161Qof6 4 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (As per Revised V.T.U. Syllabus) EIGHTH EDITION Prof.P.M.Chandrashekharaiah M.E., F.LE., M.LS.T.E Vice Principal and H.O.D. of Electrical and Electronics Shridevi Institute of Engineering and Technology Sira Road, Tumkur - 572 106 and Former Dean of Engineering Faculty Kuyempu University 3 \ lished Rajeshwari Publications: Rajeshavari Ni Puram: Tumkur - $72 102 90067, 96861 14835, 92424 93011 9" Cro Mobile : 92All Rights Reserved by the Author This book or part thereof should not be reproduced, except for review, without the written permission of the author and publishers First Edition September 2006 Reprint November 2006 Second Edition; February 2007 Third Edition =: February 2008 Fourth Edition September 2008 Fifth Edition March 2009 Sixth Edition September 2009 Seventh Edition : August 2010 Eighth Edition : February 2011 Price : Rs.170=00 For Copies, Please Contact : Ra Rajeshwari Nilaya, 9" Cross, 8.$,Puram, Tumkur - 572 102 Mobile : 92422 90067, 96861 14835, 92424 93011 eshwari Publications Se rinted at : Sathyananda Printers Vijayanagar BANGALOREDedicated to my teacher, mentor and benefactor Prof. G. PARAMESHWARAPPA BLE. M.S,, (U.S.A), M.LE.. M.LS,TIE,PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION A sound knowledge of fundamentals in any subject forms the basic foundation on which the onward learning process becomes easy and relishing. This book is intended to provide the fundamentals of Electrical Science and the explanation of the fundamentals is simple and crystal clear, so that, the reading of this book gives an enjoyable experience to the reader. The author, out ofhis nearly 40 years of teaching experience, has found that, a single text book never gives all that a student requires for the study of a particular subject Keeping this in view, an attempt is made in this book, to cater exactly to the needs of the students studying in I/I Semester Engineering course of the Visvesvaraya Technological University of Karnataka State, in the subject "Basic Electrical Engineering". However, the author has observed that, in most of the universities in Indi tering to Engineering Edu ation, the contents of'a fundamental course in Electrical Engineering, remains almost the same as the contents of this book. A large number of worked problems included in the book helps the student to review his understanding of theoretical aspects. A large number of unsolved numerical problems at the end of each chapier, enable the student to confirm his mastery over the subject The answers to all the numerical problems are given at the end of cach problem. Model and examination papers with solutions to numerical problems are added at the end pages of the book. The objective type of questions with solutions for all the chapters are added at the endof the book The author hopes that, this book will be well received by the students and staff of the Engineering colleges and polytechnics. Any comments, suggestions and criticisms of the contents of the book, will be received by the author with due regards and respect The author sincerely expresses his gratitude to DrM.R.Hulinaykar, Managing Trustee, Si i Shridevi Charitable ‘Trust, Tumkur and DrM.A. Venkatesh, Principal Shridevi Institute of Engineering Technology, Tumkur for their constant support and encouragement The author also likes to thank all the colleagues in the Department and the Institute fortheireo-operation Tumkur 1-2-2011 Prof.P.M. handrashekharaiahACKNOWLEDGEMENT ‘The interaction of the author with the students both inside and outside the classroom during stand the way in which the course of his 36 years of teaching experience, has enabled him to under al Science has to be presented, so that, they will be well the fundamental concepts of Electris received and perceived by them. ‘The author would Fike to thank all his stadents for their interaction with him. This book is dedicated to Prof. G, Parameshwarappa, Ex-chairman, South-West region, A.LC.T.E., Bangalore, who is mainly responsible for what the author is today academics the guiding spirit anda constantsource ofinspiration, not only during the student career of the ly. He was author, but also during his a lemic accomplishments. The author finds no words to express his gratitude to him, except to thank him profusely with regards and respect, beyond the periphery of any expression, anga Polytechnic, Tumkur and former Prof. KM, Chandrashekaraiah, Principal, Sidday Professor and H.O.D. of Electrical Engineering, Sidd: anga Institute of Technology, Tumkur, Karnataka State, who is always considered by the author as a model, a well-wisher, was kind ‘Foreward” to this book, for which the author is indebted to his gesture with enough to write the due regards and respect. This text book is written, composed and got printed within a short span time, This would not have been possible, but for the help and co-operation of the colleagues of the author in the department. The author wishes to thank Sti $.B. Mallikarjuna, lecturer in the department, who interacted with the author constantly throughout the preparation of this book, during composing, identifying problems, both worked and numerical, verifying the answers, going through proof reading, but for whose efforts, this book would not have been brought out in such a very short time, The author would like to thank him with affection for his constant co-operation and efforts he put in during the preparation of this book. ‘The author would like to thank his wife Smt, K.M, Rajeshwari, sons P.C.Sangameswara, P.C. Naveen and P.C. Praveen, who were always a constant source of inspiration during the process of writing this book ‘The author would like to thank the owner of Sathyananda Printers, Bangalore, for having. taken every care to see that, the book is printed within a short span of time, Finally, the author would like to thank all those, who are directly or indireetly responsible for making this book a possibility The author hopes that this book will be well received by both the stustents and! stalT members of Engineering colleges and polytechnics.FOREWORD It gives me immense pleasure to introduce the text book on “Basie Electrical Engineering” by Prof. PM Chandrashekharaiah, Vice Principal & Head of the 1 & Electronics, Shridevi Institute of Engineering and sribed for Department of Electric Technology, Tumkur. This book is written keeping in view, the syllabus pr eswaraya ‘Technological University First/Second Semester Engineering students of V1 of Karnataka state, This text book helps all the students admitted in the Engineering Colleges of Karnataka. Incidentally, this book also covers a good portion of the syllabus prescribed for the students of Diploma Courses in Mechanical Engineering, Electronies and Communication Engineering and Computer Science and Engineering. written this book with his vast teaching Prof. PM. Chandrashekharaiah. hi experience of nearly three decades. He has tre ted this subject with his characteristic lucidity and in comprehensive manner The subject has been amply illustrated by incorporating a good number of solved, unsolved and well graded examples of almost every variety. Most of these examples are taken from question papers of Indian Universities and professional bodies to make the siudents farniHar with the type of questions usually set in the examinations. The exercises at the end of each chapter will help the students to be familiar with the type of questions usually set in the examinations. The exercises at the end of each chapter will help the students to solve them independently. It is carnestly hoped that this book will carn appreciation from both teachers and the students, wish, Prof, PM. Chandrashekbaraiah will not stop at this and would bring out many text books, which will be of great help to the students studying in the various Engineering colleges of Karnataka, as wells, students of other Engineering Colleges in India. K,| Professor & Head of the Depa Elecitical Engineering (Retd. ) Siclca handrashekharaiah irtment of inga Institute of Technology Yumkur - $72 103CHAPTER 1: D.C, CIRCUITS 1 Introduction = D.C. circuits - Elements of an electric cireuit ~ Resistance - The electric current - The ampere - The electric potential - Potential difference - Volt - E,.M.F ofasource - Ohm's law - Energy - Power - Resistances in series ~in parallel - Current ina parallel branch - Kireboff’s laws. - Current law = Voltage jaw) - Cramer's ‘Rule - Procedure for solving an electrical circuit using Kirehoff's laws CHAPTER 2: BLECTROMAGNETISM 2 Introduction: Important definitions - Analogy between magnetic and electric eireuits -Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction - Changing of Mux - Dynamically induced emf. - Fleming's right hand rule - Statically induced emf. - Self inductance - Energy stored in an inductor - Mutual inductance ~Co-eflicient of coupling - Inductances in series ~ Mutual inductance between two coils which are connected on the same magnetic material CHAPTER 3:SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS Introduction: Advantages of sinusoidal wave forms - Generation of A.C. voltage - Definitions - Effective value of an alternating current - Average value of an alternating current - Form factor = Peak factor - Vector representation of an alternating quantity ~ Phase of an alternating quantity - Phase difference Addition of alternating quantities - Pure resistance circuit - Pure inductance circuit - Pure capacitance circuit - RL series circuit - Power factor of a circuit - R C series circuit - R LC series cireuit-A.C, Parallel circuits - Method of vectors - The operator - Symbolic method or “j” method - Admittance - Admittance method, CHAPTER 4: THREE PHASE CIRCUI 93 Introduction; Generation of three phase voltages - Three phase connections Measurement of power ina three phase circuit - Two wattmeters method. CHAPTER 5: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS WW Introduction - Dynamometer type watimeter - Induction type single phase energy meterCHAPTER 6; DOMESTIC WIRING 7 Introduction - Feeders, distributors and service mains - Meter board and distribution board - Systems of wiring- Cleat wiring, Wooden casing and capping, wiring - Surface conduit wiring and concealed conduit wiring - Two way control of lamps - Three way control of lamps - Earthing - Methods of earthing - Pipe earthing - Plate earthing - Fuses - Electric shock and precautions Miniature circuit breakers. against CHAPTER 7: D.C. GENERATOR 137 Introduction - Working principle - Construction - Yoke or magnetic frame - Main poles, pole shoes and pole coils - Armature - Armature windings - Commutator - Shaft and bearings - Definitions wart, armature windings- Types ofarmature windings - Analogy between lap winding and wave winding - E.M.F. Equation - D.C generator on load - Types of D.C generators - Self excited D.C generator-D.C shunt generator-D.C series generator - D.C compound generator. CHAPTER 8: D.C. MOTOR 169 Introduction - Working principle - Fleming's left hand rule - Back E,M.P, - Torque equation - Types of D.C, Motors - D.C. Shunt moter - D.C. series motor - D.C compound motor - s of D.C, motors - Characteristics of D.C shunt motors - Characteristics of D.C series motors - Characteristics of D.C. compound motors ~ Applications of D.C, motors - Necessity of 4 starter for a D.C. motor - Three point starter. CHAPTER 9: TRANSFORM 199 Introduction = Construction - Working principle - E.M.P. Equation - An ideal transformer - Practical transformer - Transformer on no load - Transformer on load - Equivalent resistances and atransformer- Efficiency ofa transformer - Regulation of a transformer, CHAPTER 10; SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR 229 Introduction - Construction = Working principle - Frequency of the induced E.M.F. equation Piteh factor - Distribution faetor - Alternator on load - Regulation of an alternator - Losses and Efficiency CHAPTER U1: THREE PHASE, INDUCTION MOTOR 245 Introduction - Construction - Rotating magnetic field - Working principle - Frequency of rotor current - Starters for three phase induction motor - Methods of starting three phase induction motors- Star-Delta starter. MODELPAPERS AND EXAMINATION PAPERS 261 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUES H SOLUTIONS 305 JONS WCHAPTER - 1 D.C, CIRCUITS Li Introduction : ‘An electric circuit is an interconnection of the various elements such as, a voltage source, a current source, resistors, inductors and capacitors, Any Engineering system uses in one way or the other, an electric circuit as a component. The performance of any drawing its electrical equivalent circuit, electrical device or machine is always studied by of science is the sound nical, hydraulic, thermal, nc The fundamental requirement for the understanding of any br: knowledge of electric circuits. Any type of system such as me nuclear, traffic flow, weather prediction cte., can always be simulated by an electric circuit, All conteol form of electric circuits. When the techniques of circuits theory are mastered, we effectively also team the analysis of any tems are studied representing ther in th system. 1.2 D.C, Cireuil Two types of currents may flow in an electric circuit () direct current and (ii) alternating current and accordingly, we have D.C, circuits and A.C. circuits, The discussion about A.C. circuits is being done in chapter 3, This chapter is restricted to the discussion of only D.C. circuits. ‘A direct current always remains constant and does not vary with time. The flow of ticular direction. Fig. 1.1. direct current characterizes the [low of electric charge in one p represents the direct current which does not vary with time. current A D.C. circuit consisis of coristant voltage sources, 1 constant current sources and their interconnection with resistances only, The study of D.C. circuits necessiates the i = cn study of the various elements of an electri¢ circuit, Fig, |.L Direct current ‘ectric Circuit: 1 Elements of An electvic circuit consists of two types of elements (i) Acrive elements or sources and (ii) Passive elements or sinks, There are two types of sources, (i) Voltage source and (ii) Current source. s constant, nal vollage remai An ideal voltage source ix one, Whose tern respective of the current delivered by it to the load.DC Circuits An ideal current source delivers a constant current to the circuit, irrespective of the load connected to its terminals, Ideal D.C. voltage sources and ideal D.C. current sources are represented symbolically as shown in Fig, 1.2(a) and 1.2(b) respectively. Fig. 1.2 Practical sources are never ideal, as they possess internal resistance r. the symbolic representations of practical yoltage source and current source are as shown in Figs. 1.3 (a) and 1.3¢b) respectively. is Re Fig. 13 The internal resistance of a voltage source is always connected in series with it and for it is always connected in parallel with it, As the value of the internal resistance of a practical voltage source is very small, its terminal voltage is assumed to be almost constant, irrespective of the current delivered by it to the load. a current sourc A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current, irrespective of the load connected to its terminals, a The passive elements of an electric circuit does not possess ene ive ener of their own. They y from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance, the inductance and the capacitance, When current is passed through a resistance, it consumes ener "y and , but stores it in the form of electrostatic and electromagnetic fields respectively. In this chapter electric circuits consisting of only resistances are considered. heat is produced. A pure capacitance or a pure inductance does not consume ene MATE. Te unit of resistance iMG named at 1 George Simon OhmThe Electric Current a (1787-1954) a German physicist, who investigated the relation between the applied Voltage across a resistance and the current flowing through it, The symbol of ohmyis Q The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area of cross section, t é Ra or Rep. (ly a a Where p is a constant, known as the specific resistance or resistiviry of the material of the conductor a Rife be defined as its resistance, when its length is unity and area of cross section is also unity. Land a= 1. Henee, the resistivity of a conductor may In equation (1.1), The unit of resistivity is ofmm—metre (Q-m). Typical values of the resistivities of various materials are listed in table Lt, TABLE LAR ies of Materials. | siNo. | Conductor |p in Q—m at 20°C 1 Silver 1.629 x 10° Copper | 724 tO | 3 |Gota 244x108 4 [Aluminium 2.688 x 10 5 [Tungsten 55x10" PG [Nickel 78x10" Ee [ron 98x 10% | [8 [Tantalum 155% 10% 9 |Nichrome 100 10" | 10 |'Tin oxide wox10* | 1 Carbon 3500 x 10° 15 The Eleetrie Current: In the outermost orbit of the atoms of conductors, there are free electrons which can be dislodged from the parent atom, by the application of an extemal force. ‘The continuous deilt of electrons in a conductor on the application of an external foree in a particular direction, constitutes the How of current, REEVE HERESIES SAEED4 D.C Cirewits 4c Hence, the branch current is given by, WORKED EXAMPLI 1.1 Two resistances 20 Q and 40 Q are connected in parallel. A resistance of 10 Q is connected in series with the combination. A voltage of 200 V is applied across the circuit. Find the current in cach resistance and the voltage across 10 Q. Find also the power consumed in all the resistances. Soln. : The total resistance of the circuit is given by 2092 0x4 gat, 2 2 50 20440 t= 20-8574 LT We 23.33 pane B00 bs @ f= 857 xi =S571A Fig 1.8 40420 =8.57-S.71=2.86A, Vioq= 8.57 x 10= 5.7 volts Prog = 8.57" x 10 = 734.45 watts, — Paya = 5.71? x 20 = 652.08 watts Pion = 2.86" x 40 = 327.18 watts,8 D.C Cireuits 12ZADC. 40. as a {i has a voltage current relation given by V = 20 + ~ - It is connected in series with a resistor. The total voltage applied is 120 V. If the voltage across the d the value of the resistor. are is half the volt across the resistor, fi 40. Are Soln.: For the arc, 40 = 20+ tT’ A 1 forthe resistor = [ R=80 ic. 2R=80 ' TAL “ R=40Q Fig. 1.9. 1.3 Three resistors A, B and C are connected in parallel taking a total current of 12A I, le = 3.5 Ip and total power drawn is 3 kW, calculate wn by cach resistor (b) supply voltage and (c) power consumed by ine from the supp! (a) current di ance, 1 Ry cach resist Solm: (a) [y+ Ty + Tc In+2Ia43 Ip = 12 314+ 3.5 (2 Ia) = 12 y=24 A and | (b) P= 3,000 W= V1 3000, y= 300 Ine 250 (c) Pas 250x1 300 watts Pg =250x 2 600 watts, Po = 250 x 8.4 = 2,100 watts: 1.4 In the series parallel circuit shown in Fig. 1.11, find (i) the yoltage drop across 4. resistor and (ii) the supply voltage. nt 1, Ly and 1 flow in the branches as shown in the Fig. 1.11 50 qQ 4 re Soln, 625A 1 = 125A wa 80 v= = 82 mas 20% sa Fig, (11Worked Examples 9 Sea 19285 OX <4440a 348 1048 8Q)8Q= Total resistance = R = 4 + 4.44 +4 = 12.440 Supply voltage = V = 12.44 x T= 12.44 x 11,25= 140 volts LSA resistance R is conneeted in series with a parallel circuit comprising 20 Q and 48 Q. The total power dissipated in the circuit is 1,000 W and the applied voltage is 250 V. Calculate R oo 2 “3 AM Soaps — S22 = \000 R Ry Ry an ie 48.0 + Ry =total resistance = —— = 6250 NW 1,000 Rr=R+ we ig, @oER4 142, aaa - . 250 V 1 R=48.38 2 Fig. 1.12 L6 In the given cireuit shown ii 1.13, calculate (a) the total current (b) current in §Q and (c) the power dissipated in 6 Q and 7 Q. 5a 1202 Soln. +. Ren 6 18 24 72 Racn = Rac + Rew = 2.73 + 2.88 = 5.61 Q10 D.C Circuits 0. ‘The total resistance = Ry a ot ae 32.15 A 5.61+7 3.11 b) 1) =32.15x eS. =17.85 A, Eqc = 17.85 x Rac = 17.85 x 2.73 745.61 lat BH 9.75. ©) Ecp = 100—Eqxc= 100- 48.73 =51.27V. Poo = 438.1 W 100° Pig = = 1,428.57 W 7 1.7. A current of 30 A flows through two ammeters A, and A: connected in series. The p.d, across the two ammeters are 0.3 V a d 0.6 V respectively. Find how the same current will divide when they are connected in parallel. Soin: Let Rj and Ry be the resistances of the ammeters Ay and Ay respectively 30 AP—0.3V—— 0.6V— x =20A L(A) 0.02 +0.01 L 0,02. Q. b=30-20=10A 30 R, =0.3, + Ri =0.012 30 Ry = 0.6, 2 Rz= 0,02 Q Fig. 1.14 ‘The two ammeters are now connected in parallel L, @! ola as shown in Fig. 1.15 0,02 30 1,=30 fs es Fig. 1.15 1.8 A voltage of 200 ¥ is applied to a tapped resistor of 500 Q. Vind the resistance between the tapping points connected to a load, needing 0.1 A at 25 V. Also calculate the total power consumed. Soln.: Let the resistor be tapped between points B and C and x be the resistance between these points. Ruc= Q ‘Then, (I —0.1) x= 25 ie Ix (dd) Also, 1 (500 —x) ie. 5001—Ix=175 (1.15) ‘Adding equations (1.14) and (1.15), we getWorked Examples 1. 200-4.0.14 500 (1.16) 5001-0.L.x=200, or I Substituting I given by equation (1.16) in equation (1.14), we get 200 + 01x 2 Ol x= 25 500 on simplification, we get , 200:V = OL a + 150.0— 12,500= 0 —1504 4150" +4x0.1% 12,500 50 x 12,51 =79.15Q 2x0 0.1 5 : Fig, 1.16 (considering only the positive value) ° Substituting this value in equation (1.14), we get, l= 042A Total power consumed = 200x1 = 200 x0.42 = 84 watts has dimensions x = 10 cm, y = 0.5 em and 7 = 0.2 em. 1.9 A rectangular metal st Determine the ratio of resistances R,, R, and R, between the respective pairs of opposite sides. Soln.: The rectangular strip is shown in Fig. 1.17 0x10 + Rep {= 10.000 p 0.5x0.210 02cm Rap Sp 0.5m 10x0.2x 10 10cm 02x10? Vigil a er Rep 4p 10x0.5%107 500 : 6 Rye Ry eR, = 10,000: 25:4 = at will be the resistance of a 1.10 A piece of silver wire has ar ance of 1 QO. W wanin wire half the length and half the diameter, ganin is 30 times that of silver. the specific resistance of ma tr “et Ry be the resistance of silver wire, Ri =pi —! (1.17) 4a 112 D.C Circuits (1.18) Let R; be the resistance of manganin wire, from equations (1.17) and (1.18), we get Pr ty do R,=600 sistor, i 1.11 When a certain battery is loaded by a 60 Q When it is loaded by a 90 Q resistor, its terminal yolta resistance would give a terminal voltage of 90 volts. Soln. : Let r be the internal resistance of the battery When Ry = 60 Q and V =98.4 V; Ej=98.4 +I) 4 (1) =98.9+lor (2) When Ri = 90 Q and V = 98.9 V ; Fig 1.18 I, and I; are given by, r= 0.9240 98.4 98.9 V he =164A, b= =1099A | 60 90 eet ov ER, = 99.92 V Substituting these values in (1) and (2), we get | F)=98.4 + 1.644 @) Fig. 1.19 FE, = 98.9 + 1.099 r (4) From (3) and (4), 98.44 1.64 r= 98.9 + 1.0998, = 0,924.2 Substituting this value in (3), we get, B= 90.92 V 1, -91 99.92 — 9 oe Eo 5 107A 0,924 0.924 9 R= 2383899 10.736 112 istors 10 Q, 20 2 and 30 @ are connected once in series and then in parallel. Find both series and parallel equivalent resistances, power dissipated and the energy consumed in 2 hours, in exeh case, if the applied voltage ix 230 V.Worked Examples 13 Soln.; Series connection: R=R)+R2+ Ry =10+ 20+ 30=602 ao = 881.67 W R 60 Energy = Pxt = 881.67 x 2= 1763.34 Wh or 1.763 kWh Parallel connection: Lyd by Dt 6189 My pg R, R, 10 20 30 60 60 1 30? _ 230*x11 ool 60 Energy = Pxt = 9,698.33 x2 = 19,396.67 Wh = 19.397 kWh = 9,698.33 W 1.13 Two incandescent lamps rated 40 W and 80 W, each designed to work on 200 V are connected in parallel. Find the current drawn from the source, If the Jamps are connected in series across the same supply, what is the current drawn? 200 a 00" _ 1.0008, 40 aay 200" = 500.0 1). When the lamps are connected in parallel y Fs : 80 W, 50082 pet - ™ 202 RR, 1.000007" i 290y ——— Fig. 1.1 9(@) E _ 200 _ R500 h4h=02+04=06A 1,000 2 500. When the lamps are R=Rj+Ri= 1,000 a0 pe HS 2 6 Fig. 1.19(b) R 1,500, 1.14 In the given circuit, find (i) the currents 11, [2 and Is (ii) the voltage V (iii) power supplied by the current sourees and (iv) power consumed by the resistors. Son: + h+b=244=6A (1) V=1xh=%h=4514 D.C Circuits 7 = ty and AT; 3 4 2A v Substituting this relation in equation (1), we get pete tye he6, oN a ed Fig.1.19(6) 21=343 A, b= 1.715 A, by = 0.8575 A V=1x!I 1x3.43 =343V Py = 2xV =2x3.43 = 6.86 W = Power supplied by 2 A source Py=4xV = 43.43 = 13.72 W = Power supplied by 4 A source Power consumed by the resistance: Pie Ex =342x1 = 1L76W, P= 2 x2= 1.71 Py= x4 =0.8575'x4 = 2.94 W *2= 5.88 W 1.17 Kirchoff’s Laws: Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887), a German Physicist enunciated two laws which enables us to find the currents flowing in an electric circuit and voltages across the various elements of the circuit, These laws form the basis for the study of electrical circuits. The two laws are (i) current law and Gi) voltage law. Fig. 1.20 shows the junction A of an electric circuit at which four currents 1, 1, meet, All the currents flowing towards the junction are taken as +ve and all the currents flowing away from the junction are taken as —ve. Then, according to Kirchhoffs current law, o h+h=hth (1.20) th From equation (1.20), Kitchhoff’s current law can also be stated as “Ar any junetion of an electric circuit, the sun of all the currents entering the junction is equal 10 the stun of all thee currents leaving the jimction”Kirchhoff's Laws 18 a) aay All the voltage rises are taken as +ve and all the voltage drops are taken as —ve. Fig, 1.21 represents a battery of e.m.f. E volts connected between iwo points a and b, which can be traced either from a to b or from b to a, When it is traced from a to b, the battery is traced from —ve terminal to +ye terminal, It is a voltage rise. Hence, the emt. is +e. Eup) is positive When the battery is traced from b toa, itis traced from +ve terminal to —ve termina is voltage fall and hence the e.m.f. is -ve. n) is —ve. Consider a resistance R connected between two points a and b, through which, a current [ is flowing as shown in Fig. 1.22, The voltage drop {1 R)yp is along the direction of the current. It is a voltage fall and hence —ve. +. (ER) is —ve The voltage drop (I R)pe is against the direction of the current, It is a voltage rise and hence +ve (IR}u is tve Consider a circuit is as shown in Fig. 1.23 6 8 e B, - The directions of currents 1), b and Ly flowing in arbitrarily 1 I the various branches of the circuit are assumed. For the closed loops in the cireuit, using a1 R ——" Kirehhoffs voliage law, the equations are, For loop abeda: Ey — Ry ~ bR: 7 a ¢ Forloop deefd 1Ro-WRs Fig, 1.23, 1.18 Cramer's Rule: ‘This rule is very useful in solving simultaneous equations. Let the simultaneous equations having two unknowns 1) and Ip be written as in equations (1.22) and (1 Ry h+Rrk Ray ty + Ro? 1216 D.C Circuits According to Cramer's Rule, Ry where, 1, Ra} When there are three unknowns, let the simultaneous equations be Rul +Reb+Ris (1.24) Ray Ty) + Roe Ip + Ros by = Ba (1,25) Ryi Wy + Raa Ia + Ras Is = Bb (1.26) According to Cramer's Rule, the unknowns 1), Ip and I, are given by, B, Ry Ry Ry E, Ry Ry OR, By, Ry RB Ray Ex. Rg Rags ons ts R, R Rj, Ba, Rig Ry: Rss i e Sul See Saad) eye A 4 Ry Ry Rus} Where, A=)R,, Ry Ra) Rip: Rasy: Rast 1.19 Procedure for solving an electric Circuit using Kirehhoff's Laws: Solving an electric circuit normally means that, the currents in the various branches are to be found, when the e.m.f.s and the resistances of the circuit are known. The following guidelines help in solving the circuit using Kirchhoff's laws. 1 All the junctions of the circuit are named such as a, b, c, dete. The currents in all the branches are arbitrarily assumed. in any direction satisfying Kirchhoff’s current law, While assuming currents, care is taken to see that their number is minimum Closed loops in the circuit are selected and equations are written using Kirchhoffs The number of equations written must be equal to the number of unknown currents. While selecting loops, care is taken to see th all the elements of the circuit are covered in one loop or the other ‘The simultaneous equations are solved using Cramer's Rule. Positive answers obtained for the currents indicate that, their assumed directions are correct, Negative answers indicate that their assumed directions are wrong and their directions have to be reversed. oe UEWorked Examples 17 WORKED EX, MPLES LAS ind the p.d. betw the points X and Y in the network shown in Fig. 1.24 Soln.; Let I) and Ip be the loop currents. 22 _ av ot fT os Gi 3a » 50 é 5a ~ Fig, 1.24 =~ =04A and [y= we =05A 24 345 Vays43b=4-3h = 3x05-4-3x04 3.7 volts (Y is ata higher potential than X) 1.16 In the network shown in Fig. 1.25 determine the direction and magnitude of current flow in the milli-ammeter A, having a resistance of 10 Q. Soin: Let the current distribution. be as shown in Fig. 1.25. fue i ai é For abda 4~ 10 l+ 100d, —1)=0 tty NE Le. 100f -110b= (i) ; a A asa§ For bedb 24251 +10b=0 oe Le, 251,+ 101, =2 Gi) 1000 Solving (i) and (it). we get a naw Ft noo 4 Eas 32 hea 100 — 110) | = 0.0267A = 26.7 mA 25 (10 1.17 In the network shown in Fig. 1.26, find the current flowing in each branch using Kirchhoff's laws. Solo, : Assume the currents as shown. For ABDA, —10 1; — 25 1y + 2041, — In) =0 ie. 4h-6hb-Sh=0 (1,29) For BCDB, — 15 (a - ln) +5 (i -—h +h) + 2555018 D.C Cirewirs (1.30) ie. For ABCEPA, ie = Sh-Sh+h=30 (131) Solving equations (1.29), (1.30) and (1,31), we get 0 =6 =5| |4 0 -5 0 9 il 50 h=4 4 1 4 9 5 =5 4 Sahel eh currents ar Inc 12.7-7.03 +172, lan=h Lov 10a 3. d Fig. 1.27 Soln; i) When $ is open, the circuit is written as below. 20 12 Fig. 1.28 The current distribution is as shown in Fig. 1.28 For abeda, 120-21) - 101, =9, i For deetd 10h -1;—-h)-20- 10050 je. —T 4111 = 120 I) -5(h —b+h)+ 150=0 19 20 iol Fig. 1.26 andi Ip in equations (1.29), we get I= 1.72 A Ir- = 7.03 -1.72=5.31 A, 1=12.7-7.03 =5.67A cross cd if (i) switeh S is 20V Yiek 1O0V h4+5b=60 (1,32) (1.33)Worked Examples 19 Solving equations (1.32) and (1.33), we get 375A and b=1.25A Voltage across cd = Ver= 10x b= 10x 11,25= 112.5 ¥ ii) When the switch S$ is closed, no current flows through | Q and 20 V, The resulting circuit is as shown below. b 20 e ¢ ov =p HOV 100 ¥ 1.19 Find the currents in the various branches of the given network shown in Fig.1.30 Soln.; The currents are distributed in the various branches as shown For ABCDEFA — 0.02 10.02 (1-80) ~ 0.03 (I+ 10) - 0,02 (f= 140) — 0,01 = 20) -0.01¢1-100)=0 On solving, we get, [= 48.18 A 48.18 A 3182A or Igy =3182A =I Ine = (1-80) = Jey = + 10) = S88 A Ipe=(1=140)=-91.82 A or Iep = 91.82 A Ie = (120) = 28.18 A Tey =(1 100) =~ S1.82A or Tyn= S182 1.20 Find the currents 1, [, and [; and the voltages Vy, Vj; in the network shown in 3k Fig.20 D.C Circuits ph 029 cL 030 o OLR Soln. : From the circuit, we know 1-30, Iy+1,-30=20 Le, For abeeghfda, 120 -0.21,-0.31b+0.11;-110=0 Substituting for Iz and Ij, we get -0.6 = or [)=40A 0-30=10A, = 50-40 =10A Va=120-0.2x40=112V, Vy=110—0.1 x 10= 109 V 1.21 For the following network shown in Fi branches and potential di 1.32, find the currents ference across AD and CE, all the Soln.; The currents are distributed as shown in the figure. For the loop ABCDEA, ~2.51-(1+ 10) x 1-2 (1+ 19)—3 (1+ 17) -4 (1 +2. ie. 14.96 A Ian 14.96 A ie, Tua = 14.96 A Ine = 1 + 10 = 14.96 + 10 = 4.96 A ie. dep =4.96. 4 Top = 14 19 = -14.96 + 19=4.04 4 Ipg =1 + 17 = -14.96 + 17 = 2.04 A1.22 Soin. 1.24 Soln. Worked Examples 21 14.96 +22 =7.04.A Ing = 1+ 22 Vap = -3( +17) 4 (14 22)=-3 x 2.04 -4(7.04) = =34.28-V Vee = 30417) #214 19) =3.x 2.04 +24.04) = 14.2 nt in the 6 Q resistance of the network shown in the Wig. 1.33 is 2A. nd the applied voltage. The all the branches Determine the currents i Let I be the total current : 62 94 Then, 2= 1x8 846 ie fd 1 1, = 35x = 5A 20+8 h=el-h= =1A Rastoy Vo =4x1+6x2+8xh= 4x3546x24+8x25=46V hollow cube of £2 wires, each having a lly oppasite ircuit in Fi 3(a) show: ce between any two diagona nee of r, Find the resista corners. we of the Let a current 61 enter at a, Be symmetry of the cube, the current distribution in the wires is as shown in the Fig.1.34. A current OF leayes the diagonally opposite corner g. Let a battery of E volts be connected between a and g. ‘Then, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the closed path aefea, we get B=r(2l+1+2)=51r IF R is the equivalent resistance between a and g, then E=61R. “ SIr=61R or R==r. 6 Find the current in the various branches of the ci The current distribution in the various branches of the circuit is as shown in the Fig 1.35 For the loop abdefer 2h -5(—hy- 8d) —b +h) + 10=0routes ie 15 —-13h+8h=10 (1) Kor she loop bedb: 4b - 614 5(h —b)=0 ie. 51-9 -6)=0 For the loop edee: 6h —8(h —hy +1494 10 (2-1) =0 ie. 4-9 -12b=0 ~(3) Solving equations (1),(2) and (3 W=2A, bst33A and F The currents in the various branches are: Teun = 1) = 2A, The 133 A, lw=h=—b59A ie. Tie = b59 A, 1.33 = 0.67 A 33 —(-1.59)= 2.92 A 1.33-1.59=-0.92A ie. [ey =0.92 A16 Numerical Probleme 23 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ‘Two resistors are connected in paralle|. The voltage applied is 220V. ‘The current taken is 30 A. ‘The power dissipated in one of the resistors is 1600 W. Find the value of the wo resistors [30.25 Q, 9.68 G1] A resistance of 5 Q is connected in series with a parallel combination of RQ and 19 ©. ‘The total power consumed by the circuit is 1200 W. ‘The applied voltage is 100 V, Find R [SQ] A current of 10 A flows through two ammeters A and B connected in series, The potential differences across A and B are 0.2 V and 0.3V respectively, Pind how the same current will divide between A and B when they are connected in parallel, [6A, 4A] One branch of an electric circuit consists of two resistances 2 Q and 4. connected in parallel. Another branch consists of three resistances | Q. 3 © and 5 Q connected in parallel. ‘These two branches are connected in series. A resistance of 7 2 is conneeted in parallel with this combination. A 10V battery with an internal resistance of 0.2 © is connected across the circuit. Find (i) the total current (ii) current through 4 @ and (iii) the power consumed in 5.Q. [5.75 A,L.49 A, L67 W] Twe resistances 10 Q and 20 Q are connected in parallel. Another two resistances 10 Q and 60 @ are also connected in parallel, These two branches are connected in series, A voltage of 200V is applied across the combination, Find (i) the total current (i) current in 10 Q and (iii) power dissipated in 60 22 [6.52 A,4.35 A, 408.73 W] Tn the network shown in Fig. 1.34, find the e.m.f. of the battery and the reading of the ammeter. [146.486 V, 1.35 A] Note: Assume that the current flowing through the voltmeter is zero and the resistance of the ammeter is so small that it can be neglected,2A D.C Circrits 1.7 ‘Two voltmeters of resistances 15 kOQ and 20 kQ are connected in series across 200 V supply. Both meters are 0-300 V rang Find the readings of the voltmeters: [85.71 V, 114.29 V] 18 Find the resistance across RQ of the network shown in Fig. 1.35 R 5000.2 10000Q) S000.Q ¢ 30008 ao Bs a #3 | 19000 2 3 = Q Fig. 1.35 L.9 The total power consumed by the network shown in Fig. 1.36 is 16 W. Find the value of Rand the total current, : 40 a [60,2] vy 1.10 For the network shown in Fig. 1.37, calculate (i) the equivalent resistance across the terminals of the supply (ii) total current and (iii) power delivered to 16 resistor, [28 Q, 3.57 A, 12.745 W] 8Q 62 A So eae An —t 240: a 08 16.0: 100 V sa 6a ia LowNumerical Problems 28 111 Inthe circuit shown in Fig, 1.38, determine Vy and voltage across 8 © resistor, so that, the voltage drop across 15 Q resistor is 45 V, when the switeh S is open. [150¥, 40 V] 1.12 In the circuit shown in Fig, 1,39 determine (2) the current supplied by the source ISA, 2.5¥] and (ii) voltage across 6 @ resistor, 5Q 52 We 6a 32 t Fig. 1.39 3 Vind the pd between the points A and B in the network shown in Fig.1.40. 5a in 6 [9.488 V¥] Wy v1 Le 10 B Fig. 1.40, 1.41, find the eurrents flowing in the various [3.83 A, 2.33 ALS A] 1.14 In the given cireuit shown in F branches of the circuit 22 ao 6Vv By = ie 402 Fig. Lal26 D.C Circuits 1.15 1.16 117 AAS Tn the network shown in Hig, determine the current in cach battery and in the 16 $2 resistor. [4.45 A,0.74 A, -0.5 A, 4.69 Al 120 ¥, 0.1.2 et 90,020 ey HOMO 2 bey to 3022 Fig. Lz In the Whatstone bridge circuit shown in Fig.1.43, find the current flowing through the galvanometer G [29.41 nA | b d all . 1OW2R Fig, La A battery of 100 V, having an internal resistance of 0.25 $2 is connected in parallel with another battery of 80 V, having an internal resistance of 0.2 82. ‘These hwo batteries are connected across a 220 V d.c. supply. with a repulator resistance of 10.© connected in series with it, Calculate the currents flowing in each battery and the total current taken from the supply [57-14 A, 28.57 A, 28.565 A} In the given circuit shown in Fig. 1.44, find the currents flowing in 3 Q and $ Q. »Q Lo sa at su (sa 5.5 A, 2.5 A]Numerical Problems 27 eh the In the given circuit shown in Fig.1.45, find the current Mowing thro galvanometer 110.62 pA | 0.05 Vv 100.0 Ne a 1a90 82 hy 1000.0) N80 SY —— Hi Determine the currents 1), band Ly in the circuit shown in SY aN [2.56 A, 1.83 A, avi T 30 ¥ ie In the circuit shown in Fig. 147, the voltage drop across 8 @ resistor is 12 V having polarities as shown. Find the value of [18.67 Q] 6A so se i a 1008 Fig 147DE Circuits QUESTION BANK 1. Mention the various elements of an electric circuit. 2, s of an electric circuit and give Deline active elements and passive eleme examples 3. Bring out clearly the difference between ideal sources and practical sources of voltage and current and give their symbolic representations 4. Define resistance of a mate al and mention the fuctors on which it depends. Define current and mention its unit. 6. Define ampere and volt. 7. Define potential, potential difference and mention their units. $, Bring out the difference between voltage and E.M.P. 9, State Ohm's law and mention its limitations. 10. Define power and energy. Write equations for them and mention their units, 11. Find the equivalent resistance, when three resistances are connected in (a) series and (b) parallel 12. Derive the equation for the current in a parallel branch. 13. State and explain Kirchhofi"s laws 14. Explain how Kirchhoffs laws can be used for solving an electric circuitCHAPTER -2 ELECTROMAGNETISM. 21 Introduction: Any material, which has both atrctive and alirective properties is called an When a magnet is freely suspended in air, it always points in the North South dire ion, A magnet always attracts iron filings. In nature, natural magnet is found in the form of an ion ore, which is an oxide of iron PeyQ, (ferric oxide) known as magnetite, Natural magnets are very Weak magnets and hence does not have many practical applications. Artificial magnets, also known as electromagnets of any strength may be built which have many practical applications, Iron, Cabalt, Nickel and their alloys such as Silicon Steel When bars of such magnetic materials are wound with a coil and are magnetic materia current is passed though them, they become electromapnets the strength of such an electromagnet depends on the number of turns in the coil and the magnitude of the current ing through it, Henee, by suitably increasing the number of turns of the coil and the current passing through it, an electromagnet of any strength ean be built 2.2 Important Definiti: unetic effects ) Magnetic Field: The region or space around a magnet in which the m: are fell is known as the magactic fied. Fig. 2.1 represents a bar magnet and the magnetic fi eld around it, The magnetic field is represented by magnetic lines of foree, which stant from the north pole and go into the south pole, completing their path in the surrounding medium and the material of the magnet, Her agnelic lines of force a ¢ always elosed lines. ‘The magnetic lines of force are purely imaginary lines. They do not intersect each other. They are like elastic bands which always try to shorten themselves, it) Magnetic Flux (@): The entire magnetic [i known us the magaetio flex, Its ur Huard Weber (1804-91), a German Physicist. es of force representing a magnetic field is is weber, abbreviated as Wh, 1. ier Wilhelm iii) Magnetic Flux Density (B): The magnetic flux per unit area, th normal to the tines of flux is known as the fhe density. The unit is weber per square metre (Whim) or Tesla (7).30 Eleetromagnensm B=£ whim’ or 7 2.1) ‘orce or M.MLF.: M.M.F. is defined as the magnetic force, which s magnetic {lux is. magnetic material.“ MMF, = NI, (2.2) iv) Magnotomotive he unit is eampere tirns ( Where. N= Number of turns in the coil 1 = Current through the coil an for M.MLP. is, MMF. =Flux x Reluctance =o x 23) Another equal ¥) Reluetanee (R): Reluctance is the property of a magnetic material by virtue of which per weber (ATAND). iL opposes the creation af mag The reluctance of a magnetic material is directly proportional to the length of the magnetic tic flux in it, The unit is apere tern material and inversely proportional to ity area of eross section. gee ‘ Ra- a (4) a tid Bic Where, = length of the magnetic material a = area of cross 8 }) — aconstant known as the absolute permeability of the magnetic maierial = un th) Where, jy = permeability af tree space or air~ 4ir x 107 henry per metre (Firm) bis > relative permeability of the magnetic material vi) Permeability; Permeability is basically the property of the magnetic matertal by virtue of which the magnetic flux can be easily created in it. For any magnetic niuterial, there are two permeabilities (i) absolute permeability and (ii) relative permeability, (i) Absolute Permeability (ji): The absolute permeability of a magnetic material is defined as the flux induced in the magnetic material per unit magnetising force. B u-—,. Whe i H~ magnetising foree (25) qu) Re material. the permeability of fiee space or air ve Permeability (4): Por defining the relative permeability of a magnetic Native is taken as reference. Hence, the permeability of fee space or air is taken as unity, p> 1, for free space or airFor any other magnetic material, the relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the flux density induced in the magnetic material of a particular shape and size to the flux atthe same shape and size, when the same mapnetising density induced in free space or i force is applicd B e Moe (2.06) by fic is dimensionless and hence il isa pure number. If the permeabilily of iton is $00, it means thot, iron is 500 times more magnetic than free space ar air, Tibl 2.1 wives the relative permeabilities of various magnetic materials, TABLE 2.1: Retative Perme: tie Materials. ities of Maga S.No. y etic Mater “ 1 | Relative permeability p, | 1] Pure tron (0.2% impurity) 5,000 | 2. | Nickel 600 | 3. | Cobalt 250 1. | Mild Stee! 2,000 5. | Silicon Steel 7.000 6. | Permalloy (45% Ni) 2,700 2 Foree (I): This is also referred as magnetic fiekl strength or magnetic field intensity The magnetic fiekl intensity at any point ina magnetic field is defined as the fore experienced by a unit nocth pole pliced al thal point, both in magnitude and direction. The unit iS Ampere tens per metre ¥ ul u AT/m. As per equation (2.7), che magnetising force may also be defined as the number of ‘pete turns produved per unit length. viii) Leakage and Frin Vig, 2.2 shows an iron rine with an air pap Wher the th of the ting as shown, the Hux the sth e fluxes band do. which complete their magnelising winding is concentrated over a short ler crosses the air gap, whieh is called as the useful Mux is slightly b the Muy that exists in the core of the iron ring, because of the leaka path through the surrounding air, ‘The ratio ef the flux in the ron core Lo the Mus in the ai gap is known as the feakage factor32 Electromagnetism flux in iron flux in air gap (2.8) ‘The usefial lux crossing the air gap tends to 2.2, thereby increasing the ze outwards at the edges of the air gap as shown in Fig eficctive area of the gap and reducing the flux density in the air gap. ‘This is known as fringing. The longer the air gap, the larger is the fringing 23 Analogy Between Magnetic and Electric Cireuits: There are some similarities and differences between magnetic and electric circuits, which are listed as follows. (a) Sim S.No. Magnetic € c, : R | | wi kes {t{————4 os rig 2 \ magnetie circuit consists of an iran) An electric circuit consists of a ring on which a coil is wound and in resistance across which an E.MLP. | i whieh the current is lowing, __souree is connected | 2, M.M.E, creates magnetic flux in a] E.M.F. drives current through an | | magnetic material electric cireuit | MMP, ~ Flux Reluctanee E.M.E. = Current x resistane ox k aE IxR_ [ é ~ a \ Flux density = B - Current density ~ JFaraday's Laws From the above informati b) Differences: 24 Michael Faraday (1791-1867) a British Scientist, discovered the phenomenon of Reluctance ha | Where, [1 = absolute permeability M.M.F. is similar to E.M.F. Flux is similar to current Reluctance is similar to Resistance. i, we find the following similarities lf oa Absolute permeability is similar to conductivity Fig. 25 Magnetic lines of flux are closed lines. They start from the north pole and go pole through the surrounding medium and complete their path through the m ‘The magnetic lines into the south of force do not flow in the magnetic circuit. ‘They just exist [in the core of the magnet In a magnetic circuit, energy is required only to create magnetic flux and not to maintain it ‘The reluctance of a magnetic circuit ty, even if the | depends on the flux dens lemperature remains constant, because terial of the magnet. | | Fig. 2.6 Electric lines of flux are not closed lines. They start from the positive charge and terminate on the negative charge. ‘The current actually flows in an electric circuit. In an electric circuit, there is | continuous consumption of electrical energy. The resistance of a conductor does not depend on the current density, as Jong as the temperature remains constant. of the saturation of the magnetic _ material i Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction: electromagnetic induction and enunciated them in the form of two laws34 Electromagnetism is induced in Llaw: Whenever a magnetic flux linking an electric circuit changes, an em the electric circuit. IElaw: The magnitude of the induced emf. is equal to the rare of change of flux linkages ‘The direction of the induced e,m-f. was given by Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz (1804-1865) a Russian geologist and physicist. Lenz's law: The direction of the induced e.m,f. is such as to oppose the very cause of ft. All the above three laws can be represented by the following equation ae) (1.9) Where, e= induced e.m.f, in volts. N = Number of turns in the coil i “ rate of change of flux dt The —ve sign indicates that the induced e.m.f, opposes the very cause of it i.e., the applied voltage. Explanation: Consider a coil of N turns as shown in Fig. 2.7, to which an altemating voltage v is applied, due to which an ser alternating current i flows through the coil. This altermating current, produces an alternating flux 6, which links the coil, Hence, an e.m-f. is induced in the coil, which is given by the equation, d Bact di This induced em-f. opposes its own cause. The cause of the induced ¢. fis the changing flux, which is due to the changing current, which in turn is due to the alternating voltage applied. Hence, we say that the induced e.m.f, opposes the applied voltage, which is the very cause of it. 28 Changing of Flux: an take place in two way ‘The change of flux linking an electric circui i) When a conductor cuts across a magnetic field of constant flux density, the flux. changes and an e.m.f. is induced in the conductor. This type of e.m-f. induced is known is dynamically induced emf. ii) When the electric circuit is in the form of a coil, which is stationary and when an alternating current is passed through it, an alternating flux is produced, which links theDynamically induced EME, 38 coil, Hence, an e.m.f. is induced in the stationary coil. This type of e.m.f, induced is known as statically induced emf 2.6 Dynamically Induced E.M.E.: ant flux density sof flux Consider a magnetic field of cons B Wb/m’, which is represented by the magnetic lin as shown in fig. 2.8. Let a conductor of length ¢ and area of nes of flux. 4 cross section a be placed perpendicular to the When the conductor moves with a velocity v in the direction |, it moves parallel to the lines of flux and hence does not cut any flux. Henee, the em.f, induced in the conductor is zero. When the conductor moves with a velocity v in direction I], it moves perpendicular to the lines of flux and cuts maximum flux. Hence, the e.m.f, induced in the conductor is maximum. To find an expression for this maximum induced é.m.f., let the conductor move through a small distance dx in dt seconds. Then the flux cut by the conductor is given by, Bx ( dx dg The rate at which the flux is cut, is given by, de d SP ee dt dt According t0 Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, the above equation is nothing but the e.m.f, induced in the conductor, which is maximum Ejn outs (2.10) c=Bép i ©, with the direction of the When the conductor moves in direction HII, making an ang! lines of flux with a velocity v, the component of velocity perpendicular to the direction of 9, Hence, The e.m-f. induced in the conductor is B ¢ v sin0 flux is v sin, as shown in Fig. e=B é vsin@=E, sin (2.11) vain The component of velocity cos@ which is in the direction of the lines of flux, does not contribute anything for the e.mf. induced. The direction of the dynamically induced Right Hand Rule cam.f. is given by Fleming wv cos 6 Fig. 2.936 Electromagnetism Right Hand Rule: 2.7 Flemin ‘This rule gives the direction of the induced e.m.f.. When the St thumb, the fore finger and the middle finger of the right hand are held mutually perpendicular to each other, the thumb in the Field | direction of the motion of the conductor, the fore finger in the & direction of the magnetic field, then the direction of the middle gow finger gives the direction of the induced e.m.f. This is best wr illustrated from the Fig, 2.10. isi Fig, 2.10 2.8 Statically Induced E.M.P.: ! Consider a coil of N turns which is connected to an alternating: voltage » due to which, an alternating current i flows through the coil. This alternating current, produces an alternating flux 6. which links the coil. Hence, an e.m.f, ¢ is induced in the coi v 1 Sy 2 } N This emf. induced is known as statically induced emf. and is given by. eeeNae = a ata a ae (2.12) Fig. Jil dt dt di dt 1 7 whee Leng! anf (2.13) di 1 Lis a constant known as the sedf inductance of the coil de _¢, 1? _ ? i. 4 constant because, 6 6 i di F 2.9 — Self Inductance (1): The self inductance of a coil is its property by virtue of which. it always opposes any change in the value of the current flowing through it. The self inductance of a coil may also be defined as its property by virtue of which, an e.m.f is induced in it, whenever an alternating current flows through it. ‘The self inductance of a coil is also defined as the number of weber tums produced per ampere in the coil as per the equation 2.13. xe Hy Ha © Eh figlt,a t (2.14)Energy stored inan inductor 37 = area of cross section of the electromagnet Where, (= length of the electromagnet. The equation (2.14) gives the value of the self inductance of an electromagnet, in terms bf the dimensions of the coil and the permeability of the magnetic material on which the coil is wound. The unit of self inductance is henry, named after Joseph Henry (1797-1878), an American physicist, who first discovered the property af self inductance. 2.10 nergy Stored in an Inductor: An inductor is an inductive coil, which possesses both inductance and a small ince. If the resistance is neglected, it is called as an ideal inductor, We are resis considering such an ideal induetive coil. Consider a coil of inductance L henrys as shown in Fig. 2.12, through which, an alternating current | is flowing, This altemating current produces an alternating flux, which links the coil and hence, an ecm. ¢ is induced in the coil, which f is given by, Where, v is the applied voltage ovelL— (2.15) 3 dt A pure inductance does not consume any energy and the energy supplied to the coil is stored in the form of an electromagnetic field. ‘The induced e.m.f. opposes any change in the value of the current flowing through the coil. Hence in order to establish a steady current of I amperes in 1 seconds, work has to be cd esm.f.. The work done in dt seconds is done to overcome the opposition due to the induct given by, di dw = vidi = LSidt=Lidi a The work done in t seconds is given by (2.16)38 Electromagnetism tromagnetic field. Hence, the ‘This work done is stored in the coil in the form of an el energy stored in a ceil of inductance L henrys in the form of an electromagnetic field is ie, iven by > LT, 2.1L Mutual Inductance (M)= Two coils, which are placed close to each other are said to be mutually coupled, when a part of the alternating flux produced in one coil links the other coil, As the flux is of alternating type, e.m.f. is induced in both the coils. The e.m.f. induced in the first coil, where the flux is produced, is called as self induced eamf and the em.f, induced in the second coil, which links a part of the flux produced in the first coil, is known as mutually induced emf. Fig 2.13 Consider two coils of turns N, and No, which are placed very close to each other, as Fig. 2,13. When an alternating voltage v, is applied to the first coil, an alternating shown in current i; flows through it, producing an alternating flux 4). This flux 6, Links coil I and it, which is given by hence an eam.f. ¢, is induced ir te ae oN oe 2.17) dt This is known as the self induced e.m.f. in coil 1 A part of the {ux @), produced in coil 1, links the coil 2 also. This flux i. which links both coil 1 and coil 2, is called as the mutual flux between the two coils. The flux Oy links the sum of the two fluxes $j, and 6): only coil 1. Hence the flux 6 is b= On + Oe The muiual flux $, linking coil 2, induces an e.m-f. e,,in that coil (2.18) This em. is known as the mutually induced e.m.f, and is given by ny tte (2.19) dtMutual Inductance 39 The equation for ¢,, may also be written as ne (2.20) dt m.f. induced in coil 2, due to the current flowing in coil 1. M), is known as the mutual inductance between coil | and coil 2, The equation for the mutual inductance Mj may be written as dd, fi (2.21) Mp diy Similar equations can be written, when coil 2 is energised by an alternating current ip producing a total flux 0» in it, as shown in Fig, 2.14. a2 + hay (2.22) 2 = total flux produced in coil 2. 2 O = flux that links both coil 2 and coil 1 ‘The self induced e.m.f. in coil 2 is given, by aN ee (2.23) The mutually induced e.m,f. in coil 1 is given by di é Ho Fe ay (2.24) dt dt cm Where, M ol (2.25) diy Mb, is the mutual inductance between coil 2 and coil | As the coupling between the two coils is bilateral, which means that, the coupled circuit has the same characteristics in both directions, = Ma) = (2.26) Sie Mi Hence, the mutual inductance between any two coils, which are placed close to each other, may be defined as the ability of one coil 10 induce an e.m,f in the other coil, when an alienating current flows shrough one of he coils iy Toy _ yee (2.27) di di,40 Electromagnetism 212 Co-efficient of Coupling ( The Co-efficient of coupling is the ratio of the mutual fux ta the total flux. é, Ky=42 and 9 As the coupling is bilateral Ks = Kai =K (2.29) bo=K >) and bn =K bs (2.30) From equation (2.26) 2.13 Inductances in Series: (a) When Cumulatively Connected: ure connected in series in In Fig, 2.15, two inductive coils of inductances L; and Ls es produced in them are in the same direction and hence, they are e between such a way that, the flux additive. They are said to be cumulatively connected. M is the mutual induct the two coils, Fig. 2.15 Due to the current i flowing in coil 1, « self induced e.m4f, e, is induced in coil | anda mutually induced e.m-f. e,, induced in coil 2, which are given by (2.32) and (2.33)inductances in Series 41 | Similarly, due to the current i, flowing in coil 2, a self induced e.m.f, e> is induced in coil 2 and a mutually induced e.m.f, e) is induced in coil 1, which are given by di oe 4) and (2.38) di All the four e.m.f.s induced are in the same direction. Hence, the total e.m/, induced is . given by li di a Gl eS ee Ree cites et eg OM) Sere ee (2.36) | at di From equation (2.36), we find that the equivalent inductance of the two coils connected cumulatively, is given by, L=L)+1l)+2M (2.37) b) When differentially Connected: In Fig, 2.16, the two inductive coils are connected in such a way that, the fluxes produced in them oppose each other. They are said to be alfferentiaily connected | i \ 7 Fig, 2.16 Due to the current i flowing in coil 1, a self induced ¢.m.f. ey is induced in coil and a mutually induced e.m.f. e)2 is induced in coil 2, in the directions as shown in the Fig, 2.16, whose equations are, li di . e, turns, wound on the same magnetic material, Let a current 1; flowing through the first coil produce a flux 6) in it. Then Nib > =—_ (2.44) OL Mf, Where, = length of the electromagnet. As the coils are wound on the same magnetic material, the entire flux @, produced by coil L, links coil 2 also. The mutual inductance between the coils is given by, Nib Holt aN.N. (2.45) 1, Cl fiolt,a WORKED EXAMPLES 2.1 A wire of length 1 m moves at right angles to its length at 60 metre per see in a uniform magnetic field of density 1 Wb/m’. Calculate the e.m.f induce! in the conductor, when the direction of motion is (a) Perpendicular to 1¢ field (b) Parallel to the field and (c) Inclined at 30° to the direction of the field. (a) When the conductor moves perpendicular to the direction of the field, e.m.f induced is maximum, E=B?vVolts = 1x1x60=60 volts (b) When the conductor moves parallel to the lines of flux, e.m-f induced is 0. (c)e=B f ySin® =60 x Sin 30° 30 Volts 2.2 A square coil of 10 cm side and with 100 turns, is rotated at a uniform speed of 1,000 rey per min. about an axts, at right angles to a uniform magnetic field, having a flux density of 0.5 Wb/m’, Calculate the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f., when the plane of the coil is (a) at right angles to the field (b) at 30° and (c) in the plane of the field.Worked Examples 43 3. v= 1,000 rev/min = 1000x ote m/sec = 5.23 m/Sec a) When the coil is rotated at right angles to the field, the coil sides do net cut any flux. Hence, e.m-f, induced is zero, b) When the coil is rotated at 30° to the field, the angle between the direction of wo sides of the coil cut the flux. motion of the conductor and the field is 60°. 1 NB ¢ vSin60°x 2=100x 0.5 x 0.1 x 5.23 x Sin 60° x 2= 45.29 volts seme ight angles and c) When the coil is rotated in the place of the field. flux is cut at hence, max, ¢.m-f. is induced. NB ¢v x2=100x05x01x5.23x2 = 52.3 volts. coil of 1,500 turns, gives rise to a magnetic flux of 2.5 mWb, when carrying a the average value of certain current. If the current is reyersed in 0.2 Sec., what is the e.m.f, induced in the coil? When current is reversed, the flux also gets reversed. do = change of flux = 2.5 x 10° -(-2.5 x 107) Wh = Sx 107 Wb 5x10 cima cent ees dt 02 5 volts 2.4 An iron cored electromagnet, has a length of 100 cm and a diameter of 4 cm. Calculate its inductance, if the coil has 2,000 turns and also calculate the energy -d, when the current rises from 0 to 10A. j1, = 500 for iron, 4x10" x500%| ==" x10 + 000? é LO0x LO* Energy stored = LP = x 3.185 x 10° = 187.75 W-S. Calculate the approximate resistance and inductance of an air cored solenoid. 100 cm long and 1 cm in diameter. The coil is made of copper wire having 2,000 turns, a resistivity of 1.73 x 10? Q-m and a diameter of L mm. Find the pl inals of the solenoid, when a current of 2 A is changing at the between the te’ rate of 12,000 A/S 5 $ 0° x2 Redaunes Of neo R= pe 13 xl0 10 cr 7 ex(i0" 4Worked Examples 44 Electromagnetism : tx 0.017 2 nan? _ 47X10 xix 2 X00L 20002 Inductance of the solenoid = a2’ = -~ ( 100% 10 = 0.000395 H = 395 pH Vet ¥L=IR+bL a dt The total p.d across the coil is given by, V V = 2x 1.3844 (395 x 10°) 12,000 = 2.768 +4.74 = 7.508 Volts 2.6 Two 1000 turn air cored coils, 100 em long, having a cross sectional area of 500 cm?, are placed side by side. The mutual inductance between them is 25 mH. nt of coupling. Find the self inductances of the coils and the co-et As the two coils are same. 2 27 4 2 at ee oN RIOR SDS AIOE SOOT 0.0608. 62.0 rst é 100x10°* 25x10 0.3981 val, ¥62.8x10> x62.8x10 2.7 Two coils having 1,000 turns and 1,600 turns respectively are placed close to each other such that, 60% of the flux produced by one links the other. If a current of 10A, flowing in the first coil, produces a flux of mWb, find the inductance of the second coil. Nie 5x10 He 1000% 0:5 R108. 0.08 Fi K= 60% =0.6 h 10 3 1 _ 1600x(0.5x10 0.6) _ gag 1 Ty 10 — S0i2H 0.05 ing a mean diameter of 2.8 A coil of 1,000 turns is wound on a ring of 10 cm and relative permeability of 1,200. Its cross sectional area is 12 sq.cm. When a current of 5A flows through the coil, find (a) the flux in the core (b) the induetance of the coil and (c) the induced e.m.f., if the flux falls to zero in 20 mS. «0.1 Nn (a) Reluctance R= —— = ——— 5 17.36 x 10' ATID Holt) — Axl? x1,200%12%10-4