Introduction to college physics experiments

LI Bin
NJUPT
 List of experiments
 0. Introduction, J2-532
 1. Torsional Pendulum, J2-427
 2. Spectrometer, J2-532
 3. Michelson Interferometer, J2-534
 4. Oscilloscope, J2-418
 5. Double Bridge, J2-417
 6. Wheatstone Bridge, J2-416
 7. Dielectric constant measurement, J2-429

https://github.com/bliseu/phylab
 Part 1
Rules of this course
1. Preparations

Key-points：

➢Reference books, Handouts

➢Goals, methods, principles
➢Experimental conditions
➢Preparation reports
Preparation report includes：
1. Title；
2. Your name, student ID, date;
3. Experimental goals；
4. Experimental principles;
5. Experimental apparatus (models, specifications) ;
6. Data Tables
2 . Experiments
At the beginning of the class, I will :
➢Check your preparation reports of this lesson;
➢Ask for your previous experiment reports;
➢Show the experimental principles and the
operation.
During the experiments, you should:
➢Follow the operating rules;
➢Observe experimental phenomena;
➢Record the data.
➢Experimental data and phenomenon；
Record: date, time, place, temperature, pressure,
instrument serial number, title, specifications,
original data and phenomenon…

⚫ Requirement: smooth writing, plotting

(when necessary), data, results.
⚫ Good habit: process experimental data and
submit reports in time.
3、Contents of experimental reports：
1、Title
2、Goals
Before class
3、Instruments
4、Principles
5、Contents & steps
6、Data processing after class

7、Discussions and analysis

1、Measurement data & unit

➢ data = value+unit

e.g.：175.0 cm

value unit
The international system of
units
(SI)：meter (m)、kilogram
(kg)、second (s)、ampere (A)、
Kelvin (K)、mole (mol)、
candela (cd)
direct
passive
e.g.
The cylinder’s density
4m
=
D 2 h
3、 Significant digit and more…

(1). Significant digit ：total digit number from

first non-zero digit to the last one.

4.60cm≠4.600cm

(2). Significant digit’s nature

a). Significant digit tells the precision of
measuring instrument
length measurement with different precision

steel ruler： L=46.0mm, Δ仪= 0.1mm,

Er=0.13%
Vernier calipers: L =46.00mm, Δ仪= 0.02mm ,
Er=0.026%
micrometer: L=46.000mm, Δ仪= 0.004mm ,
Er=0.006%
b) Significant digit have nothing to do with decimal
point’s location and unit

e.g. 4.60 cm 0.0460m 46.0mm

measurement results

0.0125m=1.25cm 1.0900cm≠ 1.09cm

8.88m=8880mm?
(3). Scientific notation
Scientific notation : a×10n (单位）

8.88m=8.88 ×103mm
80.30g=0.0803kg?=80300mg?
80.30g=8.030 ×101g=8.030 ×104mg
=8.030 ×10-2kg
(4). rules for rounding
•If the last digit of a number is less than 5, drop it;

•If it is more than 5, the number to be rounded add 1;

•If it is 5, make the last digit be even.

e.g.：if m=3.065kg, ucm=0.042kg

m=(3.06±0.05)kg
e.g.

7.146 rounded to two digits 7 .1

0.086 rounded to one digits 0 .0 9
2.4352 rounded to three digits 2 .4 4
17.415 rounded to four digits 1 7 .4 2
17.425 rounded to four digits 1 7 .4 2
(5). algorithms

a) addition and subtraction

e.g. A + B + C = 1 4 . 7 8 + 0 . 0 04 7 − 1 . 5 0 3
= 1 3 .2 8 1 7 = 1 3 .2 8
Shortest decimal
b) Multiplication and division

e.g.

A  B  C = 24 . 56 8  3 . 4 5  128 . 4
= 10883 . 13264 = 1 . 09  10 4

Shortest digit
(6)、the rule to read data(direct)
instrumental error or minimum graduation
value
a：ruler 2cm or 20mm?
cm

Minimum graduation
value 1/5 ~ 1/2

2.00cm or 20.0mm
b：angular vernier

233º13΄

e.g. vernier calipers

c：reading of digital meter

reading :23.9℃
4、error and uncertainty

Error and true value

true value：a

measured value: x

error：ε  = x − a
Classification of error

Systematic error

error Random error

gross error

Systematic error
uncertainty

★uncertainty: range of fluctuation

the uncertainty u
1. A uncertainty : uA
2. B uncertainty ：uB
3. Synthetic uncertainty：

u = uB + uA
2 2
A uncertainty
n

st  (x i − x) 2
t
uA = = i =1

n ( n − 1) n
t distribution factor，n measurement times，probability P=0.95：

n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

t 12.71 4.30 3.18 2.78 2.57 2.45 2.36 2.31 2.26

t
8.99 2.48 1.59 1.24 1.05 0.93 0.84 0.77 0.72
n
B uncertainty

instrument error ,Limit error

instrument error ：Δ

instrument error =Level × range

B uncertainty

u B =  in s
Synthetic uncertainty

u = uB + uA
2 2
measurement result：
Ｎ＝ＮM± u（unit）

U=Synthetic uncertainty,

ＮM= best estimation of measurement data

Single measurement, Multiple/Repeated measurement

1、result of single direct measurement

single direct estimated true value： result

measurement of single measurement
u = uB = 仪

Ｎ＝Ｎm± △（unit）
Ｎm have same decimal as △
2、result of repeated measurement

N = N  u（unit）
estimated true value： N
uncertainty：

u = uA + uB
2 2

A =  (N i − N )2

t
B = 仪
( n − 1) n
Example 1: Vernier caliper(division:50）, cylinder
diameter, 10 times.
times 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
di(cm) 19.78 19.80 19.70 19.78 19.74 19.76 19.72 19.68 19.80 19.72

10

d i
d = i =1
= 19 . 75 m m
10
10

t  (d i −d) 2

uA = Sd  = i =1
 0 . 72 = 0 . 0108 m m
n 9
u B =  仪 = 0 .0 2 m m
uncertainty

u = uA + 仪 = 0 . 0108 + 0 . 02
2 2 2 2

 0 . 0227 m m  0 . 023 m m
diameter

d = d  u d = 1 9 .7 5 0  0 .0 2 3 ( m m )
Same
decimal
relative uncertainty
L1=(170.0±0.3) (cm) Er1=0.18%
L2=(17.0 ±0.3) (cm) Er1=1.8%
relative uncertainty,Er

u
Er =  100%
N
(3) percentage error

N − N0
E0 =  100 %
N0
Er=1.54% Er=1.6%

Er=3.82% Er=3.9%

E0=5.04% E0=6%
 if，N =f (x，y，z….)
x，y，z…. direct measurement

if x,y,z  best estimates of direct measurement

best estimates of indirect measurement

N = f (x, y,z  )
Ｎ uncertainty
f 2 2 f 2 2
uN = ( ) ux + ( ) uy + 
x y

Ｎ relative uncertainty
uN  ln f 2 2  ln f 2 2
Er = = ( ) ux + ( ) uy +
N x y
Result of indirect measurement

N = N + N
N = f ( x , y , )
★calculation processing（uncertainty）

1、direct measurement (x，y，···) uncertainty（ux，uy，···）

2、function N = f ( x , y , )
total derivative f f
Ｎ dN = dx + dy + 
x y
3、N uncertainty uN

f 2 2 f 2 2
uN = ( ) ux + ( ) uy + 
x y
★calculation processing （relative uncertainty）

1、 direct measurement uncertainty ux，uy，···；

2、function N = f ( x , y , )
logarithmln N = ln f ( x , y ,  )

lnＮtotal derivative d N =  ln f d x +  ln f d y + 
N x y
3、relative uncertainty of N

uN  ln f 2 2  ln f 2 2
Er = = ( ) ux + ( ) uy +
N x y
Example 2: Using pendulum to measure
acceleration of gravity: g=4π2l/T2，
T=2.000±0.002s,l=100.0 ±0.1cm, try to write a
gravitational acceleration g expression.
4 2 l
answer: g = 2 , ln g = ln 4  2 + ln l − 2 ln T
T
 ln g 1  ln g 2
= , =−
l l T T
ug  ln g 2 2  ln g 2 2
Er = = ( ) ul + ( ) uT
g l T
Thus: ul 2 uT 2 0 .1 2 0 . 002 2
E r = ( ) + 4( ) = ( ) + 4( )
l T 100 2 . 000
= 2 .2 4  1 0 − 3 = 0 .2 3 %
4 l 4  3 .1 4 1 6  1 0 0 .0
2 2
g= 2
= 2
= 9 8 7 . 0 ( cm / s )
2

T 2 .0 0 0
−3
u cg = E r  g = 2 .2 4  1 0 = 2 .3 ( c m / s )
2

Round to the nearest tenth , carry only!

acceleration of gravity g=(987.0±2.3) (cm/s2)

align
 Part 3
Methods of data processing
1. Tabulation
Notes:

a. Table design: reasonable，straightforward，

complete.

b. Title bar: physical quantity’s name、mark,unit.

c. Data: effective number.

d. instruction and parameter（table name,
measuring instrument specifications,
environment condition).

e. main->original data, important intermediate

result.
 Table Data of wire diameter measurement
Instrument：micrometer caliper，Level：1，range：0～25mm，error：±0.004mm,initio
data:-0.005mm
Order data（mm） diameter Di − D (mm) (Di − D)2(10−8mm2)
DI(mm)
1 0.280 0.285 0.0022 484
2 0.278 0.283 0.0002 4
3 0.275 0.280 -0.0028 784
4 0.284 0.289 0.0062 3844
5 0.272 0.277 -0.0052 2704
6 0.278 0.283 0.0002 4
Average 0.282 8  i =7824
(D − D)2

仪 0.004mm
S D = 1.7 10 mm,  仪 =
−3
= = 2.3  10 −3 mm,
3 3
ucD = S D +  仪 = 2.9  10 −3 mm = 0.003mm,
2 2

D = D  ucD = (0.283  0.003)mm

2. Graphical method

➢Numbers, Lines

➢Mapping rules
Mapping rules

1、Plotting From Data table

2、Using coordinate paper

3. Coordinates
L (cm )

F (m g )
4.Coordinate indexing

L (c m )
1 2 .0 0

1 1 .0 0

1 0 .0 0

9 .0 0

8 .0 0

7 .0 0

6 .0 0

5 .0 0
200 400 600 800 1000 F (m g )
5. Experimental data points
L (c m )
1 2 .0 0

1 1 .0 0

1 0 .0 0

9 .0 0

8 .0 0

7 .0 0

6 .0 0

5 .0 0
200 400 600 800 1000 F (m g )
6. Draw curve
L (cm )
1 2 .0 0

1 1 .0 0

1 0 .0 0

9 .0 0

8 .0 0

7 .0 0

6 .0 0

5 .0 0
200 400 600 800 1000 F (m g )
7. Introductions
L (cm ) Relation between F and L
1 2 .0 0

1 1 .0 0

1 0 .0 0

9 .0 0

8 .0 0

7 .0 0

6 .0 0

5 .0 0
200 400 600 800 1000 F (m g )
Graphical method
1）Coordinate values

（x1，y1）、（x2，y2）。

equation of y = a + bx
straight line：
2）slope b： b =
y 2 − y 1
x 2 − x1
x 2 y 1 − x1 y 2
3）intercept a：a =
x 2 − x1
L (cm ) The relation between F and L Mark 2 points on
1 2 .0 0
the line.
1 1 .0 0
( 7 0 0 ,1 0 . 9 6 )
Note the distance
1 0 .0 0

9 .0 0

8 .0 0 （700 − 100） 9.794  10 −6

K =
(10.96 − 6.79)  10 − 2
7 .0 0 = 0.141N / m
(1 0 0 , 6 .7 9 )
6 .0 0

5 .0 0
200 400 600 800 1000 F (m g )
3. Method of successive minus

➢ method of successive minus：

➢experimental data->table
verify law of variation of data.
➢divide into two groups: high,low
Make full use of data，reduce
measurement error。
➢Verify the linear
relationship of Li andF 。

L = 1
7
( L1 − L 0 ) + ( L 2 − L1 ) +  + ( L 7 − L 6 ) 
= 1
7
L7 − L0 
Intermediate data ×

beginning and end 〇。

If we divide data into（L7，L6，L5，L4）
and（L3，L2，L1，L0）。

 L = 14 [ ( L 7 − L 3 ) + ( L 6 − L 2 )  + ( L 4 − L 0 ) ]
Make full use of data，Keep all the merits of
Multi-times measurement.
 Summary
1. Rules of this course;
2. Significant digit，rules for rounding，algorithm，
reading
3. Uncertainty calculation，rules for rounding
UA， UB，U
Indirect measurement
 4. Measurement results：
Ｎ＝ＮM± uc（unit）

uc: Synthetic uncertainty，ＮM: best estimation of measurement data

5. Data processing methods：

tabulation method，graphical method，method of successive minus