Ancient and

Medieval History
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 Contents iii

CONTENTS

Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xix
List of Videos xxi
Chapter-wise Break up of Previous Years’ Questions (Prelims) xxii

UNIT – 1 ANCIENT HISTORY

1 PREHISTORIC PERIOD 3
1 The Palaeolithic Age (500,000–10,000 BC) 3
The Lower Palaeolithic Culture (500,000–60,000 BC) 4
The Middle Palaeolithic Culture (60,000–50,000 BC) 4
The Upper Palaeolithic Culture (50,000–10,000 BC) 5
2 The Mesolithic Age (Transition Period) 6
3 The Neolithic Age (10000–4500 BC) 7
Regional Distribution of Neolithic Cultures 8
Practice Questions 12

2 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 13

1 Indus Valley Civilization 13
Geographical Extent 13
Town Planning and Urban Architecture 14
Agriculture 17
Domestication of Animals 17
Trade 18
Weight system of Harrapans 18
Measurement System 19
Religious Practices 19
Burial Practices 20
Technology 20
Seals and Terracotta Figures 21
iv Contents

Polity and Society 21

Harrapan Script 24
Decline of Harrapan Culture 25
Practice Questions 27
Perfecting Past Prelims 28

3 EARLY VEDIC PERIOD 29

1 Vedic Period 29
Where Did the Aryans Come From? 29
Where Did Aryans Settle in India? 29
Vedic Names of Popular Rivers 30
2 Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BC) 31
Trade and Economy 31
Domestication of Animals 32
Religion 32
Political Organization 33
Army 34
Society 34
3 Vedic Literature 35
Shruti 35
Smriti 36
Vedas 36
Practice Questions 39
Perfecting Past Prelims 40

4 LATER VEDIC PERIOD 41

1 Later Vedic Period 41
Settlements in Later Vedic Period 41
Political Organization 41
Later Vedic Period Administration 42
Societal Division in Later Vedic Period: Birth of Varna System 42
Birth of Ashrama System 43
Birth of Gotra System 44
Status of Women in Later Vedic Period 44
Economy 44
Gods of Later Vedic Period 45
End of Vedic Period 45
Practice Questions 46
Perfecting Past Prelims 46
 Contents v

5 RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY–I 47

1 Six Orthodox Schools of Philosophy 47
Samkhya School 47
Yoga School 48
Nyaya School 48
Vaisheshika School 48
Mimamsa School 49
Vedanta School 49
2 Three Unorthodox Schools 50
Lokayata Philosophy or Charvaka School 50
Jainism 51
Buddhism 56
Shaivism 66
Bhagavatism–Vaishnavism 68
Practice Questions 70
Perfecting Past Prelims 73

6 THE MAHAJANAPADAS 75
1 The Mahajanapadas 75
Formation 75
Mahajanapadas 76
The Haryanka Dynasty (544–413 BC) 80
The Shishunaga Dynasty (413–345 BC) 82
The Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BC) 82
Republics and Monarchies 84
Practice Questions 85

7 THE AGE OF THE MAURYA 87

1 The Age of the Maurya 87
Important Kings of the Mauryan Empire 87
Social Life Under the Mauryas 90
The Mauryan Statecraft 91
Religion Under the Mauryas 96
Literature under the Mauryas 97
Edicts of Asoka 97
Decline of the Mauryan Empire 99
Practice Questions 102
Perfecting Past Prelims 103
vi Contents

8 POST-MAURYAN PERIOD 104

1 Post-Mauryan Period 104
2 Dynasties From Central Asia 104
The Indo-Greeks/Bactrian Greeks 104
Shakas/Sakas/Indo-Scythians 105
Parthians 106
Kushanas 107
Importance of Central Asian Dynasties 108
3 Dynasties in North India 110
The Sungas (185–73 BC) 110
The Kanavas (72–27 BC) 111
Importance of the Dynasties in North 111
Chedi Dynasty 112
4 The Satavahanas of the Deccan and Central India 113
Importance of Satavahana Rule 114
Practice Questions 117
Perfecting Past Prelims 118

9 HISTORY OF DEEP SOUTH 119

1 Megalith Builders (1000 BC to AD 100) 119
2 Sangam Age (3rd Century BC to 3rd Century AD) 120
Sangam Literature 120
Other Sources 122
Political History 123
Sangam Polity 125
Sangam Society 125
Economy of Sangam Age 126
End of the Sangam Age 127
Practice Questions 128

10 GUPTA EMPIRE 129

1 Gupta Empire 129
Sri Gupta (c. AD 240–280) 129
Ghatotkacha (c. AD 280–319) 129
Chandragupta I (AD 320–335) 129
Samudragupta (AD 335–380) 130
Chandragupta II (AD 380–415) 132
Kumaragupta I (AD 415–455) 135
 Contents vii

Fall of Gupta Empire 135

2 Administration 135
Taxation System 136
3 Society 137
Caste System 137
Position of Women 137
Religion 137
Literature 137
Scientific Literature 138
Religious Literature 138
Practice Questions 139
Perfecting Past Prelims 140

11 POST-GUPTA PERIOD 141

1 Vakataka Dynasty 141
Important Rulers 141
2 Post-Gupta Period 143
3 New Powers 143
Yashodharman (AD 528–543) 143
The Maukharis (AD 550 to 8th Century AD) 143
Later Magadhan Guptas (6th Century AD – 7th Century AD) 143
4 Regional Powers 144
Varmana Dynasty 144
Maitraka Dynasty 144
Gauda Dynasty 144
Pushyabhuti Dynasty (6th Century – 7th Century) 144
Chalukya Dynasty (AD 535–566) 147
Western Chalukyas (Badami Chalukyas) 148
Pallava Dynasty (3rd–9th Century AD) 150
Practice Questions 152
Perfecting Past Prelims 154

UNIT – 2 MEDIEVAL HISTORY

12 INDIA AFTER HARSHA 157

The Rashtrakutas (AD 735–973) 157
Cultural Contributions 159
The Solankis (c. 942–1243) 161
The Guhadwalas or Gahadavala (11th–12th century) 161
viii Contents

The Chauhans (Chahamanas) (c. 957–1192) 161

The Pratiharas (AD 730–1036) 162
The Chandelas or Candellas (Between 9th and 13th Century) 163
The Senas (c. AD 1070–c. AD 1230) 163
The Palas (c. AD 750–c. AD 1150) 163
1 Kashmir 164
The Karkota Dynasty 164
The Utpala Dynasty 164
The Poorva Gupta Dynasty 164
2 Kingdoms in South 165
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (973–1189) 165
Kakatiyas (1110–1326) 165
Yadavas (1187–c. 1312) 166
Hoyasalas (c.1026–c.1342) 166
New Chola Dynasty (c. 850–1279) 166
Practice Questions 170
Perfecting Past Prelims 172

13 ISLAMIC INVASIONS IN INDIA

(ARAB CONQUEST, DELHI SULTANATE) 173
Arab Conquest of Sind (AD 712) 173
Muhammad of Ghaznavi and His Invasions 173
Mohammad Ghori 174
Reasons for the Success of Turks 175
1 Delhi Sultanate 175
2 Slave Dynasty (1206 –1290) 175
Qutubuddin Aibak (1206–1210) 176
Iltutmish (1211–1236) 176
Raziya (1236–1240) 177
Balban (1266–1287) 177
3 The Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320) 177
Jalaluddin Khilji 178
Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316) 178
Mubarak Khilji 179
4 The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414) 179
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325) 179
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) 180
Firoz Tughlaq (1351–1388) 181
5 The Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1450) 182
 Contents ix

6 The Lodhi Dynasty (1451–1526) 182

Bahlol Lodhi (1451–1488) 182
Sikandar Lodhi (1489–1517) 182
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517–1526) 183
Practice Questions 183

14 RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY–II 186

1 Islam 186
2 Sufism 187
Prominent Sufi Saints of India 187
Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (1142–1235) 187
Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki passed away c. 1236 188
Sheikh Hamiduddin Nagori 188
Baba Farid (1173–1265) 188
Nizamuddin Auliya (1236–1325) 188
Amir Khusrau (1252–1325) 188
Sheikh Nasiruddin Muhammad (passed away c. 1356) 189
Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182–1262) 189
The Importance of the Sufi Movement 189
3 The Bhakti Movement 189
Adi Shankara (c. 788–c. 820) 190
Ramanuja Acharya (1017–1137) 190
Nimbarka 190
Madhvacharya (1238–1317) 191
Vallabhacharya (1479–1531) 191
Surdas (c. 1483–c. 1563) 191
Ramananda (c. 1400–c. 1470) 191
Kabir (c. 1440–c. 1518) 192
Guru Nanak (1469–1539) 192
Meera Bai (1498–1546) 194
Chaitanya (1486–1534) 194
Tulsidas (c. 1532–1623) 194
Birbhan 194
Dadu Dayal (1544–1605) 194
Sundar Das (1596–1689) 195
Shankar Dev (1449–1568) 195
Raskhan (1548–1628) 195
Tyagaraja (1767 –1847) 195
4 Marathi Bhakti Reform Movement 195
Dnyaneshwar (or Jnanadeva/Jnanesvara) (1275–1296) 195
Eknath (1533–1599) 195
x Contents

Namdev (1270–1350) 195

Tukaram (1608–1650) 196
Samarth Ramdas (1608–1681) 196
Practice Questions 196
Perfecting Past Prelims 198

15 REGIONAL DYNASTIES AFTER COLLAPSE OF DELHI SULTANATE 199

Hussain Shahi Dynasty, Bengal (1494–1538) 199
Sharqi Dynasty, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh (1394–1479) 199
Muzaffarid Dynasty/ Bahadur Shahi Dynasty, Gujarat (1391–1573) 200
Shah Mir Dynasty, Kashmir (1339–1561) 200
1 Vijayanagar Empire 201
Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485) 202
Saluva Dynasty (1486–1505) 203
Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570) 204
Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–1542) 205
Aravidu Dynasty (1542–1646) 205
2 Bahmani Kingdom 205
Bijapur: Adil Shahi Dynasty 206
Bidar: Barid Shahi Dynasty 207
Berar: Imad Shahi Dynasty 207
Ahmednagar: Nizam Shahi Dynasty 207
Golconda: Qutab Shahi Dynasty 207
Practice Questions 208
Perfecting Past Prelims 209

16 MUGHALS 209
Babur (1526–1530) 210
Humayun (1530–1540), (1555–1556) 211
The Sur/Suri Empire (1540–1555) 212
Akbar 214
Jahangir (1605–1627) 219
Shah Jahan (1628–1658) 220
Aurangzeb (1658–1707) 221
Later Mughals 222
Practice Questions 225
Perfecting Past Prelims 227
 Contents xi

17 MARATHAS 227
Shivaji (1627–1680) 227
Sambhaji (1680–1689) 231
Rajaram (1689–1700) 231
Tarabai (1700–1709) 231
1 The Age of Peshwas (1713–1818) 232
Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720) 232
Baji Rao I (1720–1740) 232
Balaji Baji Rao (1740–1761) 232
Madhav Rao I (1761–1772) 233
Practice Questions 235

18 RISE OF REGIONAL KINGDOMS 237

1 Decline of the Mughals 237
Rise of Regional Powers 238
Watan Jagirs 239
Bengal 240
Awadh/Oudh 240
Hyderabad and the Carnatic 240
Sikhs 241
Marathas 241
Jats 241
Rohilas 241
Mysore 241
Travancore 242
Practice Questions 242

UNIT – 3 CULTURE

19 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 247

1 Science and Technology Development in Ancient India 247
Astronomy 247
Mathematics 247
Chemistry 248
Medicine 248
Navigation 249
xii Contents

2 Science and Technology in Medieval Period 249

Science and Technology in Sultanate Period 249
Science and Technology Under Mughals 250
Astronomy 250
Contribution of Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh to Astronomy 250
Waterworks 251
Mathematics 252
Pharmacy 252
Metallurgy 252
Rocket 252
Damascus Steel 253
Cannon Foundry 253
3 Important Astronomers and Mathematicians in Ancient Indian History 253
Aryabhatta (476–550 AD) 253
Varahamihira (505–587 AD) 253
Brahmagupta (598–670 AD) 254
Bhaskara I (600–680 AD) 254
Baudhayana (8th Century) 254
Mahaviracharya (9th Century) 254
Bhaskaracharya (1114–1185) 254
Practice Questions 255
Perfecting Past Prelims 256

20 ART AND ARCHITECTURE 257

1 Mauryan Art and Architecture (321 BC–185 BC) 257
Pillars 257
Sarnath Pillar 258
Difference between Asokan Pillars and Persian Pillars 259
Palaces 260
Stupas 260
Caves 262
Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves 262
Sculpture 263
2 Post-Mauryan Architecture 263
Rock-cut Caves 264
Karla Caves 264
Trirashmi Buddhist Caves 267
Stupas 267
Sculpture 268
 Contents xiii

3 Gupta Period: Art and Architecture (C. 240–C. 455) 270

Caves 270
Ajanta Caves 270
Ellora Caves 273
Bagh Caves 274
Stupa 275
Sculpture 275
Temple Architecture 276
4 Classification of Indian Temples 280
Major Temples Belonging to Nagara Style 281
Major Temples Belonging to Dravida Style 284
Major Temples Belonging to Vesara Style 288
Post-Gupta Period Caves 291
5 Indo-Islamic Art and Architecture 294
Trabeate and Arcuate 294
Difference Between Arcuate Style and Trabeate Style 294
Features of Indo-Islamic Architecture 295
Architecture During Delhi Sultanate Period 299
Architecture During Mughal Period 302
6 Colonial Art and Architecture 305
List of Important Buddhist Monasteries in India 308
7 List of UNESCO Cultural World Heritage Sites in India 308
Practice Questions 310
Perfecting Past Prelims 313

21 PAINTINGS 317
1 Paintings 317
Sadanga of Indian Painting 317
2 Classification of Indian Paintings 317
3 Pre-historic Rock Paintings 317
4 Mural Paintings 319
5 Miniature Paintings 319
Persian Paintings 320
Mughal Paintings 320
The Deccan School of Painting 323
The Rajasthani School of Paintings/Rajput Paintings 324
Pahari School of Painting 329
6 Independent Paintings 330
Kalighat Paintings 331
xiv Contents

Madhubani Paintings, Bihar 331

Phad: Scroll Paintings (Bhilwada, Rajasthan) 332
Kalamkari Paintings 332
Kolam 333
Warli Paintings 333
Practice Questions 334
Perfecting Past Prelims 335

22 CLASSICAL DANCE 337

1 Dance 337
Techinque of Dance 337
2 Classical Dances 338
Origin of Classical Dances 238
3 Bharatnatyam 338
4 Kathakali 340
5 Kathak 342
6 Kuchipudi 344
7 Manipuri 345
8 Mohiniyattam 346
9 Odissi 347
10 Sattriya 349
Practice Questions 350
Perfecting Past Prelims 351

23 CLASSICAL MUSIC 353

1 Anatomy of Music 353
2 Classical Music 353
Hindustani Music 355
Carnatic Music 355
Difference Between Hindustani Music and Carnatic Music 355
Practice Questions 356
Perfecting Past Prelims 357

24 FOLK ARTS 358

1 Folk Dances, Music, Theatre, and Martial Arts 358
Punjab 358
 Contents xv

Haryana 360
Himachal Pradesh 361
Jammu and Kashmir 363
Rajasthan 365
Uttarakhand 367
Uttar Pradesh 367
Assam 368
Manipur 369
West Bengal 371
Odisha 372
Sikkim 373
Mizoram 374
Tripura 375
Arunachal Pradesh 375
Nagaland 377
Goa 378
Gujarat 378
Maharashtra 380
Madhya Pradesh 381
Chhattisgarh 383
Jharkhand 383
Bihar 384
Kerala 385
Karnataka 387
Tamil Nadu 388
Andhra Pradesh 390
Pondicherry 391
Practice Questions 392
Perfecting Past Prelims 393

25 MISCELLANEOUS 395
1 Calendars 395
Vikram Samvat 395
Saka Samvat 396
Hijri Calendar 396
Gregorian Calendar 396
2 Classical Language 396
Current Classical Languages Recognized by the Government of India 397
Practice Questions 397
Perfecting Past Prelims 398
xvi Contents

Solutions for Practice Questions and Perfecting Past Prelims 399

Introduction to Writing Answers for Mains 411

Previous Years’ Questions (Mains) with Solutions 419

 P

If you ever happen to be walking down the streets of places where preparation for Civil Services is done,
it will not be uncommon for you to come across or make the acquaintance of ‘several’ starry eyed yet
completely committed IAS aspirants. Yet, ‘several’ would be an understatement given the number that
runs into lakhs! But when we say committed, we mean it; these young men and women are ready to
sacrifice almost all their youthful follows including sleep, comfort and even a semblance of a normal life
to achieve one goal—IAS!
Sadly, this dream remains a distant one for a large majority of these aspirants in spite of the endless
hours of study and sleep forsaken nights. When we tried to unravel WHY, the responses were almost
synchronous:

“The subject was so vast that there was too much to cover and I could never complete it.”
“I read so much but could not retain it.”
“I studied something but was quizzed on something else in the exam.”
“I kept reading but did not attempt to solve the past year papers or give a mock exam.”
“Subscribing to several sources of information/preparation such as a coaching class, the internet and
books was futile; after all there are only 24 hours in a day.”
“My almirah was full of too many books, but I could barely complete a few.”

And while the candid answers stated above clearly gave us a challenging problem—we did not attempt to solve
it. We instead focused on a holistic solution—the synchronizing of effort i.e. Learning and Positive Results!
It is with this aim that we—PrepMate collaborated with Cengage India—are continuously striving
to develop a comprehensive learning model that is a combination of print and digital product so as to
effectively address the issues that most aspirants grapple with.

About the Print–Digital Learning Model

The learning model initiates the process with a series of books targeted at cracking the UPSC exam. The
books stand apart from others available because of the following unique features:

„ We use a conceptual approach, simple language, explain concepts with diagrams, cite sufficient
examples, pose pertinent questions in a reader friendly format—to ensure that the contents of
these books can be read and assimilated in a time-bound manner.
„ The content is specially designed taking into account the trend in UPSC exams in recent years.
We have also included the previous years’ questions (with solutions) after every chapter.
 xviii Preface

„ The Practice Questions at the end of each chapter are exhaustive to provide sufficient preparation
to crack the exams.
„ The book series also contains additional information on ‘how to write answers’ along with what
your approach should be for the mains—here too we have explained by solving questions and
showing you the ‘preferred answering style’.
„ We have tried to encapsulate all that is required to be learnt for a particular subject into a single
book.

Usually, an aspirant purchases a book, but never gets a chance to contact the authors. We believe that the
contact among aspirants and authors is important for learning and motivation of the aspirants. That is
precisely why we have developed an application and a web portal to answer your queries and provide you
with continuous support during your preparation.
It is through this digital component that we provide the following services:

1. Videos covering important and difficult topics

2. Answer writing practice sessions
3. Daily prelims quiz
4. Assistance in interview preparation
5. Regular updates
6. Daily current affairs
7. Monthly current affairs magazine
8. Radio news analysis
9. Educational videos
10. Previous years’ papers and solutions
11. Free study materials

Looking forward to being your partner in the journey towards achieving your dream!
In case you have any specific queries or constructive feedback you can always share the same with us
via e-mail at info@prepmate.in.

PrepMate
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

“We cannot accomplish all that we want to do without working together”

The complete UPSC learning module by Prepmate has been the culmination of more than a year of
ideation and brain storming by a lot of people. It is only natural that we should gratefully acknowledge
their valuable contribution sincerely. I, Shubham Singla, founder of PrepMate Edutech, thank you all for
being with me in this whole project. Rajinder Paul Singla, Nirmal Singla, Ramnik Jindal, Sharat Gupta,
Subhash Singla and Vijay Singla—thank you for your continuous support and motivation.
We would also like to thank Maninder Mann and Sundeep Singh Garha who helped us in first
conceiving and later developing the synergistic print–digital model of the project— without you we
would be missing our competitive edge.
Implementation of strategy can more often than not prove challenging and the development of the
online module did prove to be tougher than we had envisaged. But our technical team was focused on
enabling our dream and delivering the best, and they surely did. With a specific mention to the testing
of both the website and the application, we would like to thank Surabhi Misra, Parth and Tanvir who did
their job patiently and effectively in spite of the road blocks.
Our videos and books could not have been possible without the help of our graphics design team—
Sandeep, Sukhjinder and Roshni toiled endlessly to ensure the best designed audio-visuals.
It is an understatement to state that the sourcing and reviewing of existing content and the generation
of content was the most crucial part of this project and the backbone of our Learning Module. This
would just not have been possible without our team of content contributors: Isha Gupta, Shelly Jindal,
Gurdeep Kaur, Surabhi Misra, Shaffy Garg, Dipika Arora, Sunil, Bhupinderjit Singh, Shantnu, Tanvir,
Anmol, Kriti, Tanya, Sahil, Suraj and Dilshad, who left no stone unturned in their pursuit of excellence—
your pivotal contributions are gratefully acknowledged.
We would like to extend a special thanks to our staff members Geeta, Jitender, Manoj and Pinki, who
helped us in the most laborious job i.e. typing through the several manuscripts of our books—your
contribution is sincerely appreciated.
It is imperative that we thank Isha Gupta, Shelly Jindal, Anjum Diwan, Rajesh Goel, Shikha Sharma
and Ravinder Indoura, for their critical yet constructive feedback that identified and subsequently
rectified the errors that crept in during the development process. We will never be able to thank them
enough for this—you fortified the very foundation of our model.
We sincerely acknowledge the initiatives and support from the entire editorial team of Cengage India
in the process of publishing this book.

PrepMate
 xxi

LIST OF VIDEOS

1 How to prepare Ancient and Medieval History & Culture?

2 Indus Valley Civilization

3 Religion and Philosophy

4 The Mahajanapadas

5 Mauryan Period

6 Gupta Empire

7 Delhi Sultanate

8 Mughals

9 Styles of Temple Architecture

10 Classical Dances
 Chapter-wise Break Up of Previous Year’s Questions (Prelims)

Chapter name 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 Total
Ancient History
1. Prehistoric Period
2. Indus Valley Civilization 1 1 1 3
3. Early Vedic Period 1 1 2
4. Later Vedic Period 1 1
5. Religion and Philosophy- I 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 13
6. The Mahajanapadas
7. The Age of the Maurya 1 1
8. Post Mauryan Period 1 1 2
9. History of Deep South 1 1 2
10. Gupta Empire 1 1
11. Post Gupta Period 1 1 2
Medieval History
12. India After Harsha 1 1 2
13. Islamic Invasions in India and Delhi
Sultanate
14. Religion and Philosophy- II 1 1 1 3
15. Regional Dynasties after collapse of
1 1 2
Delhi Sultanate
16. Mughals 1 1 1 1 1 5
17. Marathas
18. Rise of regional Kingdoms
Chapter name 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 Total
Culture
19. Science and technology 1 1 1 3
20. Architecture 1 1 2 2 2 1 3 1 3 16
21. Paintings 1 1 1 1 4
22. Classical Dance 1 1 1 3
23. Classical Music 1 1
24. Folk Arts 1 1 3 1 6
25. Miscellaneous 1 2 3
Total 7 5 4 5 12 10 8 3 2 7 2 1 9 75
 Number of Questions Asked Under Ancient and Medieval History & Culture
14
12
12
10
10 9
8
8 7 7

6 5 5
4
4 3
2 2
2 1

0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
 Unit - 1

ANCIENT HISTORY
 PREHISTORIC
Chapter
1 PERIOD

Why Is This Period Known As

Prehistoric Period?
The word “Prehistoric” is a misnomer. Nothing can predate history itself, which starts from the
very moment the universe started. Then, why prehistoric?
This is because human history is assumed to start when written records started becoming
available. In other words, invention of writing marked the start of human history. Since writing
had not been invented during these times and the only available sources of information are fossils
and tools, a clear account of the events of this period has not been recorded. Hence, this period is
called Prehistoric or the period that occurred before written records started appearing.

Though the Universe is 13.8 billion years old, yet the Earth appeared only 4.5 billion years ago. The
earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. Early humans arrived
in India from Africa more than a million years ago. The stone tools found in Pallavaram, Chennai and
Attirampakkam village in Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu, date back prior to 500,000 years.
The Prehistoric period has been broadly differentiated into three subcategories namely:
1. Palaeolithic/Paleolithic age
2. Mesolithic age
3. Neolithic age

1 THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE (500,000–10,000 BC)

The Palaeolithic age is characterized by stone tools used by the early men. These tools were made of
rock material such as quartzite and were sharpened by chipping techniques (cut or break from a hard
material) which were primitive and crude. These tools were used for everyday activities like hunting,
cutting, etc. Due to the use of quartzite in tool making, the early man is also known as “Quartzite men.”
With no knowledge of agriculture or construction, the early man in this age was essentially a hunter/
gatherer and wanderer. He made his home in natural caverns that were near to a source of water, hunted
prey or gathered fruits and other edible items.
 4 Ancient History

The Palaeolithic age has been further divided into three subcultures. This categorization takes
into account two factors: The crudeness of stone tools used by the people and the prevailing climatic
conditions. The subcultures are:
1. Lower Palaeolithic Culture
2. Middle Palaeolithic Culture
3. Upper Palaeolithic Culture

The Lower Palaeolithic Culture (500,000–60,000 BC)

This age mainly saw the use of crude tools like hand axes, choppers, and cleavers. The tools were not
very sharp. Most of the tools were made up of quartzite and chert (a hard, dark, and opaque rock
composed of silica), while some tools were made from basalt. This period saw the development of Soan
and Madras regions. The major deposits of these tools were found throughout the Indian subcontinent.
For example,

„ Soan river valley (a tributary of Indus), Pakistan

„ Attirampakkam and Pallavaram
„ Belan river valley, Uttar Pradesh

Chopper Handaxe Cleaver

Tools of Lower Palaeolithic Era
No deposits were found in the alluvial plains of Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra. This may be attributed
to non-availability of strong material to make tools.
This period was dominated by Hominids, who walked on four limbs and had a horizontal spine.
However, evidence of emergence of Homo erectus has also been put forward. This period coincided with
the greater part of the ice age and witnessed a cold climate. There are also some evidence of use and
control of fire by humans during this period.

The Middle Palaeolithic Culture (60,000–50,000 BC)

This culture was characterized by tools that were smaller, thinner, sharper, and much more refined
than the ones used in the lower period. The basic materials for making the tools were same and
new materials like chalcedony (form of silica), agate (a mineral of quartz family), jasper (an opaque
 Prehistoric Period 5

reddish-brown semiprecious stone), etc., were also used. New tools were introduced, such as scrapers
(a tool used for removing dirt), borers (a tool for boring), blade tools, etc. Flakes were removed or
peeled off from large stones to make tools. As a result, the Middle Palaeolithic tools are often called
flake tools.

Flake tools
The main deposit sites were found at:
„ Nevasa in Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra
„ Hunsgi, Yadgir district in Karnataka
„ Son and Narmada river valleys in Central India
„ Belan river valley, Uttar Pradesh
„ Luni valley, Rajasthan
The period was marked with increase in temperature. The period was dominated by Homo erectus
who could, like modern humans, stand on two limbs.

The Upper Palaeolithic Culture (50,000–10,000 BC)

This period was marked by tools that were still lighter and smaller than the ones used during the middle
period. The tools now included blades and burins (a handheld tool used for engraving in metal or wood)
and scrapers. This period saw development of flint (ark-colored variety of chert that produces sparks
when struck with hard object) and bone tool industry. An increase in tools made from bones, such as
harpoons and needles, was also recorded during this period.
 6 Ancient History

Flint tools Bone tools

The main sites that contained deposits are:
„ Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh
„ Bhimbetka caves, Madhya Pradesh
„ Sanghao caves, Pakistan
„ Belan and Son valleys (Chopani Mando is an important site where animal fossils have been found)
The Upper Palaeolithic age coincided with last phase of the ice age when climate became comparatively
warm. The period also marks the appearance of modern men (Homo sapiens).
Earliest records of paintings correspond to this period. The rock art of Bhimbetka began in Upper
Palaeolithic culture.
Ostrich egg shells were discovered at over 40 sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
This discovery shows that ostrich (a bird adapted to arid climate) was widely distributed in Western
India during the Upper Palaeolithic culture.

The Belan river valley in Uttar Pradesh and the Narmada river valley in Madhya Pradesh have
been witness to all the three ages of Prehistoric period, i.e., Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic.

2 THE MESOLITHIC AGE (TRANSITION PERIOD)

Mesolithic age literally means ‘relating to or denoting the middle part of the Stone Age, between the
Palaeolithic and Neolithic’. Not much is known about this age except that it was a transition stage
between the Palaeolithic age and the Neolithic age. The early man assumed the role of a hunter/gatherer.
The period was characterized by the “Microliths” which were small stone tools (0.5–1 inch in length)
and were refined to a great extent. Man continued to hunt in the Mesolithic age but the prey were now
smaller and faster animals. This could have been the most probable cause for developing smaller and
more agile weapons. Small sized tools allowed them to make fish hooks to catch fishes. Bow and arrow
were first used in this age.
 Prehistoric Period 7

Small stone tools

Flora and fauna flourished in warmer climates and allowed early humans to migrate to other areas. At the
later stages of Mesolithic age, early men started practicing primitive agriculture (slash and burn). This,
combined with the domestication of animals, formed a hybrid type of agriculture. The first cultivated
crops were wheat and barley. The animals to be domesticated in the first place were dog, cattle, sheep,
and goat. Animals were domesticated not only for their meat, but also for a number of other purposes
like transportation, hides, milk, and agricultural assistance. Important sites of this time period are:
„ Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan (earliest proofs of animal domestication)
„ Sambhar Salt Lake in Rajasthan (early proofs of plant cultivation in nearby areas)
Some important changes in society were observed in Mesolithic age. Due to the discovery of agriculture,
temporary settlements began cropping up near the slash and burn sites. The structures were light and
could not bear the brunt of harsh weather. Proper clothing made out of animal skin was first observed
during Mesolithic age. Temporary settlements also resulted in systematic disposal of the dead. The dead
were buried in a grave along with offerings, such as microliths, shells, eatables, etc. Evidence of such
burials is found at Bagor (Rajasthan), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), etc.

Although a primitive form of cultivation was observed during the Mesolithic age, true cultivation
did not start until the advent of Neolithic age.

3 THE NEOLITHIC AGE (10000–4500 BC)

With the ushering in of the Neolithic or New Stone Age, a remarkable progress was observed in prehistoric
India. A significant change was observed in the culture, tools, economy, and lifestyle of people at that
time.
 8 Ancient History

The stone tools included knives, daggers, arrow heads, long blade, spear head, grooved axe, etc.
These tools were meant for specialized economic activities. These tools were either completely or partly
polished or grinded or both. Excavations also revealed some bone objects and combs, pendants, needles,
hammers, etc.

Knife Egyptian

Dagger Arrow-heads
Scraper

Knife

Grooved Axe
Axe-head Spear-head Long Blade

Tools of Neolithic age

With sufficient experience and knowledge gained over time, man began leading a settled life and started
practicing agriculture on a permanent basis. Bones of wild animals like elephants, rhino, stag, aquatic
fishes, and turtles have also been found near human settlements which implies that man did not give up
hunting all together.
Due to permanent agricultural fields, man began building stronger and more practical structures
for shelter. These structures were either wattle and daub structures (wattle and daub, in building
construction, method of constructing walls in which vertical wooden stakes, or wattles, are woven with
horizontal twigs and branches, and then daubed with clay or mud), or were pit dwellings (partly dug
into the ground). The screen walls of huts were made from split bamboo and reed (a tall, slender-leaved
plant of the grass family). Other structures included hearths (fire place), pits, silos (grain storage), etc. It
should be noted that there is no evidence of the use of bricks, baked, or unbaked from any site.
Due to ample food availability, occupations diversified. Pottery was invented during this period. Early
specimens of pottery were believed to be handmade, with coarse and poorly baked clay. The pottery had
cord (thin, flexible string, or rope) made designs/impressions on the outside. Subsequently, slow wheel
method emerged and earthen wares became finer and properly finished. The vessels were then baked in
fire. The post-firing painting styles were executed in red ochre (clay which appeared red due to presence
of iron) and consisted of criss-cross lines or concentric circles. Scratching on the surface by sharp tools,
resulting in geometric patterns, has also been observed.

Regional Distribution of Neolithic Cultures

A host of cultures existed during the Neolithic period which differed in their social and cultural practices.
They were broadly classified into following groups:
 Prehistoric Period 9

Northwest Indian Sub-continent (Present Pakistan)

Mehrgarh
„ Site on the bank of Bolan river in plains of Baluchistan, Pakistan
„ Oldest site, earliest evidence of agriculture based on wheat, and barley and domestication of animals
like sheep and goat (8000–6000 BC)
Kili Gul Mohammad
„ Quetta valley, Baluchistan
„ Wattle and daub houses
„ Evolution from crude, handmade pottery to fine wheelmade black and red pottery

North India
Burzahom
„ Kashmir
„ Lakeside pit dwellings
„ Peculiar burial system where animals were sometimes buried along with humans or in separate
graves. The buried animals included wild animals like wolves and domesticated animals like dogs,
sheep and goats.
Gufkral/Gofkral
„ Srinagar
„ Pit dwellings with complete absence of pottery
„ Agriculture was practiced from early stages. Evidence of wheat, barley, and lentils has been found
„ Copper hair pin from later phase resembling those of Indus Valley civilization
Kanishkapura
„ Modern Kanispur, Baramulla district, Kashmir
„ Discovery of copper objects like bangle, nose pins, needle, etc

The discovery of copper objects suggests some sort of contact between the Kashmir Neolithic and
the Harappan civilization.

Central India and mid-Gangetic basin

Koldihwa and Mahagara
„ Both in Belan valley, Uttar Pradesh
„ Oldest evidence of rice cultivation in form of charred (burnt) seeds and husk used in pottery
(5500–4500 BC)
 10 Ancient History

Chirand
„ On the confluence of Sarayu and Ganga rivers in Bihar
„ Bamboo and mud plaster huts, circular or semicircular in shape

Chopani Mando in Belan valley, modern Allahabad district, Uttar Pradesh is the place where the
earliest evidence of the use of pottery has been found.

Eastern India
Golabai sasan
„ Banks of river Mandakini, Khurda,Odisha
„ Handmade pottery with cord and tortoise shell impressions

North-east India
Daojali Hading
„ North Cachar Hills, Assam
„ Tools made of stone and wood.
„ Handmade dull red stamped pottery and plain red pottery
„ Practiced agriculture and prepared processed food
„ Jadeite Stone possibly from China

South India
„ Spread over Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu; South India has produced the largest
number of Neolithic settlements which is attributed to the easy availability of stones in the area
„ People of South India were familiar with agriculture and practiced it for subsistence. They were
the first to cultivate Rai/Ragi.
The most interesting feature in these settlements is the presence of “Ash Mounds” close to the habitation
sites indicating presence of animals. Ash mounds are heaps of ash produced by the burning of cow
dung. They are speculated to be the remains of a ritual burning of animal waste. Ceremonies like these
are observed in South India even in the present times. There have been evidences of Lapidary art in the
south. Lapidary art involves cutting and polishing gems.
Burial system existed. Some graves were found to contain goods like stone axes, blades and spouted
pot (watery pot). Pottery urns were used to bury infants. Graves were situated among the houses.
Utnur
„ Located in Telangana, presence of hoof impression in ash mounds
„ Evidence of use of date palm wood
 Prehistoric Period 11

Budihal
„ Located in Karnataka
„ Four distinct habitation localities
„ Butchering floor
Hallur
„ Located in Karnataka
„ Weapons, such as arrowheads, daggers, and knives have been found
„ Pottery in this period was generally black-and-red ware with lines and patterns in white
Paiyampalli
„ Vellore, Tamil Nadu
„ Pit dwellings (oval, circular) cut into natural soil
„ Evidence of green gram and horse gram
Maski
„ Located in Karnataka
„ Paintings that have been crayoned rather than being painted. Subjects included cattle, deer, tigers,
elephants (occasionally with riders), human figures, etc.

Paleolithic and Neolithic Sites

Burzahom

Mehrgarh

Chirand
Koldihwa Gan Daojali Hading
ga R.
Bhimbetka Mahagara
Narmada R.

Tapti R.
Go
dav
ari
R .
Bay of Bengal
Krish
na R.
Arabian Sea HUNSGI
KURNOOL CAVES
Hallur INDEX
Paiyampalli Palaeolithic Sites
▶

Ka
ver
iR ■ Neolithic Sites
.
 12 Ancient History

Practice Questions
1. The “Quartzite Men” were popular in 2. The tools of the Mesolithic people
y
which age? were known as Microliths.
(a) Paleolithic Age Which of the above statements is/are
(b) Mesolithic Age correct?
(c) Neolithic Age (a) 1 only
(d) Middle Paleolithic Age (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
2. Which region has been witness to all (d) Neither 1 nor 2
the three ages of Stone Age?
5. Consider the following statements:
(a) Chambal River Valley
(b) Narmada River Valley 1. The people of all sites in Rajasthan
(c) Sutlej River Valley during the Neolithic age were aware
(d) Godavari River Valley of bricks.
2. The earliest evidence of Rice
3. What was the occupation of Paleolithic cultivation has come from Belan
people? Valley.
(a) Agriculture Which of the above statements is/are
(b) Horticulture correct?
(c) Ranching (a) 1 only
(d) Hunting and gathering food (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
4. Consider the following statements: (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Mesolithic age people mainly used
tools which were about one foot in
length.

 ANSWER KEYS

Practice Questions

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b)

 INDUS VALLEY
Chapter
2 CIVILIZATION
1 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
Indus Valley civilization is one of the oldest civilizations, which is believed to exist from 3300 BC
to 1300 BC. Indus Valley civilization is called so because the civilization emerged around Indus
and its tributaries. Some of the settlements also emerged around Ghaggar–Hakra river. Indus Valley
civilization is also referred as the Harappan Civilization because the first city to be excavated (digging
up) was Harappa. It was discovered in 1921 at the present day Harappa by the archaeologists Dr Raj
Bahadur Daya Ram Sahini and John Marshall. At about the same time, R.D. Banerjee excavated the
site of Mohenjodaro in Sindh. Large-scale excavations were carried out at Mohenjodaro under the
supervision of Marshall in 1931.
The people of this civilization used bronze predominantly and thus, this time period is referred to as
the Bronze age (bronze is an alloy of copper and tin) or Chalcolithic age.

Geographical Extent
The geographical extent of Indus Valley civilization is bigger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
It rose from the Northwest part of the Indian subcontinent and spread Southward and Eastward. It
extended from Jammu in the North to Narmada Valley in the South, and from the Makran coast of
Baluchistan in the West to Yamuna in the East.
The Indus Valley civilization is classified into three phases:
1. The early phase from 3300 BC to 2600 BC
2. The mature phase (when the civilization was at its peak) from 2600 BC to 1900 BC
3. The late phase from 1900 BC to 1300 BC
So far, nearly 1400 Harappan sites are known in the subcontinent. These belong to early, mature, and
late phases of the Harappan culture. However, the number of the sites belonging to the mature phase
is limited. Of these, limited sites can be regarded as towns and these towns are Harappa in Pakistan
Punjab; Mohenjodaro (literally means Mound of the Dead Men) Chanhudaro in Sindh, Pakistan;
Lothal, Dholavira, and Surkotada in Gujarat; Banawali and Rakhigarhi in Haryana; and Kalibangan
in Rajasthan.
 14 Ancient History

Town Planning and Urban Architecture

The ruins of the towns of Indus Valley civilization show signs of remarkable town planning and excellent
sanitation system. The towns were usually divided into two parts—citadel, which was constructed on
an elevated place and was fortified, and the remaining town. The citadel was built on top of a mound of
bricks almost 12 meters high. A large staircase ran up the side of this mound.

Citadel mound at Mohenjodaro

 Indus Valley Civilization 15

Several large buildings and structures on the citadel mound suggest that this area may have been used
for public gatherings, religious activities, or important administrative activities. Small buildings which
were probably homes do exist on the citadel mound; however, they are not common.
The houses inhabited by the common people followed grid system. The streets used to run from
North to South and East to West, intersecting each other at right angles. The drainage system was very
impressive. Every house had its own courtyard and bathroom. Drains from bathroom were connected
to street drains. The street drains were equipped with manholes. Perhaps, no other civilization gave so
much attention to health and cleanliness as Harappan did.

Town planning
There were no stone built houses in the Indus cities. Most of the houses were built of burnt bricks. Unburnt
sun-dried bricks were also used in those portions of the houses where the chances of contamination
through the water were least. The bricks used to be of the same size. The staircases of big buildings were
solid and the rooftops were flat.
Some of the major structures which were found in this civilization are “Great Bath” in Mohenjodaro
and “Granary” at Harappa.

Great Bath
The “Great Bath” is a public water tank. The tank measures approximately 12 meters long and 7 meters
wide, with a maximum depth of 2.4 meters. Two wide staircases, one from north and one from south,
lead down into the tank.
 16 Ancient History

The floor of the tank is water tight due to finely fitted bricks and use of gypsum plaster on the edges
of bricks. To make the tank even more water tight, a thick layer of bitumen (natural tar) was laid along
the sides of the tank and presumably also beneath the floor. Two large doors lead into the complex from
the South. A series of rooms are located along the Eastern edge of the building and in one room there is
a well that may have supplied some of the water needed to fill the tank. Rainwater may also have been
collected for filling the tank, but no inlet drains have been found.
Most scholars agree that this tank would have been used for special religious functions, where water
was used to purify and confer the well-being on the bathers.

The Great Bath, Mohenjodaro

Great Granary
The remains of great granary have been found at Harappa. The granary measures over 45 meters long
and 45 meters wide.
Two rows of six rooms are arranged along a central passageway that is about 7 meters wide. Each room
measures 15.2 by 6.1 meters. The rooms were possibly occupied by workers. A wooden superstructure
supported by large columns was possibly built on top of the brick foundations, with stairs leading up
from the central passage area.
The granary neither possess charred grains nor any storage containers have been found. The interpretation
of such structures as granaries is based on comparisons with Roman buildings.
 Indus Valley Civilization 17

Granary, Harappa

Agriculture
Agriculture is believed to be the main occupation of the Indus Valley people. The discovery of granary
lends support to this belief. Most of the agriculture took place during winter. The Indus Valley people
produced wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice, and cotton. The Indus Valley people were the
earliest people to produce cotton. The Greeks called it Sindon (derived from Sindh) because cotton was
first produced in this area.
The important crops cultivated were wheat and barley. The evidence of wheat and barley has been
found at Mohenjodaro. In the early times, the region of Indus Valley possessed high natural vegetation.
The ruins show no signs of canal irrigation. Iron was discovered around 1000 BC and thus, people of this
region used wooden plough.
The houses were constructed at a slightly raised platform, as compared to the streets. The raised
houses may be an indication of regular floods in rainy season. Thus, agriculture was severely hampered
during summers.

Domestication of Animals
Although the Harappans practiced agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale. Dogs, cats, oxen,
buffaloes, goats, sheep, elephants, and pigs were domesticated. The humped bull was favorite among
Harappans. Asses and camels were used to carry loads.
Earlier, it was believed that horses were not tamed by the Indus Valley people but later on the bones
and skeletons of horses were found in some regions of the civilization. This made the historians believe
that perhaps at the later stage of the civilization, horses were domesticated. The existence of wild animals
like rhinoceros, tiger, and bison has also been confirmed.
 18 Ancient History

Trade
Indus Valley civilization was a trading society. Instead of metal money, they followed barter system.
Traders had their own seals. They used a uniform script, and standard weights and measures.
There is evidence that the Harappans carried trade within India as well as outside Indian subcontinent.
Trade links have been found up till Mesopotamia and Turkey. The Mesopotamian records refer to Indus
region as Meluha.
The Harappan cities did not possess the necessary raw material for the commodities they produced
and hence depended upon important metals and nonmetals imported from distant places.
Main exports were agricultural products and finished products, such as cotton goods, carnelian beads,
pottery, shell, and bone inlays.

Weight system of Harrapans

Excavators have found number of balance weights made up of chert. These weights are in the shape of cube.
The most basic weight found most commonly was about 13.65 grams. The other weights were sub-divisions
or multiples of this weight. The weights proceeded in a series, first doubling from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64 and then in
decimal multiples of 16. The relation of the common weight with other weights is described below.
Multiples of the
1 2 4 8 16 32 64
smallest unit
Multiples of the
1/16 1/8 ¼ ½ 1 2 4
13.65 g unit
Idealized 0.85 1.75 3.45 6.85 13.65 27.35 54.65
Weight g g g g g g g

160 200 320 640

Larger by a
10 12.5 20 40
factor of 10
136.5 273.5 546.5
170.6 6
g g g

1600 3200 6400 8000 12,800

Larger by
a factor of
100 200 400 500 800
100, 100 unit
increments
1.365 2.73 5.46 6.83 10.92
kg kg kg kg kg
 Indus Valley Civilization 19

Measurement System
The Harappans also followed measurement system. The length of foot was 13.2 inches and of cubit
was 18 inches or 44 cm. Several sticks with measure marks, including one made of bronze, have been
discovered. Cubit refers to length of the arm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger.

Religious Practices
There is no evidence of temple or any other religious structure except the Great Bath and the fire altars
at Kalibangan and Lothal.
On the basis of the material remains, it can be deduced that religious practices of Harappan people
had many features of the later Hinduism, such as worship of the Mother Goddess, Pashupati Siva, animal
worship, tree worship, etc.
A terracotta figure of Mother Goddess has been found at Harappa. A plant is shown growing out of
the womb of a woman. The figure represents the goddess of earth.

Terracotta figure of Mother Goddess

The male deity has been depicted with two horns, sitting in a cross-legged position (sitting posture of
a yogi). He is surrounded by four wild animals, an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo, and
beneath his feet appear two deers. This deity appears similar to Siva of later Hinduism.
 20 Ancient History

Pashupati seal
Moreover, phallic worship was an important element of Harappan culture. Numerous cylindrical
cone-shaped stones were found which shows that people worshipped lingam—a symbol of lord Shiva.
There is evidence to prove that people of the Indus Valley civilization also worshipped trees and
animals. On one seal, picture of a deity is represented in the midst of the branches of the peepal tree.
Peepal tree is worshipped even to this day.
Animals were also worshipped. The most important of them is the humped bull. The inhabitants of
the Indus region thus worshipped gods in the form of trees, animals, and human beings.

Burial Practices
Cemeteries at various sites have proven particular burial practices of the Harappans with slight variations.
For instance, three types of practices have been found at Mohenjodaro:
1. Complete burials (burial of the whole body along with goods)
2. Partial burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts and birds)
3. Postcremation burials
Another type of burial has been found at Lothal, a pair of skeletons, one male and one female in each
case, buried in a single grave. Bodies were placed in the North–South direction, with the head pointing
to the North.

Technology
The Harappan civilization is a Bronze Age civilization. Apart from stone tools and implements, people
were well acquainted with the use of bronze.
Objects of gold were common. Gold exists in nature as free metal. Thus, it was naturally available.
Silver was used for the first time in the Indus civilization and was relatively more common than gold.
Arsenic, lead, antimony, and nickel were also used by the Harappan people.
 Indus Valley Civilization 21

Bronze implements at mass scale have been found, such as axes, chisels, knives, spearheads, etc.
The Harappans also practiced boat making.

Seals and Terracotta Figures

Seal is a piece of material with an individual design stamped onto it. Seals are accurate in their size and
design. About 2000 seals have been found; these seals were small in size. While most of the seals were
square-shaped, rectangular and circular seals were also found. Two main types of seals are seen—first,
square with an image and inscription; second, rectangular with an inscription only.
Steatite (in nature of soft mineral) was the most common material used to make seal. Other materials
used include agate, chert, copper, and clay. Seals made of gold, silver, and ivory were also found.
Most seals have inscriptions in a pictographic script written from left to right. But in some cases the
script is written from right to left as well. Seals were primarily used for commercial purpose and might
have been used as amulets or for educational purpose.

Square seal depicting a nude male deity found at Mohenjo-daro

Dimensions: 2.65 x 2.7 cm, 0.83 to 0.86 thickness

Terracotta figurines have also been reported from various sites. Figurines made of fire-baked clay are
called terracotta which were either used as toys or objects of worship. Terracotta was used mainly by the
common people.

Polity and Society

There is no clear idea about the political organization of the Harappans. There is so sign of any central
authority. The total absence of internal wars speaks volumes about the peaceful administration of the Indus
state.
 22 Ancient History

Sculpture
Two main sculptures that were extracted from the ruins of Indus Valley are—(i) priest in limestone and
(ii) a statue of a “Dancing Girl” in bronze. These sculptures exhibit the level of expertise that the artists
of Harappan civilization had achieved in making sculptures.

Sculpture of Priest-King found at Mohenjodaro

The ornament on the forehead of the famous “priest-king” sculpture appears to represent an eye bead,
possibly made of gold with steatite inlay in the center.

Dancing girl found at Mohenjodaro

 Indus Valley Civilization 23

The red sandstone figure of a male torso is another specimen of rock sculpture.

Male torso found at Harappa

Pottery
Harappans were great potters as well. The potteries made by the Harappans can be classified into
four types—(i) plain pottery, (ii) painted pottery (which is also known as red and black pottery),
(iii) polychrome pottery (very rare), and (iv) perforated pottery. The purpose of different types of pottery
was as follows:
„ Plain pottery was used for household purpose, mainly for storage of grains and water.
„ Miniature vessels were used for decorative purpose.
„ Perforated pottery (large hole in the bottom and small holes across the sides of the vessel) might
have been used for straining liquor.

Dressing style
Men and women wore clothes of wool and cotton. Men wore robes which left one shoulder bare. Women
wore a short skirt that reached up to the knee and it was held by a girdle—a string of beads. Upper classes
wore garments with elaborate designs.

Hairstyles
The hair styles of the women were often elaborate, and pigtails were also popular, as in present-day India.
Men and women alike had long hair. Men wore beard and moustaches.

Fashion
Bronze mirrors were common. Females at Mohenjodaro used collyrium (eye shadow), face-paint, and
other cosmetics. Chanhudaro provides evidence of lipsticks. Bronze razors of various types were used
by males.
 24 Ancient History

Ornaments
Harappan people loved ornaments. Both men and women wore ornaments like necklaces, fillets (a band
or ribbon worn for binding the hair), armlets, and finger rings. Girdles (belt), earrings, and anklets were
worn only by women. Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, quartz, and steatite were produced at a
large scale from the factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro. Amulets have been found in large numbers.
Probably, the Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces.

Ornaments used by Indus Valley civilization people

Amusements
Children played with toys made of terracotta. Children also played with marbels made out of jasper
and chert. Music and dance were popular. Hunting and fishing were common activities. On a few seals,
hunting of wild rhino and antelope is shown. Dice was used in gambling.

Harrapan Script
The Harappan script (also known as the Indus script) has not yet been deciphered. The characters are
largely pictorial and seem to be in form of meaningful signs. The number of principal signs is about 400.
The inscriptions are mostly written from right to left. This is proven from the fact that many times the
symbols were compressed on the left side. This usually happens when the writer is running out of space
at the end of the row.
The Harrapan inscriptions containing signs are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether
or not these signs constituted a script used to record a language, or even symbolise a writing system. The
average length of the inscriptions is less than five signs, the longest being only 26 signs long. There is no
known bilingual inscription to help decipher the script, nor does the script show any significant changes
over time. In spite of many attempts, ‘the script’ has not yet been deciphered, but efforts are going on.
 Indus Valley Civilization 25

Script on a seal

Decline of Harrapan Culture

Harappan civilization came to a sudden end. The exact reason for collapse of this civilization is not
known; however, various reasons are hypothesized behind collapse of this civilization:
„ Floods may have resulted in collapse of Indus Valley civilization. Earlier, civilization emerged
near water bodies. As a result, large floods could have possibly wiped out Indus Valley civilization.
„ Geographically, the region occupied by the Harappan civilization was prone to earthquakes.
Repeated earthquakes can be a reason behind decline of the Indus civilization.
„ We know that Harappans were traders and not warriors. Thus, the people of the civilization were
not prepared for an invasion. The emphasis was on prosperity through economic development.
Unburied skeletal remains were found in Mohenjodaro. Such remains are signs of an aggressive
invasion. Aryan invasion may be reason behind the decline of Indus Valley civilization.
„ Other possible reasons behind end of this civilization may be drought and spread of disease.
Difference Between Harappan and other West Asian cultures

Harappan culture Mesopotamian culture

The towns were well planned. The towns were haphazardly planned.

Had a well-maintained drainage system. Not much preference was given to sanitation.

Rectangular house with brick-lined bathrooms. No particular shape for the houses.

Did not have a particular language. Had their own language.

 26 Ancient History

List of important sites of Indus Valley civilization

Province/
Site District State Country Excavations/findings
Banawali Fatehabad Haryana India Barley, terracotta plough, saw two
district cultural phases, pre-Harappan
and Harappan, similar to that of
Kalibangan

Chanhudaro Nawabshah Sindh Pakistan Bead-making factory, use of lipstick,

district only Indus site without a citadel

Dholavira Kutch district Gujarat India Figure of chariot tied to a pair of

bullocks and driven by a nude
human, water harvesting and
number of reservoirs, use of rocks
for constructions, all the three
phases of the Harappan culture
Harappa Sahiwal Punjab Pakistan Granaries, coffin burial, lot of
district artifacts, first town which was
excavated and studied in detail

Kalibangan Hanumangarh Rajasthan India Baked/burnt bangles, fire altars,

(literally meaning district Shiva lingam, small circular
black bangles) pits containing large urns and
accompanied by pottery, bones of
camel

Lothal Ahmedabad Gujarat India Bead-making factory, dockyard,

district button seal, fire altars, painted jar,
earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC)
Mehrgarh Balochistan Pakistan Earliest agricultural community

Mohenjodaro Larkana Sindh Pakistan Great Bath, Great granary, Bronze

District dancing girl, Bearded prince-king,
terracotta toys, Bull seal, Pashupati
seal, three cylindrical seals of the
Mesopotamian type, a piece of
woven cloth, largest site covering
500 hectares.
 Indus Valley Civilization 27

Province/
Site District State Country Excavations/findings
Surkotada Kutch district Gujarat India Bones of a horse (only site)

Sutkagendor Balochistan Pakistan Coastal city like Surkotada

Rakhigarhi Hissar district Haryana India All the three phases of the Harappan
culture, second largest site, with an
area of 250 hectares

Practice Questions
1. Which one of the following animals (c) Chalcolithic culture
was not represented on the seals and/or (d) Post-Chalcolithic culture
terracotta art of the Harappan culture?
4. Which one of the following archaeologists
(a) Cow
initially discovered the Mohanjedaro site
(b) Elephant
of the Indus Valley civilization?
(c) Rhinoceros
(d) Tiger (a) Sujohu Marshall
(b) Daya Ram Sahni
2. The earliest evidence of silver in India is (c) Rakhal Das Banerjee
found in the (d) Sir Mortimer Wheeler
(a) Harappan culture
5. The Harappa site showing evidence of
(b) Palaeolithic culture
two cultural phases. Harappan and pre-
(c) Vedic civilization
Harappan, is
(d) None of the above
(a) Lothal
3. The Indus or the Harappan culture is (b) Mohenjodaro
(a) Neolithic culture (c) Chanhudaro
(b) Palaeolithic culture (d) Banawali
 28 Ancient History

PERFECTING PAST PRELIMS

1. Regarding the Indus Valley civilization, (a) 1 and 2 only
consider the following statements: (b) 2 only
(2011) (c) 1, 2, and 3
1. It was predominantly a secular (d) None of the statements given above
civilization and the religious are correct.
element, though present, did not
3. With reference to the difference between
dominate the scene.
the culture of Rigveda Aryans and Indus
2. During this period, cotton was used
Valley people, which of the following
for manufacturing textiles in India.
statements is/are correct? (2017)
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct? 1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of
(a) 1 only mail and helmet in warfare, whereas
(b) 2 only the people of Indus Valley civilization
(c) Both 1 and 2 did not leave any evidence of using
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver,
2. Which of the following characterizes/ and copper, whereas Indus Valley
characterize the people of Indus people knew only copper and iron.
civilization? (2013) 3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated
1. They possessed great palaces and the horse, whereas there is no
temples. evidence of Indus Valley people
2. They worshipped both male and having been aware of this animal.
female deities. Select the correct answer using the code
3. They employed horse-drawn given below:
chariots in warfare. (a) 1 only
Select the correct statement/ statements (b) 2 and 3 only
using the codes given below: (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, and 3

 ANSWER KEYS

Practice Questions Perfecting Past Prelims

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a)

 Unit - 2

MEDIEVAL HISTORY
Unit - 3

CULTURE
 Solutions for
Practice
Questions and
Perfecting Past
Prelims
 Solutions 401

UNIT 1: ANCIENT HISTORY suggest that the Harappan society was

dominated by religion.

CHAPTER 1 PREHISTORIC PERIOD 2. (b) Statement 1 is incorrect because

no palaces and temples have been
Practice Questions discovered from Harappan sites.
4. (b) Statement 1 is incorrect: In the Statement 3 is incorrect: There is little
Mesolithic age, people used the small evidence of horse and there is no
size stone tools which were about 0.5–1 evidence of horse driven chariot.
inch in length. 3. (a) Statement 2 is incorrect: Harappan
5. (b) Statement 1 is incorrect: The people of men and women wore ornaments
Gilund (a village at present, Rajsamand made of gold, silver, copper, bronze,
district in Rajasthan) were not aware of and semiprecious stones. So, the Indus
bricks. Valley people knew the use of copper,
bronze, silver, gold, but not iron. Iron
was discovered much later around
1000 BC.
CHAPTER 2 INDUS VALLEY Statement 3 is incorrect: Evidence
CIVILIZATION of horse was found at Indus Valley
civilization.
Practice Questions

4. (c) R.D. Banerji was an Indian historian

and a pioneer of archaeology. He is CHAPTER 3 EARLY VEDIC PERIOD
popular for unearthing Mohenjodaro
Practice Questions
and for noting similarities between the
site at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. 2. (b) Statement 1 is incorrect: The early
5. (d) Kalibangan (means black bangles) is Vedic society was mainly pastoral.
situated in Northern Rajasthan and Agriculture was their secondary
Banawali is situated in Hissar district occupation.
in Haryana. Both the sites saw two 6. (a) Statement 2 is incorrect: Women took
cultural phases, pre-Harappan and part in religious ceremonies including
Harappan. Yajna.
Perfecting Past Prelims

1. (c) Statement 1 is correct. The only CHAPTER 4 LATER VEDIC PERIOD

evidence found with any strong
connection with religion is “The Great Practice Questions
Bath.” Though the sculptures of some
2. (c) Option (a) is incorrect: Vasudhaiva
deities were found but they do not
Kutumbakam is found in Maha
 402 Ancient and Medieval History & Culture

Upanishad which means ”the world is worshipped images in the later phase
one family.” but not in initial phase.
Option (b) is incorrect: Yogakshemam 17. (c) Statement 1 is incorrect: Trisala,
Vahamyaham is found in the Bhagavad Mahavira’s mother, was the sister of
Gita. Lichchhavi chief Chetaka.
Option (c) is correct: Satyamev Jayate 20. (a) Statement 2 is incorrect: Qualified
is found in Mundaka Upanishad/ non-dualism was promoted by
Vedanta. Ramanuja.
5. (c) Atharvaveda contains magical charms, Statement 3 is incorrect: Dualism was
spells, and folk traditions. promoted by Madhvacharya.
Perfecting Past Prelims

4. (a) Statement 2 is incorrect: Few invaders

CHAPTER 5 RELIGION AND from Central Asia till the time of last
PHILOSOPHY–I Gupta king adopted Buddhism.

Practice Questions Statement 3 is incorrect: Although the

kings of Gupta dynasty were followers
1. (b) Parshvanath laid four principles of Brahmanical religion, they were not
of Jaininsm. The fifth principle of opposed to Buddhism.
Bhramacharya (observe continence)
6. (b) Statement 1 is incorrect: Jainism
was laid down by Mahavira.
recommended extremities of penance.
12. (a) Option (a) is incorrect: Gomateswara Only Buddhism recommended
was son of 1st Jain tirthankara Adinath. avoidance of extremities of penance and
The last and 24th Jain Tirthankara is enjoyment, i.e., adoption of middle path.
“Vardhamana Mahavira.” The 23rd Jain
7. (d) The Jainism believes that every
Tirthankara is “Parshvanath” and the
living being is gifted with soul. They
1st Tirthankara is “Rishabhnath.”
are obstructed by their karma from
Option (b) is correct: The Tawang reaching nirvana, just as the natural
monastery is the largest monastery in light of the sun is hindered by clouds.
India, located in the Tawang Town of By penance, a soul can remove bondage
Arunachal Pradesh. Tawang monastery and gain nirvana.
in Tibetan language is known as Galden
8. (c) Nirvana refers to state of “bliss” or the
Namgey Lhatse. It is one of the biggest
cessation of suffering. Moreover, the
Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in India
state of nirvana is permanent, i.e., it is
and in the world.
not subject to change.
14. (c) Sthulabahu was the leader of the
Option (a) is not the correct answer.
Shvetambaras. Bhadrabahu went to
According to four eternal truths of
South to lead the Digambaras. Jains
 410 Ancient and Medieval History & Culture

2. (c) Statement 2 is incorrect: Mohiniattam CHAPTER 25 MISCELLANEOUS

is a classical dance from Kerala.
Practice Questions
5. (b) Statement 2 is incorrect: Drums are
used along with cymbals. 1. (a) Vikram Samvat is an Indian calendar
6. (b) Statement 3 is incorrect: Thang-Ta that dates back to 57 BC (zero year, i.e.,
dance is incorrectly matched to Sikkim. the year from where it began). Saka
It is a traditional marital art of Manipur. Samvat starts its zero year in the year 78
of the common era. Thus, there is total
Statement 1 is correct: The Chapchar difference of 57 + 78 years = 135 years
Kut is a festival of Mizoram. It is in both the calendars. The inscription
celebrated during March after clearing would be older by 135 years according
forests for Jhum cultivation. to the Vikram Samvat calendar.
Statement 2 is correct: Khongjom 2. (c) Statement 2 is incorrect: Islamic
Parba is a style of ballad singing from calendar started from AD 622, the day
Manipur using Dholak (drum) which after the emigration of Mohammad
depicts stories of heroic battle fought by from Mecca to Medina.
Manipuris against the British Empire in
1891.
Introduction
to Writing
Answers for
Mains
 Introduction to Writing Answers for Mains 413

A good answer is based on the following aspects

Content analysis Presentation

analysis

Is your answer Does your Should answers Should you cover

addressing answer require be written the complete space
the question? a conclusion? in points or given for attempting
paragraph? answer?

Have you Is there any Should you

Does your need to
attempted adhere to
answer require underline?
all the subparts word limit?
an introduction?
of question?
 414 Ancient and Medieval History & Culture

Let us consider the aspects mentioned in the and comparison of Mesolithic rock cut
diagram on one by one basis. architecture and modern painting in terms
of aesthetic sense.
1. Is Your Answer Addressing the Question? It is to be noted that a particular directive may
be attached to a sub-part of a question. More-
The most common reason behind scoring
over, there can be as many directives in a single
low marks is lack of candidate’s ability to
question as are the number of sub-parts.
address the question.
Have you ever heard a candidate saying that
I attempted almost all (or all the questions),
What All Directives UPSC
yet I could not clear mains examination? You Can Use? What Do These
have probably met the candidate who wrote Directives Mean?
answers which did not address the questions.
Here is a simple list for you. We will
To understand how to address question
further learn about their application by
properly, we can classify each question into
attempting past year questions in the
two parts: ‘Statement’ and ‘Directive’.
coming pages.
For example
Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India 1. Enumerate: Mention a number of
not only reflects the cultural life of the times things one by one or give the list of
but also a fine aesthetic sense comparable things.
to modem painting. Critically evaluate this 2. Highlight: Draw special attention
comment. 2015) to something.
In this question, the Statement is  ‘Meso- 3. Outline: Give a summary of
lithic rock cut architecture of India not only something.
reflects the cultural life of the times but also 4. Discuss: Write about a topic in
a fine aesthetic sense comparable to modem detail, taking into account different
painting’ and the directive is ‘Critically eval- issues or ideas.
uate’. Taxila university was one of the
Suppose a candidate ‘explains’ Mesolithic oldest universities of the world with
rock cut architecture of India, then marks which were associated a number of
of such a candidate are going to be severely renowned learned personalities of
deducted. different disciplines. Its strategic
Critically analyzing means identifying both location caused its fame to flourish,
pros and cons of an issue, whereas explaining but unlike Nalanda, it is not
means how one thing is leading to the other. considered as a university in the
modern sense. Discuss.
Moreover, it is important to keep the ques- (UPSC Mains, 2014).
tion statement intact. For instance, ques-
5. Explain: What is meant by a word,
tion is specifically talking about Mesolithic
text, concept, or action.
culture reflecting cultural life of the times
Previous Years’
Questions
(Mains) with
Solutions
 Previous Years’ Questions (Mains) with Solutions 421

1. Though not very useful from the point of • The Sangam accounts on polity are
view of a connected political history of not reliable because the authors were
South India, the Sangam literature portrays patronized by the ruling class. Thus,
the social and economic conditions of its these accounts could be deeply exagger-
time with remarkable vividness. Comment. ated and inaccurate.
(2013) • Archaeological sources are unavailable
Sol. to verify some aspects of the literature.
For instance, no archaeological sources
Analysis of Question are available for settlements mentioned
Comment Express an opinion or in the literature.
reaction
• The Sangam literature belongs to a
Number of sub-parts Two particular period. Thus, the political
Part I: Sangam history of prior and later period is not
literature is not very available in such details.
useful from the point
of view of a connected Information about Society and economy
political history of Sangam literature portrays the social and
South India economic conditions of its time with remarkable
Part II: The Sangam details because the popular theme of writing
literature portrays the was love and valor. Such themes are covered in
social and economic larger context of social and economic life. The
conditions of its time writings describe about the social structure,
with remarkable religion, occupations, norms, rituals, standard
vividness of living, etc., in minute details.
Mode of presentation Mix of paragraph and 2 Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in
point form the early Indian inscriptions. (2013)
Importance of Not necessary Sol.
conclusion
Analysis of Question
Three Sangams were held between 3rd Discuss Write about the topic in
century BC and 3rd century AD. The work detail, taking into account
of the first two Sangams was completely lost. different issues or ideas.
However, the literature compiled in the last
Sangam survived and provides insights into Number of One part
the polity, society, and economy of South sub-parts
India. Mode of Point form
Information about connected political presentation
history
Importance of Not required
Sangam literature is not very useful from the conclusion
point of view of cconnected political history
on account of the following factors:
 422 Ancient and Medieval History & Culture

The dance performed by Lord Shiva is • Brihadeshwara Temple was built

known as Tandava. Tandava depicts the by  Raj Raja Chola I  and completed in
violent nature of Shiva as the destroyer of 1010 CE. The vimanam (temple tower)
the universe. Tandava dance involves fast is 198 ft. (60 m) high and is one of the
and high energy movements. The Tandava tallest in the world. The  Kumbam  (the
dance is opposite to Lasya dance. The dance apex or the bulbous structure on the
performed by Goddess Parvati, cohort of top) weighs around 80 tons. 
Lord Shiva, is known as Lasya. In Lasya, the • Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple
movements are gentle, graceful, and some- was built during 1020–1029 AD by
times erotic. Rajendra Chola, who was the son and
Tandava dance (and Lasya dance) has been successor of Raj Raja Chola. The temple
described in Natya Shastra by Bharat Muni. stands next to the famous Brihadesh-
Some scholars believe that there are seven wara temple at Tanjore. Gangaikonda
different types of Tandava. The popular types Cholapuram has a nine storey Vimana
of Tandava are Ananda Tandava and Rudra that extends to the height of 185 ft.
Tandava. The Tandava performed with joy The temple is renowned for having the
is called Ananda Tandava and that which is biggest Shiva lingam in the Southern
performed in violent mood is called Rudra part of India.
Tandava. 4. To what extent has the urban planning and
3. Chola architecture represents a high water- culture of the Indus Valley Civilization
mark in the evolution of temple architecture. provided inputs to the present day urbaniza-
Discuss. (2013) tion? Discuss. (2014)

Analysis of Question Analysis of Question

Discuss Write about the topic in Discuss Write about the topic in
detail, taking into account detail, taking into account
different issues or ideas. different issues or ideas.
Number of One part Number of Two sub-parts
sub-parts sub-parts Part I: Inputs provided by
urban planning of the Indus
Mode of Point form
Valley Civilization to the
presentation
present day urbanization.
Importance of Not required Part II: Inputs provided by
conclusion culture of the Indus Valley
Civilization to the present
day urbanization.
The largest, tallest, and extensively carved
temples of India belong to the Chola period. Mode of Point form
The two most important temples built by presentation
imperial Cholas were Importance of Not required
conclusion