Data Collection 29

·. lithology
pore pressure analysis
The pore pressure can be computed from models such as the d-exponent or other
proprietary equations or can be measured by drillstern tests.

Log Headers
Drilling records similar to the previously described information are not
available on all offset wells. In these cases, a log header can yield useful drilling
data. Easily attainable data from the log headers, Fig. 2-15, include the fol-
lowing:

·. logging depths

·. mud weight and viscosity at each logging depth

bit sizes
inferred casing sizes and actual setting depths

If enough logging runs were made, a useful depth vs days plot can be constructed.
Fig. 2-16 is the depth vs days plot for Fig. 2-15. In some cases, drilling and
well logging problems are noted on the log.

Production History
Production records in the offset area can provide clues to problems that
may be encountered in the prospect well. Oil and gas production can reduce the
formation pressure, which can create differential pipe sticking in the prospect
well. Production records provide pressure data from the flowing zones. Unfor-
tunately, pressures in the over- and underlying formations will not change ap-
preciably. This obscures detection with drilling parameters. (Chapter 5 gives
suggestions on the amount of differential pressure that can be tolerated without
inducing pipe sticking.)

Example 2.2
A prospect well has the Concordia B sand as its intermediate target zone.
Production records indicate that the original bottom-hole pressure prior to
production from the B sand was 5,389 psia at 9,890 ft true vertical depth
(TVD). Currently, the producing BHP is 3,812 psia and the produced fluid
is dry gas. A mud weight of 10.7 Ib/gal is required to drill the intermediate
shale sections contiguous to the Concordia sand. However, a 12.1-lb/gal
mud is required to drill the lower target zone at 12,050 ft. If a maximum
pressure of 2,000 psi is established as the upper differential pressure limit,
30 Drilling Engineering

THE SUPE~IC~ ~Il

'Q ~.;;.< '5L- :5- .::'"

locotiOf'l of W~II
F"AHI/T<. ..., ~N .0 ~EI::. :IF" ;
3 ~J ~ ~~44'~
~ :01 ~'-~ SE-:
~E.!'H 'SO-'':'' Specific
A8D ac' ro ,-:C location
~ : Al -96..1.16
lOCAnoN ~"'.1'.9'C30

Elevations
CO\.INTY used for
STATE. filiNG No correlative
purposes
Date 7-"<J. T-J
2iJ , 2' I . , J9CJ q; .:>
Depth
. '2 : ,q, 129'1
..u..z
"9Z4 ,Q,.t ,"q
Casing , :;S14 . "':Q," . .....q':t.
llil.L-
,
11Q.4 .4Sr.'
depth
, tr
Mud type
MU9 .v.ocI1.,.If.
weight

Hole size
-
-NA
-'fr«).II:;'C"
--- 5;:'~.-
~L
~t.......

Fig. 2-15 Top section of a log header from a deep well and detailed runs from
a deep well log (Courtesy Schlumberger)
Data Collection 31

-.

1
auN No.
- II .
~-:
I ..~

1.l.Bl.S...
71.A1
. ---
j---~
+= j j
~
I
'---
I
-
-
l'/ROT.~20.20'/IDi[
!
IA
.... .. ""'"it @
"
@j
@j
.-
" @j
@
@j
.. "" Ii' .' .- @-;,r
... W" Lo.. CC30._ «10_. CC")O;;:-
lit Size "
~~'iI,.-AM l!..2..::-- -.
-~.
MN blti:.:... ---
FF40
~ruckl,tTim_
o.
JiB.S.......
5.1.L.Qf£. -.
L--.
I .«a,ded By
Wi'"." FQ\.IlCR a
UTHERFOR -,." r..

Fig. 2-15 (continued)

32 Drilling Engineering

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000
§:
.c
a.
Q)
c
10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000
June July August September October November

Fig. 2-16 Depth vs time plot from log header data (Figure 2-15)
Data Collection 33

can the well be drilled with the Concordia sand exposed or must casing
be set below the sand before reaching 12,050 ft? (Convert all mud hydro-
static pressures to absolute pressure by adding 15 psia for atmospheric con-
ditions.)

Solution

1. The mud required to balance the Concordia sand is 10.7 Ib/gal, which
exerts a hydrostatic pressure of:

H.P. = 0.052 x 9,890 ft x 10.7 Ib/gal

= 5,502 psig

2. The differential pressure with 10.7 Ib/gal is:

5,517 psia - 3,812 psia = 1,705psia

Therefore, pipe sticking should not be a problem with the 1O.7-lb/gal mud
(5,517 psia = 5,502 psig + 15 psia).
3. A 12.1-lb/gal mud is required to reach 12,050 ft. This mud weight will
create a hydrostatic pressure at 9,890 ft of:

0.052 x 12.1 Ib/gal x 9,890 ft = 6,222 psig

The differential pressure will be:

6,237 psia - 3,812 psia = 2,425 psia

4. A casing string, or liner, must be set below 9,890 ft since the 12.1 Ib/gal
required at the bottom of the well creates a differential pressure in excess
of the 2,000-psi upper limit.

Seismic Studies
Rank wildcat wells are seldom drilled without preliminary seismic work
being done in the area. Proper analysis of the seismic reflections can eliminate
the "wildcat" status of the well by predicting the pore pressures to be encoun-
tered. Reynolds has shown that good agreement on the pore pressures can be
attained between seismic analysis and sonic log data. Calculation techniques for
travel time data are discussed in Ch~pter 3.
34 DrillingEngineering

Problems
2.1 The company geologist indicates a well is to be drilled to 12,100 ft.
The target is the Discorbis A sand. The well location in Township 8S,
Range 6W, is as follows:
Fromthe northeastsectioncomer, go 1,580ft east
along the section line and then 1,700 ft south.
A section map is shown in Fig. 2-17, and a contour map is in Fig.
2-18. Which wells should be used to control the prospect well? Is the
prospect well properly positioned according to the contour map?

. West Delta Estate

16,500 ft
(A.= 14,150ft)
T7S
T8S

R7W R6W R6W R5W

. Shell
. Wyoming # 1
Bayou #9 16,900 ft
16,003 ft (A = 12,100)
(A = 13,890)
<&>Prospect
. .
Peltex #1 Mobil
17,200 ft 17,900ft
(A = 13,700) (A = 12,290)
. · Exchange Oil
Gulf, Fee #9 E.O.T. #9
16,600 ft 14,300 ft
(A = 12,100) (A = 12,150)

....

T8S
T9S

Fig. 2-17 Section map for Problem 2.1. The depth at which the Discorbis
"A" sand is encountered in each well is shown in parenthesis.
Data Collection 35

2.2 Calculate the drilling cost for the following data:

bit cost = $3,750
footage = 1,800 ft
rig cost = $8,500/day
trip time = 9.5 hr
rotating time = 64 hr

2.3 Recalculate the drilling cost in Problem 2.2 for rotating times of 20,
30, 40, and 50 hr. Construct a plot of the costs. Summarize the
conclusions from the calculations.

-1

-4

Tas

2 3 4 5

Fig.2-18 Contour map

36 DrillingEngineering

2.4 A well is to be.drilled to 9,000 ft in an area where three control wells

are available. Compute the cost per foot to determine which control
well should be used for optimum drilling performance. Use Table
2-1 to determine trip times. The rig cost is $15,000/day.

Depth Depth Rotating

Bit Size, In, Out, Time, Bit IADC
ill. ft ft hr Cost, $ Bit Type
Well A 12.25 0 2,000 38 1,804 1,1,1
8.5 2,000 3,700 25 1,468 1,1,4
8.5 3,700 4,919 17 I ,468 1,1,4
8.5 4,919 5,710 19 1,468 1,1,4
8.5 5,710 6,625 29 1,468 1,1,4
8.5 6,625 8,411 84 4,376 5,1,7
8.5 8,411 8,735 18 1,468 1,1,4
8.5 8,735 9,000 21 1,468 1,1,4
Well B 12.25 0 2,100 36 2,515 1,1,4
8.5 2,100 4,609 49 4,376 5,1,7
8.5 4,609 6,304 51 4,376 5,1,7
8.5 6,304 7,800 93 4,376 5,3,7
8.5 7,800 9,000 42 4,376 5,1,7
Well C 12.25 0 1,900 38 1,804 1,1,1
8.5 1,900 2,950 16 1,468 1,1,1
8.5 2,950 4,605 18 4,376 5,1,7
8.5 4,605 4,710 24 I ,468 1,2,4
8.5 4,710 5,308 29 I ,468 1,2,4
8.5 5,308 6,992 49 4,376 5,1,7
8.5 6,992 7,905 47 4,376 5,1,7
8.5 7,905 8,614 65 4,376 5,3,7
8.5 8,614 9,000 12 1,468 1,1,4
2.5 A mud record was being analyzed for an upcoming well. The record
indicated that 12.0-lb/gal mud was being used at 14,050 ft when a
kick was taken. The SIDPP was 480 psi. The SICP was not recorded
on the record. A mud weight of 14.2 Ib/gal was used successfully to
kill the well. The well was drilled to 15,500 ft with no additional kick
control problems.
The mud record indicated numerous pipe sticking problems after
the kick was killed. On two occasions, the pipe was stuck in normal
pressure zones at 10,400 and 11,000 ft, respectively. The water-based
Data Collection 37

mud system was finally displaced with an oil mud that alleviated the
pipe sticking problems.
What are the probable causes for the pipe sticking? Can it be
prevented (or minimized) in the prospect well? How? (For additional
assistance, see Well Control Problems and Solutions by Adams.)

2.6 Construct depth vs days plots for the 3 wells in Problem 2.4.

2.7 Construct a depth vs days plot for the bit record in Fig. 2-5.

2.8 Construct a depth vs days plot for the mud record in Fig. 2-11.

2.9 Refer to the trimetric plot in Fig. 2-2 and assume that a well is
planned for one of the fault blocks. Will offset well data from adja-
cent fault blocks be of value? What type of information will be useful
and why?

2.10 Townships are approximately 36 sq miles in area. What causes the

area to vary in different townships? Research other literature sources
and discuss the method used by federal agencies to define township
locations.

2.11 What is the significance of Section 16 in some townships throughout

the United States?

2.12 Discuss common well location methods used outside of the United
States.

2.13 Define commonly used sources of public domain data.

2.14 Certain pieces ~f data from bit records are considered by many industry
personnel as questionable in reliability. What items are considered as
unreliable and why?

2.15 Refer to the scout ticket shown in Fig. 2-13. What are the bottom-
hole pressures in the #1 and #1-D sand? What is unusual about these
data?

2.16 Using Fig. 2-15, prepare a drill-rate plot (ft/day) from the log header.
How can this plot be used in preparing the well plan? What are its
weaknesses?
38 Drilling Engineering

References

Adams, N.J. Well Control Problems and Solutions, Tulsa: PennWell Pub-
lishing Co., 1978.

Applied Geological Services, Users Guide, Lafayette, Louisiania: Adams and

Rountree Technology, Inc.

Personal conversation with Dr. Tom Burnett, Lafayette, Louisiana: Adams

and Rountree Technology, Inc., 1983.

Various publications, Louisiana State Department of Natural Resources.

Pertl, Walter F. Abnormal FormationPressures, Elsevier Press.

 Predicting
Chapter 3 Formation
Pressures

Fonnation pressure can be the major factor affecting drilling operations.

If pressure is not properly evaluated, it can lead to drilling problems such as lost
circulation, blowouts, stuck pipe, hole instability, and excessive costs. Unfor-
tunately, fonnation pressures can be very difficult to quantify precisely where
unusual, or abnonnal, pressures exist.
The complete well planning process, with few exceptions, is predicated pn
a knowledge of fonnation pressures. As shown in Fig. 3-1, the pressure is the
foundation for many segments of..the well plan. If proper attention is not given
to fonnation pressure predictions, the other technical portions of the well plan
may be inadequate.

Pressure Prediction Methods

Several methods of pressure prediction are available to the engineer. These
methods can be grouped logically as follows:
I. areal analysis from seismic data
2. offset well correlation
log analysis
drilling parameter evaluation
production or test data
3. real-time evaluation
qualitative
quantitative
The real-time analysis involves monitoring drilling and logging parameters while
the prospect well is drilled.

39
40 Drilling Engineering

CASING DESIGN

Fig. 3-1 Schematic illustrating the impact of pore pressures on the major
segments of a well plan

These techniques should give the drilling engineer the tools he needs to
evaluate formation pressures properly. As a worst case, in areas where offset
well data are not available, seismic analysis can be used to obtain som.epressure
information. It is recommended that all techniqu~s be exercised when possible
for the highest degree of confidence in the pressure data.

Origin of Abnormal Pressures

By definition, abnormal pressure is any geopressure that is different from
the established normal trend for the given area and depth. Pressure may be (1)
less than normal, called subnormal, or (2) greater than normal, which has been
termed geopressured, superpressured, or simply abnormal pressured.
Predicting Formation Pressures 41

Subnormal pressures present few direct well control problems. However,

subnormal pressures do cause many drilling and well planning problems. For
clarity, the term abnormal pressure will identify the pressures greater than
normal.
Formation pressure is the presence of the fluids in the pore spaces of the
rock matrix. These fluids are typically oil, gas, or salt water. The overburden
stress is created by the weight of the overlying rock matrix and the fluid-filled
pores. The rock matrix stress is the overburden stress less the formation pressure.
For general calculations, the overburden stress gradient is often assumed to be
1.0 psi/ft with a density of 19.23 lb/gal, an average weight of fluid-filled plastic
rock.
Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the native
formation fluids. In most cases, the fluids vary from fresh water with a density
of 8.33 Ib/gal'(0.433 psi/ft) to salt water with a density of 9.0 lb/gal (0.465
psi/ft). However, some field reports indicate instances when the normal formation
fluid density was greater than 9.0 lb/gal. Regardless of the fluid density, the
normal pressure formation can be considered as an open hydraulic system where
pressure can easily be communicated throughout.
Abnormal formations do not have the freedom of pressure communications.
If they did, the high pressures would rapidly dissipate and revert to normal
pressures. Therefore, a pressure entrapment mechanism must be present before
abnormal pressures can be generated and maintained. Fertl and Timko listed
several of the more common entrapment seals throughout the world (Table
3-1).
Assuming that a pressure seal is present, the causes or origins of pressure
depend on such items as lithology, mineralogy, tectonic action, and rate of
sedimentation. Fertl lists many of the field-reported causes of high pressures
(Table 3-2). Several of these causes will be discussed in this chapter.
Compaction of Sediments. The normal sedimentation process involves
the deposition of layers of various rock particles. As these layers continue to
build depth and increase the overburden (total rock) pressure, the underlying
sediments are forced downward under the weight of surface deposition. The
overburden pressure in this case is defined as the total of the rock matrix pressure
and the formation fluid pressure. Under normal drilling conditions, the formation
fluid pressure is the main concern, due to its ability to cause fluid flow into the
wellbore under certain geological conditions and the general inability of the rock
matrix to move into the wellbore because of its semirigid structure.
The manner in which the rock matrix accepts the increasing overburden
load explains the abnormal pressures generated in this environment. As both the
surface deposition and the resultant total overburden increase, the underlying
rock must accept the load.
42 Drilling Engineering.

Table 3-1 Suggested Types of Formation

Pressure Seals .

Type of Seal Nature of Trap Examples

Vertical Massive shales and silt- Gulf Coast, USA
stones
Massive salts Zechstein, North Germany
Anhydrite North Sea, Middle East
Gypsum USA, USSR
Limestone, marl, chalk
Dolomite
Transverse Faults Worldwide
Salt and shale diapirs
Combination of vertical Worldwide
and transverse
After Fertl and Timko

Table 3-2 Origins for the Generation of Abnormal

nuid Pressure
Piezometric fluid level (artesian water system)
Reservoir structure
Repressuring of reservoir rock
Rate of sedimentation and deposition environment
Paleopressures
Tectonic activities
Faults
Shale diapirism (mud volcanoes)
Salt diapirism
Sandstone dikes
Earthquakes
Osmotic phenomena
Diagenesis phenomena
Diagenesis of clay sediments
Diagenesis of sulfates
Diagenesis of volcanic ash
Massive areal rock salt deposition
Permafrost environment
Thermodynamic and biochemical causes
After Fertl
Predicting Formation Pressures 43

Rock matrix strength can increase with an increase in grain-to-grain contact

of the individual rock particles. This implies that the resultant porosity must
decrease with depth under normal sedimentary conditions. This relationship can
be seen in Figs. 3-2 and 3-3. If the normal porosity compaction process is
prohibited by not letting the fluids in the pore spaces escape, the rock matrix
cannot increase its grain-to-grain contact or its overburden support capabilities.
Since the total overburden load continues to increase with sedimentation
and the rock matrix can no longer carry its burden, the fluids in the pores of the
rock must begin to support part of the overburden, resulting in higher-than-
normal fluid pressures (Fig. 3-4). The depth at which the abnormally high
porosities are encountered is usually assumed to be the initial depth at which
abnormal pressures are encountered.
A sealing mechanism must be present to trap the abnormal pressures in
their environment. The most common sealing mechanism in continuous depo-
sitional basins is a low-permeability layer of rock, such as a clean shale section.
The shale reduces normal fluid escape, causing undercompaction and abnormal
fluid pressures.
Formation pressures resulting from undercompaction often can be approx-
imated with some simple calculations. If it is assumed that compaction does not

Surface
Depth
+

Rock matrix and porosity

t Normalpressure
~ Abnormalpressure

Undercompacted region
(Greater than normal porosity)

Fig. 3-2 Abnormal pore pressures are generated in the undercompacted region
because the shale matrix can't support the overburden stress
44 Drilling Engineering

r
~
.iij
eo
a.

Overburd!,!nstress (depth) .
Fig. 3-3 Effect of overburden stress on formation porosity during normal
compaction (After Adams)

occur below the barrier depth, the formation fluid below the barrier must support
all overburden, rock matrix and formation fluids. The pressure can be calculated
with Eq. 3.1:

P = 0.465 psi/ft DB + 1.0 psilft (DJ - DB) (3.1)

Where:
D, depth of interest below the barrier, ft
Predicting Formation Pressures 45

/ Normal
compaction

1 1

Porosity Formation
\ Abnormal (high)
fluid
pressure
pressure

,
(Normal
\-7----
Normal pressure
pressure)

Overburden stress (depth)

Fig. 3-4 The formation fluid pressure will increase above the normal value at
the depth where undercompaction begins to occur (After Adams)

DB = depth of the barrier, Le., low-permeability section, ft

P = formation pressure at D" psi

In Eq. 3. I, the overburden pressure gradient is assumed to be I. 0 psi/ft and the

normal formation fluid pressure gradient is 0.465 psi/ft.

Example 3.1
A well is to be drilled to 15,000 ft. The entrance into abnormal pressures at
10,000 ft is caused by undercompaction. Calculate the expected formation
pressure at 15,000 ft. Assume that the formation fluid and overburden stress
gradients ate 0.465 psi/ft and 1.0 psi/ft, respectively.
46 Drilling Engineering

Solution:

The formation pressure at 15,000 ft is estimated by Eq. 3.1:

P = 0.465 psi/ft DB + 1.0 ~si/ft (D1 - DB)

= 0.465 psi/ft (10,000) + 1.0 psi/ft (15,000 - 10,000)
= 4,650 psi + 5,000 psi
= 9,650 psi .

= 12.4 lb/gal EMW (equivalent mud weight)

The 9,650-psi pressure is equivalent to a 12.4-lb/gal mud weight at

15,000 ft.

Eq. 3.1 can be used to approximate formation pressures. However, for-

mations normally have some degree of compaction below the barrier. As a result,
Eq. 3.1 can't be expected to provide precise results in most cases. If necessary,
a more complex series of calculations based on Eq. 3.1 can be used to increase
the accuracy of the method. This complex procedure will not be presented.
Artesian Systems. An artesian water system can create abnormal pressure
if the proper structural conditions exist. As shown in Fig. 3-5, the continuous
water-bearing sand will transmit hydrostatic pressures of the formation water to

Surface

1,500ft
Rig

13.5 Ib/gal EMW

at 1,000 ft

0.052 x 9.0 Ib/gal x 1,500 ft = 702 psi

Fig. 3-5 A simplified view of abnormal pressures generated by Artesian water

systems
 Predicting Formation Pressures' 47

the bottom of the structure. The pressure at the top of the structure will be normal
for the depth at which it is encountered. The pressure at the bottom of the
structure will be equivalent to 13.5 Ib/gal mud weight. These pressures cannot
be detected with conventional techniques.
Uplift. A normal pressure is defined in relation to the depth at which it is
encountered. A pressure that is normal for a specific depth would be abnormally
high for it shallower depth. Tectonic actions that uplift sections of formations
can cause abnormal pressures in the uplifted section if specific formations within
the uplifted section are sealed so the abnormal pressures cannot revert to normal
during the course of geologic time. It is not uncommon to drill through a fault
and enter a different pressure .environment. Caution must be exercised with
respect to well planning because pressures across a fault line can be lower, as
well as higher, than the pressures on the opposite side.of the fault.
Fig. 3-6 illustrates the concept of abnormal pressures ,generated by up-
lifting. A 12.0-lb/gal mud will be required to drill the interval at 6,000 ft.

Surface

(a) A sealed zone existing at 8,000 ft

8,000 ft with normal pressures in the
zone and all adjacent formations

3,744 psi

Sealed zone, normal pressure

(b) An uplifted section will

require 12.0 Ib/gal mud.
The sealed fault prevented
pressure regression or
normalization.

Fig. 3-6 Abnormal pressures can be created in an uplifted and eroded envi-
ronment
48 Drilling Engineering

The sealed fault line. prevented a pressure regression to a normal environ-

ment.
Salt Beds. Worldwide, salt beds are perhaps the dominant cause for for-
mation pressures approaching the total overburden stress. Bedded salt is unique
when compared to shale; it is impermeable, whereas shale is semipermeable. In
addition, it behaves plastically, transmitting the complete overburden stress to
the underlying formations. As shown in Fig. 3-7, the formations below the salt
beds will require mud weights in excess of 19.0 Ib/gal.
Salt Diapirism (Salt Domes). Salt diapirs, known as salt domes, result
from a density inversion with a material of low shear strength. The plastic nature
of the salt allows it to "flow" upward. This movement can overcompact for-
mations in shallow sections, as shown in Fig. 3-8. This form of pressure gen-
eration creates unusually high formation pressures in shallow formations.
Density Differences. Fluid density differences between zones with con-
necting permeability can cause abnormal pressures. The U-tube principle is the
underlying basis for this. As shown in Fig. 3-9, a nonhorizontal zone containing
a low-density fluid requires greater-than-normal mud weights to drill the upper
sections of the zone. Typical requirements for this occurrence are zones that
have sealing mechanisms at the upper end and no permeability restrictions at
the lower end.

Surface
Required mud
I
9.0 Ib/gal
Normal pressure
. shale sections

psi
10,000 ft x 1.0 ft = 10,000psi (overburden)

Assume a salt overburden gradient

of 1.1 psi/ft (21.15 Ib/gal)

11,000ft
19.4 Ib/gal
Pore pressure at 11,000 ft - 10,000 psi
1,100psi
11,100psi

Fig. 3-7 The salt beds may transfer the overburden stress to the formations
under the salt sections