants
dominate the town. This is called neo population explosion. The impact is labour
shortage. As a result:
• Most of the developed countries have liberalized their immigration laws.
E.g.- Australia earlier had a White Australian policy, under which only
whites can settle in Australia. But, later in 1975, this policy was ended.
• Family system is breaking- nuclear families are emerging. The European
system is facing social disorder.
Urbanization Problems in developing countries
• Population explosion: of the large-sized urban centers, particularly the metropolitan
cities and capital cities. This is due to both rural-urban and urban-rural migration.
Capital cities attract due to both social and political reasons. Also, capital centres
attract many industrial complexes due to better infrastructure and market
• Environmental degradation: it includes problems such as:
• Slum growth
• Housing shortage
• Inadequate Public Utility Services
• Urban poverty
• Pollution
• Unplanned land use
• Transport problems: the insufficient transport infrastructure leads to capacity
overloading, causing problems such as road accidents, traffic jams, etc. E.g. as per
World Disaster Report, per 10000 licensed vehicle, there has been a maximum
number of fatal accidents in Ethiopia (needs update)
• Outer expansion of towns: there is no planned urban sprawl, the rapid growth of
RUF, and unplanned settlement outside the town.
• Urbanization is not at all problems, but unsustainable and unplanned urbanization
creates the following problems:
• Urban Sprawl
• Congestion
• Shortage of houses
• Vertical expansion
• Growth of slums and substandard houses
• Illegal settlements

43
Remedies for Urbanization
• Urban centers of developing countries first need to check the rural-urban migration.
It needs rural development and the development of smaller town areas. The legal
framework for town planning should be strictly enforced for better land use. Slum
recreation, poverty eradication, house construction is to be done. Global help for
capital and technology is needed for housing and job creation. It needs a
multidimensional approach.
• Rapid Mass Transport (RMT) for better transportation system.
• Reform of the urban water sector.
• Efficient use of urban land – Scientific town planning & Sustainable
development of urban planning needed.
• Long term strategic urban planning with the overall regional planning
perspective.
• The environmental sustainability of urban development.
• Investment in new urban infrastructure assets and maintenance of assets.
• Need to strengthen urban governance
• To strengthen the ‘soft infrastructure’
• Improvements of urban utilities such as water and sewerage NUHM
(National Urban Health Mission) for better urban public health.
• Need to fulfill the basic needs of the urban poor.
• Migration needs to be regulated
• Smart city concept if implemented effectively
• Provision of Urban Amenities to Rural Areas (PURA)
• Population control

44
• Innovation needed to control pollution and waste handling
• Rurbanization: Provide like urban facilities in rural areas or make rural
areas smart is called rurbanization.
Some additional topics

• Counter Urbanisation: Counter urbanization is when large numbers of people move


from urban areas into the surrounding countryside or rural areas. It is both a
demographic (population-driven) and social process but has to a lesser extent also
involved the movement of some businesses and economic activities.
• Over urbanization: it refers to population growth in an urban area which outstrips its
job market and the capacity of its infrastructure; ‘urbanization without
industrialization.
• Urbanism: it refers to the way of life associated with the residents of the urban areas.
Urbanization is the movement of people from rural to urban areas, and the result is
the growth of cities. It is also a process by which rural areas are transformed into
urban areas. Urbanization is a process that has occurred or is occurring, in nearly
every part of the world that humans have inhabited. People move into cities to seek
economic opportunities.
• Rural-urban continuum: it refers to a continuous gradation of a way of life between
two poles of truly rural community and truly urban society. Proponents of the
continuum theory feel that rural-urban differences occur in a relative degree in a
range extending between two polar extremes of rural and urban. The continuum
theory lays emphasis on the rural-urban differences rather than on the rural-urban
dichotomy. Irrespective of the course of evolution, the distinction can be drawn
between the rural and urban ways of life.
Characteristics of Urbanization:
• Ritual and kinship obligations are diluted; caste and community considerations yield
to economic logic. This results in secularization of outlook.
• In the urban context the traditional social structure undergoes a process of losing up.
• The quality of human relationships tends to become more formal and impersonal.
• Urbanization leads to greater functional specialization and division of labour.
• Urbanization life is organized around community organizations and voluntary
associations.
• Towns have substantial cultural, educational, recreational and religious resources that
become institutionalized.
• Urban areas provide impulses for modernization is society as a whole.

Classification of Town on the basis of Function:


1. Manufacturing Town: It is also known as factory town. It is defined as the settlement that is
developed around one or more factories usually cotton or textile producing factories.
Examples: New Mills of UK
2. Commercial Town: It is defined as the settlement in which the primary land use is
commercial activities such as shops, offices, theaters, restaurants. Eg: Kolkata
3. Transportation Town: It is defined as the settlement which is primarily engaged in
transportation activities of human and goods. Eg: Vishakhapatnam
4. Administrative Town: It is defined as town supporting the administrative headquarters of
higher order. Example: New Delhi
5. Military Town: It is defined as town which is economically dependent upon or receives its
greatest economic inputs from the nearby military base. Example: Kingston of Canada,
Columbus of USA

45
6. Financial Town: It is defined as the town with the strategic location leading financial
institutions, reputed stock exchanges, dense concentration of public and private banks and
trading and insurance companies. Eg: London, Singapore
7. Mining Town: It is defined as a town that houses miners and is rich in minerals. Eg: Dragon
City of USA
8. Agricultural Town: It is the agglomeration in a rural environment with a population
sometimes several thousand strong but whose main occupation is agriculture. Eg: Alcala of
Spain,Eboli of Italy
9. Religious Town: It is defined as a town important to the history or faith of a specific
religion. Eg: Vanaras, Vetican City
10. Tourism Town: It is defined as a town where tourism or vacationing is the primary
component of the local culture and economy. Eg: Pokhara, Nainital
11. Recreational Town
12. Diversified Town
13. Construction Town

Unit VIII: Geography and Planning


Region
It is defined as the uniform physical or human characteristics of a place. It is defined as the
part of the earth's surface with one or many similar characteristics that make it unique from
other areas.
Types of Region:
i. Formal Region
These are designated by official boundaries such as cities, states, countries and share some
uniform characteristics. For the most part, they are clearly indicated and publicly known. Eg:
Terai Region of Nepal
ii. Functional Region
It usually contains the central point with defined boundaries and the area around is connected
via well-developed network of transportation and communication systems that facilitates the
movement of people, goods and ideas within the system. Eg: New York, Mumbai, Beijing
iii. Vernacular Region
When places in the world share same characteristics, we tend to imagine these places are being
bound by imaginary boundary. The physical mad do not formally define the boundaries of
such regions. Eg: Middle East Region, West Indies
Difference between Formal and Functional Regions

Formal Region Functional Region


• Often concrete and physical • Specific to one area
in nature

• Has specific boundaries • Areas organized around a


that set them apart from node or focal point. (like a
other regions in the world university, airport, or a
radio station

46
• Often can be seen inside • This kind of region
one another diminishes in importance
outward

• Homogeneous areas or • Often a metropolitan area


habitats inhabited by social that consists of a major city
groups, societies, or nations and lots of smaller towns or
cities that surround it

• Organized and represented • The region is tied to the


by small systems or part central point by
systems transportation or
communication systems or
economic or functional
associations

• Based on facts and • Many people live in one


knowledge of an area; like town and work in another
population and because they are part of the
temperature same functional region

• Has clear cut, political • Functions and works


boundaries together as part of an
economic and social system

• Characterized by a • The purpose of functional


common human property locations is to study the
like language, religion, structure and functions of
nationality, political community within some
identity or culture, spaces
common physical property,
climate, land form and
vegetation

• Defined by measures of: • The accessibility and


Population, ethnic isolation are measured in
background, crop terms of cost distance, time
production, per capita distance or mileage through
income, population density a transport network – these
and distribution, industrial distances are measured
production, mapping from special nodes or axes
physical characteristics,
temperature, rainfall and
growing season

• Defined by common • Defined by a set of


political identity, political activities, connections or
units – where all people are interactions
subject to same laws and
government

47
Examples: States, Countries, Cities,
Counties and Provinces

• Examples for formal • Examples include


regions: Chinatown (San newspaper circulation area,
Francisco, CA) Chinatown Commuter traffic patterns,
– (big cities in USA) – Subway systems in NYC,
Chinese people, Boston, etc., Highway
restaurants, stores systems, Los Angeles
Metropolitan Area

Two Scientific Approaches of Region:


1. Territorial Approach
In this approach, region is seen as an demarcated area which is different from other.
2. Relational Approach
In this approach, regions are connected and are having a wide web of economic, political, social
and cultural regions.
Regionalization:

Regionalization is the process of making a region based on homogeneous geographical


variables. Regionalization includes identification of variable such as

Natural geographical Artificial Variable Demarcation of


variable: boundaries

Climate GDP, HDI Physical barriers

Temperature Percapita Income Line

Topography Sex Ratio, fertility ratio, birth rate, the death rate Frontiers

Vegetation Migration Boundaries may be


real or only exist in
Rainfall Productivity, crop production type the mind
Minerals Land use Making the simple
Political types such as democrats, autocrat, understandable
communism, socialism region

Religion-based, Language-based, Culture-based

48
Methods of Regionalization

• Regional delineation is the first step in the preparation of any regional development
plan to ensure the tentative operational area of planning. within the planning region,
the frame of all regional studies could be undertaken and development envisaged.
• Regionalization is the process of dividing complexity with respect to a region into
simple understandable forms.
• The essence of regionalization is uniformity/homogeneity of a region so the method
should be such that the region so created has marked dissimilarity with the
neighboring area (Area 1 and Area 2).

• Steps in the regionalization process involve investigation of the area where


regionalization attributes are to be applied, then there will be a thorough survey of
the area under consideration which would decide the parameters on which the
regionalization is to be done (e.g. region with a high density of population). After the
survey of an area with respect to the given parameter is done, there will be
generalization based on the above parameters (e.g. areas with a population density of
300, 400, etc.
• Regionalization is based on the investigation. The investigation includes
the identification of variables which has bearing on a large number of
other variables existing in a given space. (E.g. variables in population
include population density, age, etc.)
• The next step in regionalization is a reconnaissance survey which is
conducted by more than one observer, thus giving non-coinciding
boundaries for the same area.
• The generalization is done wherein the largest number of coinciding
interactions is identified.
Different approaches to regionalization
• Till World War II empirical approach was followed e.g. flow analysis
• During the phase of Quantitative Revolution statistical approach was followed. e.g.
Gravity Models
• During the Critical Revolution, empirical cum statistical tools were employed in
methods of regionalization. E.g. Delhi NCR.
• Empirical approach
• This approach was popular till World War II

49
• It was based on observation and assessment for the purpose of
demarcation of a region.
• Here the region is demarcated based on the observation of the people.
• The drawback of this approach lies in the fact that there is no clear
demarcation of a region based on this method
• Statistical approach
• Due to the Quantitative Revolution gravity models were used for the
precise demarcation of a region.
• After the 2nd World War geographers used scientific techniques and
precisely demarcated a region from its neighbor regions.
• The sphere of influence of a region was demarcated by using the law of
retail trade which states the area of influence of a city or a region in
providing goods and services (trade) to adjacent regions by using statistical
methods (formulas).
• Empirical cum statistical approach:
• With Critical Revolution in geography, geography is a subject in humanity
where some flexibility is required as man is involved, and the scientific
approach does not last long.
• Thus, there was a need for empirical cum statistical approach. This
approach got tremendous support. For example demarcation of the NCR
region of Delhi involves both a statistical approach (area to be included in
NCR) and an empirical approach (migration of people in NCR).

Delimitation of a Naive region

• Due to the complexity and contradictory nature of elements constituting the region,
only vague and transitional boundaries can be delineated.
• E.g. it is difficult to draw linear boundaries for a cultural region due to the
transitional nature of the zones of cultural regions (Buddhist cultural zones
in India).
• The methods involved in the delimitation of the naive region are
• Flow analysis
• In this method first, the core is identified, and based on primary
data it is estimated that how far flow of goods and services or the
traits of culture can be identified
• This method can be used for classifying even the functional
region.
• E.g. R L Singh analysis of Sphere of Influence or
Umland (write about vegetable supply, newspaper
supply, etc.)
• For the cultural region the elements of culture are identified say
language, religion, dressing sense, etc. and based on their

50
occurrence in surroundings, the regional boundaries can be
vaguely drawn
• Relative intensity analysis
• Let’s suppose (i) and (j) are the two segments of the space and Yi
and Yj are the per capita income. The equation Yi-Yj gives the
value which is the difference between the Per Capita Income of
the two segments.
• A geographer can fix criteria or a limit beyond which the
heterogeneity between (i) and (j) is so high that they can be
differentiated and classified as regions.
• If the value is less than the criteria, (i) and (j) are homogeneous
and can’t be differentiated into two regions. This is the most
accepted method which is applied to delimit the naive regions.
Although, the boundaries can’t be defined as the naive regions
don’t have boundaries that are clear.

Delimitation of formal region

• Formal regions have precise boundary limitations. E.g. 18 degrees C isotherm,


administrative boundaries, etc.
• Delineation of formal regions involves the grouping together of local units which
have similar characteristics according to certain clearly defined criteria and which
differ significantly from the units outside the region on the basis of certain chosen
criteria.
• The criteria can be unemployment rates, activity rate, migration trends, per capita
income, etc.
• The characteristics should differ significantly from units outside the region.
• The delineation depends on the development objectives.
• Variables for delineation of the formal region (homogeneous): Land use
characteristics Demographic characteristics; Transport infrastructure; Social service
and public utilities; Socio-economic structures.
• There are two techniques for delineation of formal regions are detailed below:
1. Weighted Index Number Methods
2. Factor Analysis Method
Weighted Index Number Methods
• In this method, some indices (parameters) are chosen and given weights, total
weights for each part is separately calculated and areas with similar weights are
carved out. This area is termed as ‘region’.
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• Example: For identifying employment & income level delineation The
study area is divided into several localities varying according to
unemployment rates and per capita income levels. The aim is to isolate the
main problem region; i.e. the area of economic malaise. Weights are
assigned to each criterion and when taken together and weighted, one of
the regions can be isolated
• If delineation of the formal region is done on the basis of one criterion then we will
use the Relative Intensity Analysis Method.
• E.g. say regions (a) and (b) have Per Capita Income Xa and Xb, then these
will be included in the same region if Xa=Xb or less than a limit.
• If we consider more than one feature to delineate literacy, industries, per capita
income then methods are:
• Fixed index method
• Variable index method
• Cluster method
• Fixed index method:
• Under the fixed index method a number of characteristics (indices)
common to regions are chosen. E.g. per capita income, unemployment,
rate of industrialization.
• An arbitrary weight is given to each index and a single weighted mean is
obtained from each region.
• Then contiguous regions with similar indices are grouped together in order
to minimize variance within each group. E.g. HDI index- weighted mean of
health indicators, education, and standard of living for a particular region
is taken and then the region is delineated by fixing the criteria for high,
medium, and low HDI regions (countries or states).
• Variable index method
• Variable weights are assigned to highlight levels of activities in different
regions.
• The weight given to each activity in each region is different and in
accordance with the value or the volume regionally produced. For example,
if region A is the wheat region and region B is coal region then the weight
of a wheat index will be the largest in former and weight of coal index will
be larger in later.
• This method is good when criteria can be compared with each other.
• However, in those cases where comparability is not possible (e.g. in cases
where one feature is literacy and other is steel production), it becomes
necessary to employ cluster method.
• In variable index method different problems of a region are taken together
and weighted. It is a simple way to delineate regions. However, choice of
regional criteria and choice of weight is the problem.
• Cluster method:
• It is used to detect the homogeneous character of the structure of different
regional units.
• Parameters/variability is plotted on the same region and more
concentration means more clusters. It is a statistical method.
• For this purpose a study of income and trade, flows can be made for the
purpose of comparison.
• Here mapping techniques are used to trace the cluster where the
interrelated variables are mapped by superimposing techniques.
• Example- frequency of buses from one city to another, traffic zones,
circulation of vegetables.

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• Cluster method is one of the most easiest and common techniques adopted
by geographers and cartographers. E.g. agriculture, minerals, industrial
map, rainfall, and soil map to get land-use of area.
• Suppose if the map of India is taken, if we draw the rainfall map of India
and above rainfall map, if we plot the soil map and above soil map if we
plot water availability map, then we will find that there will be some area
with high land use which have high availability of rainfall, soil, and water.
• Various thematic maps superimposed of one variable layer over another
helps in demarcating the boundary most common to all phenomena of the
region.
Factor Analysis Method
• In this method, each parameter is mapped out separately and then all the maps are
kept one over the other. The common region that will be carved out after this exercise
will form a region.
• It is a more sophisticated approach.
• Smith used this method for delineating economic-health regions.
• Smith identified 14 industrial criteria on a local employment exchange area
base and 14 socio-economic criteria on a local authority base. Many of
these criteria are interdependent.
• The factor analysis method can be used to isolate these factors and to
group areas on the basis of factor loadings.
• Smith identified ‘industrial change’ and industrial structure’ as major
industrial factors, and ‘population change’ and ‘social structure’ as major
socio-economic factors. These factors help in delineating economic health
regions.
Delineation of functional region

• The delineation of the functional region involves grouping together of local units that
display a considerable degree of interdependence.
• The concern is thus more with flows linked to a central point rather than with
uniformity of the region as a whole
• Two basic approaches to functional regional outlines:
• Flow analysis based on actual observations of what people do
• Gravitational analysis based on theoretical observation of what people
might do.
Flow analysis
• Flow analysis builds up functional regions on the basis of the direction and intensity
of flows between the dominant centre and surrounding satellites.
• Each flow will show decreasing intensity as it becomes more distant from the main
centre and increasing intensity as it approaches another centre.
• The boundary of the sphere of influence of the dominant centre will be where the
flow intensity at a minimum. When the flow significantly drops that means
interaction/origin’s influence drops. In terms of distance, in a particular direction,
there is the influence of the node and there onwards it drops. This gives cut off
points. Tentative delineation is done.
• In the flow analysis, the processional regions are demarcated based on the direction
and intensity of flow between the principal center and the sub-cities around it. The
flow decreases according to the distance from the principal center and the effect
increases as it approaches the other center. Where the flow intensity around the
principal center is minimal, there is a limit to the circumference of the effect of that
center.
• This flow can be of any kind,
• economic – such as cargo or passenger, road or rail.
• objective/Purpose – shopping or commuting
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• social – the flow of students or hospital patients
• political – the flow of government expenditure
• Information – telegrams, newspaper, telephone calls, etc.

Gravitational analysis
• The basis of the origin of gravity analysis lies in Newton’s theory. It is based on
the possible value of human interaction.
• It is concerned with theoretical forces of attraction between centres rather than
actual flow.
• As such it is regarded as 2nd best approach but if used with care as it can provide a
good guide to actual flows and more importantly the potential flows between centres.
• This rapidly developing field of “social physics” as developed by Zipf, Reilly, Stewart,
Stouffer and others is based on a probability view of human interactions and
originates from the application of analogous reasoning to Newtonian physics. It
means that this method is based on the probability of attraction of flow (flow of
goods, services, people, etc) by centre from nearby areas.
• This gravity model assumes that interaction between two centres is proportional to
the mass of centres like population, employment, income, expenditure, retail trading,
etc. and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between centres like
miles, time and intervening opportunities.

Problems in delineation of a region

• Lack of correlation between regions defined according to different criteria.


• Dynamic nature of regional activities
• It is unlikely that regional boundaries defined according to both functional and
formal criteria would be closely matched.
• In Gravity Model, it is not easy to calculate M1, M2, R.
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• The concept of distance is static.
Other methods of regionalization

• Methods of regionalisation can also be classified into


• Qualitative methods
• Relative intensity/index method (Ya-Yb)
• Flow analysis
• Skyline method
• Method suggested by R.L. Singh for a city region
• Quantitative methods
• Method by Stouffer
• Break Point Theory by Converse
• Law of Retail Trade Gravitation by Reilly
• Proximal method
• Probabilistic model by Huff
Unit IX: Regional planning
Regional Planning
It deals with the efficient placement of land use activities, infrastructure and settlement growth
across a larger area of land than an individual city or town. It includes the formulating laws that
will guide the efficient planning and management of regions.
Principle of Regional Planning:
1. Resist development in flood plains or earthquake faults.
2. Designate transportation corridors using hubs and considering major infrastructures.
3. Some thought into the various role of settlement in the region may play.
4. Consider designing essential land uses locations including waste disposals.
5. Allocation of the land.
6. Designate green belt land.
Importance of Regional Planning
1. It helps in reducing disparities, promoting growth, promoting sustainable development,
economic growth of collective region based on its potential.
2. It helps to solve the issue of migration to a great extent.
3. It helps in proper utilization of resources.
4. It helps to control the pollution.
5. It helps to reduce the conflicts and wastages of resources.
6. It brings equity.
7. It acts as connecting link in policy areas.
Regional Inequality/ Imbalance
It is uneven distribution of income or other variable across different locations. It can occur at
different scales. The major reason of regional inequality are geographical factor- difficult land
topography, political instability, indadequacy of economic overheads, failure of planning
mechanism, etc. The impacts of regional inequality in Nepal are given below:
a. Overcrowding in the developed region: Cities like Pokhara, Kathmandu which are
developed and decorated with facilities are overcrowded because people from other places
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migrate here. Due to the overcrowding these cities has lost their beauty, the infrastructure is
more used and used out of capacity.
b. Imbalance of Population: In Nepal, independent population ( 15-49) has migrated to the
urban and developed areas and in the rural areas there are only children, women and old
which has caused imbalances in the population. In the rural area, the agriculture and other
works have completely dependent upon children, women and old.
c. Increase in migration: People migrate for jobs, facilities, opportunities, etc. Due to the
regional inequality, people from rural areas and districts like Manang have migrated to
urban areas and places like Pokhara, Kathmandu. As a result, there has become crowding in
the destination place and population imbalance.
d. Higher Unemployment: Regional inequality has caused increase in unemployment. People
who have migrated to city or other destination place are not getting employment due to the
overcrowding of people.
e. Production of food threatened: Regional inequality has caused the people to migrate and
the people engaged in agriculture has been severely decreased. As a result, the production of
food has been threatened.
f. Inadequate infrastructure: In rural areas or undeveloped region, there has not been
development in the infrastructure and in the cities or developed places there has been
inadequate infrastructure due to the overcrowding of the people.
Factors leading to regional imbalance

● Historical factors
○ History of development played a great role in the development of certain
regions. E.g. in India Bombay, Calcutta, Madras are classic examples.

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○ The backwash effect thereafter showed its impact (backwash effect refers
to sucking of resources by developed area from nearby areas rendering
them backward whereas spread effect refers to the spread of development
from more developed area to nearby areas). North-West India including
Delhi has a long agricultural and industrial history of development.
○ Further, this region remained the seat of power since medieval times. A
sound work culture involved in this region.
○ The Zamindari system in Bihar with a large suppressed class has its own
role in the backwardness of the state.
● Physical factors:
○ Physical factors include climate, soil, natural resource endowments,
hydrology, location, accessibility.
○ Plains invite civilization, mountains push them away, deserts deny them
and coasts augment them. River valleys act as cradles of civilization.
○ Availability of groundwater, river water, river transport, fertile land, and
fertile soil always attracted man’s settlement and development.
○ Attitude of people, work ethos, risk-bearing capacity also play an
important role. E.g. Green revolution succeeded in North-Western India
and not in Eastern parts. The enterprising nature of Gujaratis, Marwaris,
Jains led to the development of industries and business in their region.
○ Vidal De La Blache says that “river basins have functional homogeneity
and are the gravity centers of civilization where nature is protective and
supportive to man”.
○ Soil is the most important natural resource.
○ Most river valleys and coastal areas have harbored most of humanity.
● Economic factors: economic factor includes
○ Low wage rate
○ Poor land man ratio
○ Low standard of living
○ Low per capita income
○ Poor per capita consumption
○ Trade pattern
○ Industrialization
○ Agriculture pattern and development
○ Transport network
○ In India, the industries are concentrated in few regions which have led to
regional imbalances.
● Demographic factors: demographic factors include
○ High dependency ratio
○ Low wage rate
○ Unemployment
○ Negative sex ratio
○ Young age ratio (age structure pyramid)
● Socio-cultural factors: It includes
○ Primitive mode of living (tribes)
○ Inward outlook of society
○ Low acceptability of innovation
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○ Poor education facility
○ Poor health facility
● Political factors:
○ The planned period after independence in terms of government policies
led to regional imbalances.
○ Government policies also play a major role such as the 2nd Five Year Plan
called for the development of industries in the backward areas for their
regional development, Green revolution also led to regional imbalances
since it succeeded in North-Western India and not in Eastern parts.
○ Geopolitics leading to war, cutting off supplies (oil crisis) also leads to
draining of countries resources which in turn leads to reduced government
expenditure for the development of backward areas leading to regional
imbalances.
● Religion factors:
○ Religion dogma and the religious perceptions which induce the cultural
values and govern the social ethos are also responsible for regional
imbalances.

Consequences of Regional Imbalances

● Inter-States and Intra State Agitations: Uneven regional development or regional


imbalances lead to several agitations within a State or between the States.
○ The erstwhile combined State of Andhra Pradesh can be cited as the best
example of the consequences of
intrastate regional imbalance in terms of development, which has lead to
several agitations for separate Telangana State for several decades from
1969 – 2014 finally it is formed as a separate State as the 29th State of
India.
● Migration: Migration takes from backward areas to the developed areas in search of
livelihood. For example, migration from rural to urban. Because urban areas will
provide a better quality of life and more job opportunities when compared to rural.
● Social Unrest: Differences in prosperity and development lead to friction between
different sections of the society causing social unrest. For example Naxalism.
Naxalites in India function in areas that have been neglected for long time for want of
development and economic prosperity.
● Pollution: Centralization of industrial development at one place leads to air and
sound pollution.
● Housing, Water Problem: The establishment of several industries at one place leads
to a shortage of houses as a result rental charges will increase abnormally. For
example, Mumbai, New Delhi, Chennai, and Hyderabad and overpopulation lead to
the water crisis.
● Frustration among Rural Youth: In the absence of employment opportunities in rural
and backward areas leads to frustration especially among educated youth.

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● Under-Developed Infrastructure: Rural and backward areas do not have 24 hours
power, proper houses, safe drinking water, sanitation, hospitals, doctors, telephone,
and internet facilities.
● Aggregation of the imbalance: Once an area is prosperous and has adequate
infrastructure for development, more investments pour in neglecting the less
developed regions. So an area which is already prosperous develops further. For
example, the rate of growth of metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata,
Chennai, Bangalore, and Hyderabad is higher compared to other metro cities of
India.

Advantages of developed region

● Natural advantage: It includes location, climate, soil, hydrology, natural resource


endowment, accessibility, etc.
● Acquired advantage: It includes the development of infrastructure, the establishment
of industries, transportation and communication network, etc.
● Comparative advantage: It includes nearness to market Cumulative advantage: It
includes the development of social sectors, economic sector, industrialization,
urbanization, centralization of factors of production, institutional growth and in-
migration of skilled and unskilled labour.
● Agglomerative advantage: It includes the traits like capital investment, development
of the number of heavy and basic industries and related complementary industries
(Here establishment of one industry paves the way for the development of other
industries by providing them with common facilities such as power, transport,
labour, etc. thus, showing agglomerative effect).

Economic structure and imbalance

● A country based on the primary sector is usually underdeveloped. The primary sector
cannot generate income and production of a high order which leads to the low
purchasing power of people.
● Regions heavily dependent on the secondary and tertiary sectors have high demand,
high income, and high export potential, which leads to the advancement of the
economy. Thereafter the quaternary and quinary sector develops.
● Productivity and imbalance– If the efficiency of labor is more then it will increase the
productivity in an economy. Good health of workers is directly proportional to high
productivity and growth of a region

Suggestions for eliminating Regional Imbalance:

● Identification of the Backward Areas and Allocation of funds


● Need for Investments in Backward Areas
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● Good Governance – the better the governance, the less would be the disparities in
country.
● Political Will – Political will is vital for the balanced regional development i.e. to
remove regional imbalances in a country.
● Incentives: Incentives should be provided for promoting investments in the
backward regions.
● Promoting New Financial Institution in Backward Region.
● Setting Up of Regional Boards: As per Article 321 D of the Indian Constitution,
Regional Boards with necessary legal powers, funds should be instituted to remove
regional disparities in the States.
● Growth Corridors comprised of education zones, agricultural zones, and industrial
zones should be operationalized for the rapid development of backward areas in the
states.
● Strict restrictions on usage of productive agricultural lands for non-agricultural
purposes to be implemented. If required, permissions for non-agricultural usage
should be granted only after the farmers have been guaranteed a better life.
● Usage of natural resources for the development of tribal areas to be implemented.
● Composite criteria for identifying backward areas (with the Mandal/Block as a unit)
based on indicators of human development including poverty, literacy, and infant
mortality rates, along with indices of social and economic infrastructure should be
developed by the National Planning Commission.
● Devolution of funds: Union and State Governments should adopt a formula for
Mandal/Block-wise devolution of funds targeted at more backward areas.
● Strengthening of local governments and making them responsible and accountable.
● A system of rewarding States (including developed States) achieving a significant
reduction in intra-State disparities should be introduced.
● Additional funds for Infrastructure.
● A greater share of the central pool of funds should be allocated to backward states.
● Launching of Special Area Programmes like Desert Development Programme,
Drought Prone Area Programme, etc.
● Propagation and use of improved dry farming technology.
● Provision of infrastructural facilities in backward districts.
● Development of forward and backward linkages in the backward regions.
● Special grants are to be given to the backward and tribal areas.
● Schools to be opened providing free and compulsory education to remove illiteracy.
● Hospitals and dispensaries to be set up to give medical care to the people.
● Water facilities to be provided for domestic purposes and agriculture.
● Cottage and small industries are to be promoted to provide employment
opportunities.
● Roads and railway lines have to be laid down to link different places.
● Government must speed up developmental works in backward areas.

Reional Planning in Nepal:

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Trajectory of Nepalese Planning Practices:

Planned development in Nepal may be traced to before the second World War when Rana family government announced
development of twenty-year plan. In 1949, the Rana Prime Minister, Shri Mohan Shamsher, established National
Planning Committee for the purpose of creating fifteen-year plan for the development of the country. In 1952, Ministry
of Planning and Development was founded to support the government in planning and development while in 1955, King
Mahendra issued a royal proclaimed for ‘necessity of a five-year plan for Nepal for attaining national sufficiency and
establishing a welfare state. Nepal’s historic first five-year plan was produced in 1956. The table below summarizes all
the periodic plans developed with perspective of rural and regional development (Okuda, 1973).

Table: Summary of Periodic Plans in Nepal

Periodic Plan Key Features Related to Rural and Regional Development


First Plan - The first plan aimed to support social and economic development so that all elements of the
population can unite with confidence and enthusiasm
(1956-1961) - The central purpose of the programme is to raise production, employment, standards of living and
general wellbeing throughout the country, thus opening out to the people opportunities for a richer
and more satisfying life
- The plan recognized the weak capacity of human resources, low administrative capacity, lack of
authentic statistics to be used in planning purpose
- The plan did not recognize the regional developed issues however proposes some area specific
projects like ‘Rapti Valley Multi-Purpose Project’
Second Plan - Regional development approach was introduced first time
- The country was divided into several development and administration regions
(1962-1965) - The plan primarily focused on rural agriculture development and infrastructures for future growth
- Land resource management was considered as primary intervention for alleviating poverty
Third Plan - The plan was focused on the road and transportation development to link mountain, hills and terai
region in the national development process
(1965-1970) - Divided the country into three watershed regions like Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali with an aim of
attaining the balance regional development
Forth Plan - The plan was a milestone in the regional planning and development
- It introduced the growth pole hypothesis. Four growth poles and several growth centers were
(1970-1975) identified to reduce the regional disparity
- Regional planning has been closely linked to the road construction and the circulation of goods,
people and services among the mountain, hill and terai
Fifth Plan - The plan was designed to increase national revenue by widening the foundation and boundary of
development, by utilizing the resources in the particular region
(1975-1980) - The regional development was proposed to bring uniformity in the income by increasing income of
most of the population based on the social justice in maintaining economic and social unification
- The plan introduced the concept of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) to improve the
quality of socio-economic standard of people
Sixth Plan - The plan focused on the regional development through integration of rural infrastructure
development i.e. agriculture, small-scale industries, horticulture, livestock, conservation of the
(1980–1985) natural resources as well as the infrastructure and services in the rural areas
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- The regional development planning emphasized not only the integration between north and south but
focused on the east and west integration through the development of roads and other infrastructure
- Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was given more emphasis
Seventh Plan - The plan proposed following three dimensions of regional structure as part of regional development
(1980–1985) plan:
i. Establish development centers and service centers in each development region
ii. Prioritized development of regional level plans at different levels / tires i.e. Development
Region, Sub-Region and District,
iii. District Development Plans were formulated under the decentralization policy conforming to
regional development plan
- The decentralization and regional development policy were integrated
- Empowerment of the local governments was considered important approach
- Districts were considered the third tier of development region.
- Although the plan set milestone, the implementation was not effective
Eighth Plan - The plan was highly inspired from people’s democratic movement of 1990 and gave more priorities
(1992-1997) to the rural and regional development through decentralization and empowerment of the local bodies
- The plan was designed on the base of three-core objectives- (a) sustainable economic growth, (b)
poverty alleviation and (c) reduction of regional imbalances
- The objectives of the regional development were:
i. To increase regional and national production and reduce regional imbalance
ii. To integrate rural development process with the national mainstream by focusing development
of rural and backward areas.
- Priorities were given on the extension of rural roads, health, and education
- During the period expansion of the road networks, rural electrification, establishment of the health
post and schools in rural villages, extension of infrastructure and service facilities in the rural areas,
establishment of rural development banks, natural resources conservation through the extensive
community forestry were some important achievements
- But without appropriate mechanism and programs to coordination among different regional units
(intra and interregional interaction), the regional development policies became quite ineffective
Ninth Plan - The plan was designed with the aim to reduce the level of poverty in the country. Balanced regional
development was considered as an important aspect. The implementation of the Agricultural
(1997-2002) Perspective Plan was the major means to alleviate wide-spread poverty in rural areas
- The plan focused on the regional development through the three tiers of hierarchy i.e. development
region, sub-region and districts
- This plan for the first time felt the need of regional offices, people’s participation, area-specific
programs, and analysis of resource potentiality for regional development. They were not mentioned
in the previous plans.
- Many programs were proposed in order to reduce the regional imbalance in the country. Optimum
mobilization of the regional resources, identify the potentiality and capacity of the resources at
regional level, area specific program, NGOs mobilization, people participation in the development
process, development of infrastructure and service facilities, coordination and integration mechanism
for the regional development and proposed regional offices for the formulation, mobilization,

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monitoring and evaluation of district level programs were very important aspects in the context of
regional development .
- But, after 1996 the targeted policies and plans in the regional level have failed and have not been
fully implemented due to extreme political instability.
Tenth Plan - This plan set the main objective of the long-term development is to free the nation from the clutches
of existing poverty, and to establish a cultured, modern, and competent society
(2002-2007) - The plan has focused on the balanced regional development through the utilization of the potential
resources in different regions.
- The plan aimed for local development to minimize poverty by making available local people,
particularly the people of socially and economically backward areas, caste, nationalities groups an
access to services and benefits made locally available
- The plan adopted four strategies: i) high, sustainable, and broader economic growth, ii) social sectors
and rural infrastructure development, iii) targeted programs, iv) good governance
- The plan also adopted twelve priority sectors: i) agriculture development, natural resources
management and biodiversity, ii) rural infrastructure development and rural energy, iii) population
management, social services and basic social security, iv) tourism, water resources, information
technology, industry and commerce, v) human resource development and women empowerment, vi)
targeted programme to uplift the excluded and marginalized groups, vii) strengthen local bodies,
NGOs and CBOs, viii) Thrust on area wise development and remote areas, ix) use of better high-tech
technology in rural areas, x) reform and assurance of good governance, xi) protection and
conservation of environment, xii) development of national and regional infrastructure
- Three core regional strategies have been prepared to reduce the regional imbalances. These core
strategies were:
i. Increasing people's participation in the social and political decision-making processes
ii. Interregional economic relations among the rural, urban and backward regions through the
infrastructure development particularly transport and communication.
iii. Allocating resource in view of reducing regional imbalance
Eleventh Plan - The plan was developed to mainstream people’s aspiration after second historic people’s movement
(2007/08- in 2006 and aimed to utilize the opportunities emerged after end of decade long armed conflict
2009/10) - Three years interim plan was developed and implemented
- The major objectives of the plan were to reduce poverty, unemployment, and inequality for social
and economic transformation.
- The plan focused on target program to the marginalized people, social mobilization, infrastructure
development, strengthening to local bodies, regional development, reconstructing local
infrastructure, and reformation of local governance for rural development and change
- The plan adopted six key strategies: i) to give special emphasis on relief, reconstruction and
reintegration, ii) to achieve employment-oriented, pro-poor and broad-based economic growth, iii)
To promote good-governance and effective service delivery, iv) to increase investment in physical
infrastructures, v) to give emphasis on social development, vi) to adopt an inclusive development
process and carry out targeted programs
- The plan proposes special targeted programs for areas falling in the shadow of development and
social section which are far below living in extreme poverty, inequality, and exclusion
- The plan emphasized the need of new regional development policy but did not elaborated much

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Twelfth Plan - The plan aimed to upgrade the Nepalese economy from least developed to developing within two
(2011-2013) decades with priority in abolishment of different discrimination and inequalities
- The objective of the plan was to establish sustainable peace and contributing in poverty eradication
through employment generation centered inclusive and equitable economic growth
- This plan prioritized six strategies: i) with public, private and cooperative partnership initiatives for
employment generation focused and poverty eradication oriented sustainable and wider economic
growth, ii) development of physical infrastructures to support future federalism and growth across
provinces, iii) promote inclusive and equitable development for sustainable peace, iv) social and
economic transformation of society, v) foster result based development and good governance
practices, vi) mainstream support for private and cooperative sector and industry, trade and service
- The plan developed result framework and key indicator targets disaggregated geographic regions
Thirteenth - The plan aimed to upgrade Nepal in developing country from least developed country by 2022
Plan (2013/14 - Reducing economic and human poverty was one of the major goals of the plan
-2015/16) - The plan adopted six strategies to achieve its goals. These strategies are: i) partnership of public,
private and cooperative sector for wider, inclusive and sustainable growth, ii) development of
infrastructures to promote regional balance, iii) improving access to social services, iv) promoting
good governance, v) empowerment of targeted groups, areas and sections of society, and vi) promote
climate change adaptation in development
- The plan prioritized balanced regional and provincial development through integrated province
development plans, identify and promote sectors of competitive advantage, prioritize investment in
least developed areas
- The economic progress during the period was not satisfactory however social development and
infrastructure development was satisfactory.
- Agenda of social participation, inclusion and representation of marginalized groups in governance
was satisfactory
Fourteenth - First plan developed after promulgation of new constitution of Nepal in 2015
Plan (2016/17- - This plan aimed in rolling out the recent constitutional provisions and mandate of progressive, self-
2018/2019) reliant, sustainable, and just society with welfare-based economy
- The plan prioritized the agenda of employment promotion and just resource distribution with three
pillars public, private and cooperative partnership
- The areas priorities for public investment are i) enabling environment for citizens to exercise
fundamental rights and entitlements, ii) addressing energy crisis, iii) road and other network
infrastructures iv) agriculture development and employment generation v) investment in sectors
producing immediate economic growth, vi) social development (health, education, WASH), vii)
recovery and reconstruction from earthquake, viii) regional balanced and inclusive development
- In result framework, the plan adopted five strategies: i) production growth, ii) infrastructure
development, iii) human development, iv) good governance, v) interdependent issues (includes
regional balance)
Fifteenth Plan - The first plan developed with long-term vision of ‘Prosperous Nepal Happy Nepali’. The national
(2019/20 – vision has been targeted to succeed by addressing the people’s expectations from comprehensive
2023/24) socio-economic transformation, achievement of high economic growth, insurance of coordinated
distribution and redistribution with complete justice

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- The plan aims to upgrade Nepal in developing country from least developed country by 2022, to
upgrade the country in the level of middle earning by 2030 and developed country by 2043
- The plan has adopted the foundation of transforming Nepal into socialism-oriented welfare state with
prosperous economy and social justice
- In result framework, the plan prioritized 10 result areas: i) high and equitable national income, ii)
human capital formation and use of opportunities, iii) accessible infrastructures and intense
interconnection , iv) high and sustainable production and productivity , v) improved and dignified
life, vi) safe, civilized and just society, vii) clean and balanced environment, viii) good governance,
ix) Strong democracy, and x) national unity, security and pride

(Source: Dahal, 2007; NPC, 2020; Limbu, 2019)

Figure 3: Trajectory of Periodic Planning in Nepal (Author)

The trajectory of Nepalese Periodic Planning can be summarized in diagram 3 below. Based on the
nature of political system and planning principles adopted, the trajectory of planning practices can be
categorized into four different phases namely: i) Before 1950, ii) 1950 – 1990, iii) 1990 – 2015, iv)
2015 onwards.

i) Before 1950:

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Before 1950s, the country was being ruled under autocratic regime of Rana family. Around the end of the
regime, immediately before and after of Second World War, the country began to think about on long-term
planning. In 1949, the Rana Prime Minister, Shri Mohan Shamsher, established National Planning Committee
for the purpose of creating fifteen-year plan for the development of the country. It can be said that the thinking of
regional and rural development issues was not even conceptualized until end of the regime.
ii) 1950 – 1990:

The real conceptual thinking of planned development was started in the country after 1950 and during first periodic
plan was developed in 1955-56 to bring about systematic change in the underdeveloped socio-economic condition
(Acharya, 2008). The constitution of 1962 created a four-tier system of development committees (Panchayats).
These includes 4,000 village and town committees (Gaun Panchayat), 75 District committees (Jilla Panchayat), 14
Zonal committees (Anchal Panchayat), and the National committee (Rastriya Panchayat). At each tier, Panchayats
were supposed to serve as working committees of the respective assemblies (Sabha). However, the latter mostly
played advisory roles. Subsequently, five development regions were also created. However, since district offices
of line ministries reported directly to their head offices in Kathmandu, zonal and regional tiers were not strong
(MoFAGA, 2019).

Third plan gave prominence to regional aspects in the national development plan by dividing the country into three
watershed regions like Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali with an aim of attaining the balance regional development.
While Fifth Plan (FY1975–FY1980) adopted a 4-point regional policy as specified in the original strategy paper.
These were: (i) reduction of inter-regional disparity, (ii) integration of the national economy, (iii) breaking the
vicious circle, and (iv) elimination of imbalances among projects (NPC, 1975). It was the first periodic plan to
estimate resource allocation by development regions (Gurung, 2006). However, there was no integration of the
socioeconomic projects/programs along the growth axes.

With creation of Ministry of Panchayat and Local Development in 1980, the Decentralization Act of 1982 was
enforced, and which strengthened the role of district level by giving it responsibility for preparing and
implementing annual and multi-year (periodic) plans. While this was essentially a top-down planning process, it
allowed some user-level participation in project implementation and monitoring, through the institution of User
Committees (MoFAGA, 2019). The Seventh Plan (1985-1990) envisaged the concept of rural-urban linkage as
a strategy to achieve the objectives of urban-based rural development policy (MOUD, 2016).

iii) 1990 – 2015:

During the period, the planning practices shifted from more centralized, and top-down approach to more
decentralized participatory and bottom-up approach. The agenda of equity, inclusion and regional balance
heightened with country moving into new political system. However, during this period in Nepal, the political
volatility and instability developed from frequent change of government disturbed the smooth implementation of
different periodic plans developed. Furthermore, the armed conflict in the country raised the awareness among the
population and civil society to take actions on issues related to poverty, inequality, exclusion, and marginalization
based on gender, caste, ethnicity, religion, and region.

People’s democratic movement in 1990 established the parliamentary democratic system in Nepal and gave more
priorities to the rural and regional development through more decentralization and empowerment of the local
bodies. Policies, which aim to the empowerment of the local people and local government in the development
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process, were formulated to bring about a balanced regional development. During this period, the 1990 constitution
gave new impetus to local self-government, in particular, in implementation of the constitutional promise of
popular participation through decentralization, with amendments to the District Act, Village Act, and Municipality
Act in 1991-92, allowed for local democratic elections to take place in 1992. The three Acts were later consolidated
into the Local Self Governance Act (LSGA) of 1999. The previous Village Panchayats turned into 3,915 Village
Development Committees (VDC), town Panchayats turned into 58 Municipalities, and the District Panchayats
turned into the 75 District Development Committee (DDC) (MoFAGA, 2019).

The Eighth Plan (1992-1997) also continued the need for developing urban and rural areas complementary to each
other. With its goal to achieve sustainable development, poverty alleviation and reduction of regional disparity, the
Eighth Plan called for the establishment of national urban system and market-oriented urban sub-systems. It
emphasized sectoral investments to promote self-reliant social, economic and market services in rural areas through
road connectivity to facilitate rural-urban linkages for balanced regional development (MOUD, 2016).

This phase of the Nepalese planning practices set historical benchmarks in addressing poverty, inequalities,
regional disparities, environmentally friendly and sustainable development. Ninth and Tenth periodic plan were
the historic periodic plans that primarily focused on eradication of poverty but less effectively implemented due to
political instability and armed conflict.

iv) 2015 onwards:

The new Constitution of Nepal came into effect in September 2015, with aspirations of sustained peace, good
governance, development and prosperity. It has been implementing a republican, inclusive, competitive multiparty
democratic federal system with three tiers of government: federal, provincial and local. It guarantees inclusive
socio-political and economic development and a wide range of basic and fundamental rights, including rights to
equality, justice, property, freedom of religion, a clean environment, education and rights against discrimination.
The constitution further upholds the right to food, education, equality, environment and health, employment and
social security, among others. The constitution provides us with an effective and strong foundation for the main
thrust of the SDGs i.e. ‘Leaving No One Behind.’ It upholds and promotes the agenda of social justice, inclusion,
and a rights-based approach, including 33 percent of women representation in the parliaments (NHDR, 2020).

As this is the very beginning of the new political system, only two periodic plans are formulated till date. The 14th
periodic plan was the first plan developed after promulgation of new constitution of Nepal in 2015. This plan aimed
in rolling out the recent constitutional provisions and mandate of progressive, self-reliant, sustainable, and just
society with welfare-based economy. The plan prioritized the agenda of employment promotion and just resource
distribution with three pillars public, private and cooperative partnership. The 15 th Plan of Nepal has adopted 8
strategies to achieve its goal. Among them, ‘Good Governance, Provincial Balance and National Unity’ is one of
them in which (NPC, 2019).

This phase has created enormous opportunities to tackle the regional disparities, inequalities, exclusion, and
marginalization through introduction of evidence-based policies and spatial plans integrating diverse sectors. There
is need of new paradigm of thinking and practice of spatial planning in context of rural and regional planning.

Regional and Rural Development Planning: Transition to New Paradigm

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Regional planning is a tool that would provide the regional development framework for the balanced and integrated
national development. Many countries of the world are preparing regional development frameworks that can be
used to minimize the regional inequalities based on the existing resources, local knowledge, infrastructure, and
service available in the areas. Spatial dimension of planning approach came from the less well integrated economies
where regional differences of production and welfare have been found (Dahal, 2007).

In Nepal, the idea of regional development came in 1960s during the preparation of second periodic plan (1962-
1965). Subsequently, the country was divided into 3,474 Panchayats, 75 Districts and 14 Zones with the view to
promoting development activities at the grassroots level. Nepal was divided into three ecological regions
(mountain, hills, and terai), five administrative regions (eastern, central, western, mid-western and far western) and
15 different sub-regions. These division of regions has been done mainly for understanding the different social,
economic, and ecological condition of Nepal which could be useful to prepare and implement the national plans
and policies for development to reduce the regional disparity. The main purpose of the regional division in Nepal
is a balanced and integrated national development. Regional development approach fulfills three basic objectives,
first, identification of poverty and backward areas, second, analysis of the existing and potential resources and
third, formulation of the relevant development strategies (Shrestha, 1998).

After the promulgation of the Constitution of Nepal in 2015, and its firmer grounds for political stability as well
as guarantees of fundamental rights and empowerment, the national agenda has been to usher in a new era of
prosperity and human well-being (NHDR, 2020). This new constitution transformed the political, administrative,
and regional division of the country. As shown in the figure 4 below, the previous administrative division of country
transformed from 3467 local government units to 753 local levels, 75 districts to 77 districts, five development
regions to seven provinces.
Figure 4: Comparing Old and New Spatial Planning Units Nepal

Figure 5: Planning Levels, Constitutional Mandate, Planning Authorities (Nepal Gazette, 2015)

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The constitution assigns important functional responsibilities to provincial and local governments and mandates
that they have significant autonomy in deciding how services will be delivered. To date, the new system is
characterized by a combination of devolution of some powers to PLGs and retention of others by the federal
government. The three levels of governments (federal, province and local) are independent and interdependent
with their own constitutional authority, mandate, and responsibility. As shown in the figure below, the constitution
has specified different degree (individual and concurrent) power under the schedule 5, 6 7, 8 and 9.
Figure 6: Interrelation among federal, province and local level (left) and 7-step local planning process
(right) (NPC, 2018; LDTA, 2018)

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In relation to the planning authorities, after the declaration of new constitution with federal democratic republic,
the degree of devolution of political power increased and opened the opportunity for new planning authorities i.e.
National Planning Commission at national level, Province Planning Commission at regional level, and Integrated

70
Planning Committee at Local level with support of sectoral ministries and line agencies. Furthermore, ‘National
Natural Resource and Fiscal Commission’ support which ensure the fairness, equality, equity, and justice in
resource sharing to minimize the regional inequality and disparities. To facilitate the planning in context of
implementing aspiration of new constitution, National Planning Commission has developed new periodic planning
guideline to support province and local government in periodic plan. The diagram 6 depicts the interrelation among
federal, province and local level periodic planning. Through this guideline, National Planning Commission
promotes the adoption of national priorities, programs, and targets to be incorporated into the province and local
periodic plans which minimizes the degree of independency of local and province planning process.

However, this guideline contradicts the bottom-up and participatory planning principles adopted in local planning
process (as presented in the diagram 6) where, federal and province levels can only provide the ceilings of resources
and directives related to planning not imposing the national priority agenda into local plans. Of course, there should
be synchronization and complementarity among all three levels of periodic plans but by following the guideline
issued by NPC (for both provincial and local periodic planning), it is difficult to maintain such a balance.

The table below (table 2), depicts the different sectors identified in the periodic planning guidelines at different
level (federal, province and local) developed by National Planning Commission. Analyzing the table it can be seen
that there is partial-coherence on sectoral focus from federal level to province and local level but these sectoral
priorities are difficult to be spatially integrated, coordinated and responsive to rural and regional development.

Map 2: Rural and Urban Categories of Local Governments

Table 2: Sector Identified in Planning Guidelines of Different Level (NPC, 2018a; NPC, 2018b; NPC, 2020)

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Emergence of New and Complex Ruralities with New Opportunities (NACOR)

As happening across globe, the rural-urban dynamics in Nepal is rapidly changing. Although being country of rural
dominance, the country has been moving to urban oriented development policies, principles, and plans. This can
be understood from the name of the local level governments itself. The previously named Village Development
Committees (rural areas) are now named as Rural Municipality. Where, municipality refers to the urban nature of
settlement, services, and other characteristics. But the rural municipalities are completely rural in nature. The Map
2 depicts the rural urban situation of local governments in Nepal.

Figure 8: Settlement in Birendranagar Municipality, Surkhet, Karnali Province (Source: Google Earth Web, 2020)

72
Figure 7: Settlement Characteristics of Chandannath Municipality Jumla (Source: Google Earth Web, 2020)

Table 3: Comparing three municipalities with different features (OAG, 2020; Thuli Bheri, 2018;
Municipal Profiles, 2017)

73
Figure 9: Municipal Center of Thuli Bheri Municipality, Dolpa

The figure 7, figure 8 and figure 9 represent the core area of three different municipalities (one in Jumla, one in
Surkhet and one in Dolpa) with different population size, topography, local resources, and opportunities. But the
current categorization of local levels by the government considers both local levels as same urban areas and
issued same guidelines for the development of the local periodic plans.

Comparing these three municipalities (Table 3), it can be clearly seen that there is diverse socio-economic and
geographic condition in which rural features are more prevailing than urban features. This diverse and rural
predominance in urban municipalities needs tailor-made planning practices to enhance sustainable rural-urban
linkages however the current planning guidelines do provide the opportunity to develop such context specific local
plans.

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Conclusion and Discussion:

Nepal is a country with majority of population in rural areas. The uneven distribution of development outcomes
has been persistently creating rural-urban and regional disparities within the country. Six decade long planned
development practice of Nepal lately adopted the regional and rural development strategy during 1980s. The
Government’s efforts for regional development have not been effective mainly due to an inadequate policy
framework to implement the concept. Also, there is lack of integrated and coherent policy framework for regional
development based on a thorough assessment of regional conditions and policies and programs are still fragmental
and unfocused.

With promulgation of new constitution in 2015, many of the local government units with rural features are now
classified as less urban (Rural Municipalities) and more urban (Municipalities, Sub-metropolis, and metropolis)
areas. However, there is no sharp distinction between rural and urban areas in Nepal as they are intertwined,
interrelated, and interdependent in spatial, economic, cultural, social, and financial aspects. In contrast, the recent
periodic planning guidelines issued by National Planning Commission are more general in nature, focused on
different sectoral issues in isolation to each-other, and are less oriented towards regional development and spatial
planning perspective. But, in terms of resource allocation for development intervention and planning priorities,
National Natural Resource and Fiscal Commission (NNRFC) has been putting effort to minimize the regional
disparity through allocation of resources in an equitable and just manner. It is challenging, especially when the
administrative capacities of provincial and local governments to deliver and manage services are not yet well
developed, and where the federal government has little experience with managing an intergovernmental system.

Nepal has set a long-term vision of a ‘Prosperous Nepal, Happy Nepali' centers on human development, and aims
to transform Nepal into a developed country in 25 years, as envisioned in the current 15th Five-Year Plan.
Nationally, there is consensus that structural transformation of the economy, promotion of equitable society, broad-
based participation in all national activities and sustainable use of natural resources are key to rapid progress and
sustainable development. However, to reflect this aspiration in practice socio-economic planning is not coordinated
and integrated with spatial planning at regional or sub-regional level with due consideration to functional hierarchy
of settlements.

With emerging rural and urban features, Nepalese planning principles and practices has opportunity to develop
spatial plans that fulfill territorial functions under a national system of cities and human settlements, promoting
rural-urban linkages, ensuring sustainable management of resources within and across territories for balanced and
sustainable development. There is need of developing concrete spatial planning frameworks to guide the upcoming
plans developed at different levels, especially at local level, to contribute to inclusive, balanced and sustainable
development.

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