MODULE III

ENGINE PERFORMANCE
 Design Point Performance
• The operating conditions where engine will
spend most time has been traditionally
chosen as engine design point.
• The engine geometry is fixed by the design
point calculations, the performance at other
key operating conditions ( off-design) can be
evaluated.
Design Point Performance Parameters
• Output power or net thrust
• Exhaust gas power – for turboshaft engine core this is the output power
that would be produced by a power turbine of 100% efficiency.
• Specific thrust or power – This is the amount of output power or thrust
per unit of mass flow entering the engine. It provides a good first order
indication of engine weight, frontal area and volume.
• Specific fuel consumption – This is the fuel burnt per unit time per unit
of output power or thrust.
• Thermal efficiency – This is the output divide by the rate of fuel energy
input, usually expressed as percentage.
• Exhaust temperature – For military aircraft applications low exhaust gas
temperature is important to reduce the infrared signature presented to
heat seeking missiles.
• Exhaust mass flow – Indication of heat available in gas turbine exhaust.
• Propulsive efficiency – Useful propulsive power produced by the engine
divided by rate of KE addition to the air.
Design Point Diagram:
• This is obtained by plotting engine performance
parameters versus the cycle parameters.
• The design point charts may be applied to any altitude, if
the referred form of specific power or thrust, SFC, etc.,
are used.
• Referred groups are directly proportional to Quasi-
dimensionless group and hence interchangeable in
usage.
• The difference is the substitution of theta and delta for
engine or component inlet pressure and temperature.
• Quasi-dimensionless group: These have specific gas
constant, gamma and the engine diameter is eliminated.
• Dimensionless group: These group contain all variables
affecting engine or component performance including
engine linear scale and fluid properties.
➢ SFC increases with
SOT increase, but
specific thrust
improves.
➢ For a given pressure
ratio, increasing
Mach number from
0.8 to 2.2 increases
compressor delivery
temperature.
➢ At supersonic speeds
there is similar trend,
except that at the
lowest SOT level SFC
raises again at the
higher pressure ratio,
due to reducing SFC
➢ SFC improves with
pressure ratio
Turbojets design
point performances.
Compressor
delivery pressure
and temperature
versus pressure
ratio
Graph shows drop in
compressor delivery
pressure and temperature
Turbofan Design Point
Performance:
➢ Graph shows that for each
combination of bypass
ratio, overall pressure ratio
and SOT there is a
optimum fan pressure
ratio, giving both
maximum specific thrust
and minimum SFC.
➢ Optimum specific thrust
and SFC occur at the same
fan pressure ratio since for
a fixed core engine
combustion mass flow is
fixed, as are combustion
entry and exit
temperature, fuel flow
must therefore be fixed.
Continue…,
• At the optimum fan pressure ratio the overall
energy conversion to thrust is maximized.
• Increasing bypass ratio at fixed SOT and overall
pressure ratio reduces the optimum fan pressure
ratio sharply.
• This is due to reduced core nozzle pressure ratio
and hence jet velocity, resulting from an
increased LP turbine power requirement to
compress the bypass stream.
Off-Design Performance
• Steady state performance of a fixed engine design
as the operational conditions are changed.
• This addresses the other key operating points as
well as all corners of the operational envelope.
• As the power or thrust level is varied, the referred
parameter groups allow a unique running line or
families of running lines which are independent of
ambient conditions.
Turboshaft single spool:
• In turbo shaft engine turbine drives both, the engine
compressor and the output load. Referred
performance chart is shown in below graph.
• Referred compressor delivery pressure and
temperature increase significantly as day
temperature is reduced and the referred speed
increases.
• For a given day temperature as fuel flow, hence SOT
and output power, are increased the compressor
operating point moves up the constant referred
speed line.
• Equally if the day temperature increases, referred
speed falls. If the engine is flat rated then on hot
days, surge margin will reduce, as referred SOT must
increase.
Compressor working line
for single spool turboshaft
or turboprop Engine.

Compressor working line

for single spool gas
generator and free power
turbine.
Turboshaft or Turboprop, Single spool
gas generator & free power turbine:
• In this configuration the engine compressor is
driven by one turbine, and the second turbine
drives the output load.
• Referred performance is shown in the above
graph. It shows that the compressor referred
speed changes with power level.
• The power turbine speed law sets the part load
trend; the reductions in capacity and efficiency
produced by synchronous operation reduced
surge margin at low power.
Off-design operation of the single-
shaft gas turbine:
• Select a speed line on the compressor characteristics and
choose any point on this line, the values of m√T01/P01,
P02/p01, N√T01 are then determined.

• The corresponding point on the turbine characteristic is

obtained from consideration of compatibility of rotational
speed and flow.

• Having matched the compressor & turbine characteristics,

it is necessary to ascertain whether the work output
corresponding to the selected operating point is
compatible with that required by the driven load, this
requires the knowledge of variation of power with speed,
which depends on the manner in which the power is
absorbed.
Transient Performance
• Transient performance deals with the operating regime
where the engine performance are changing wrt time.
• Engine operation during transient manoeuvre is often
referred to as handling.

➢ Transient Performance Maneuvers:

❖ Slam acceleration and deceleration
❖Slow acceleration and deceleration
❖Cold start – acceleration
❖The hot reslam or bodie
❖Shaft breakage
❖Emergency shutdown
❖Drop Load
❖Bird or Water ingestion
1. Slam acceleration and deceleration:
Below figure shows typical response versus
time of engine performance parameters to a slam
or step increase.
Owing to additional fuel flow, the turbine
produced more power than required compressor
working lines differ from steady state operation by
compressor.
The unbalanced power produces spool
acceleration. Air power, fuel flow, pressure,
temperatures etc., and hence thrust or shaft power,
all increases as spool accelerates. This acceleration
continues until the steady state condition
corresponding to the new fuel flow is achieved.
2. Slow acceleration and deceleration:
Whenever longer engine response times than those for slam
manoeuvres are acceptable to the application, the PLA &hence fuel
flow are changed at slow rates. This greatly eases the operability
concerns.
3. Cold start acceleration:
Except in military applications the cold acceleration would only
be used in service in an emergency, but it is used during development
testing to search for potential surge margin shortfalls. The engine is
soak down to ambient temperature. It is then started to idle and
immediately slam accelerated to maximum rating.
The cold start- acceleration is particularly severe in that it
maximizes the difference in thermal growth of the disc and blades
relative to casing.
During acceleration, the thermal growth of compressor or
turbine disc is slower than the pressure and thermal growth of casing,
causing blade tip clearances to be temporarily increased. Higher tip
clearances significantly degrade compressor surge lines.
4. The hot reslam or Bodie Maneuver:
The hot reslam is a particularly sever maneuver and is
only used during an emergency. First the engine is held
at a high power condition for at least 5 minutes to
ensure the carcass has soaked to its hot condition.
A slam deceleration to around idle is followed
immediately by a reslam back to high power, allowing no
time for carcass to thermally soak at the low speed.
In the combustor and turbines heat soakage is akin to
additional fuel flow and in the HP compressor it lowers
the surge line, as it changes the referred speed and
hence flow capabilities of rear stages.
5. Shaft breakage:
In rear event of engine shaft failure, rapid over speed
will follow as the power of the turbine is decoupled from its
driven compressor, leaving a low inertia and a very large
power to accelerate it. To prevent over speed the control
system must instantaneously close the main fuel valve and
open bleed valve. If a shaft fails, no disc burst should occur.
6. Emergency shutdown:
A standard engine shutdown comprises a slow
deceleration to idle, a short stabilization for around 5 minutes
and then closure of the main fuel valve causing engine run
down. However the control system may signal emergency
shutdown from any operating condition if safety is involved.
Here the main fuel valve closes instantaneously and bleed
valve may open.
This is a severe maneuver with respect to LP
compressor surge margin. Even during an emergency surge is
unacceptable.
7. Drop Load:
A sudden drop of electrical load may occur
due to electrical failure. Fuel must be pulled of
more rapidly to avoid overspread, and engine
must be decelerated to idle to be available for
reloading. Hence the drop load is challenge for
the combustor stability.
8. Bird or Water Ingestion:
As stipulated in airworthiness a
requirements, engines are required to ingest a
number of birds or a given amount of water/ice,
and function safely both during this event and
afterwards.
 Starting: The fundamental starting process involves
• Dry Cranking: The engine Hp shaft is rotated by the
starter with no fuel being metered to the combustor.
• Purging: This ensures that there is no fuel from
previous operations or failed start attempts in the
engine gas or exhaust that may ignite and cause
damage.
• Light off: Fuel is metered into the combustor, and the
igniters are energized. This causes ignition locally
within the combustor, and then light around of all the
burners.
• Acceleration to idle: This is achieved via a steady
increase of flow, and continuing starter assistance.
Thermal soakage: Engines are often
held at idle to allow the carcass to
thermally soak to the new temperature
to preserve cycle life.

Above figure shows rotational speeds versus

time for both a free power turbine
turboshaft engine and turbofan during a
start.
➢ Figure shows the torque and
power balance on the HP
spool. The two curves shown
are referred to as the engine
resistance/assistance and
starter assistance.

➢ Engine assistance or resistance

is the net engine unbalanced
torque or power output during
the start, negative value being
resistance and positive value
being assistance.

➢ By standard convention the

starter motor torque or power
is shown as a negative value
even though it is assistance.
The net unbalanced assistance
torque or power is
represented by vertical
distance the two curves
 Dry Cranking:
• The purpose of dry cranking is to develop sufficient
pressure and mass flow in the combustor to permit
light off. At start initiation the starter is energized and
applies torque to the HP spool.
• To minimize the shock torque loads, torque is applied
gradually, for example via slow opening of air valves
for a turbine starter. The HP spool then rotates and
accelerates due to excess starter assistance power.
• The airflow induced by HP compressor causes the LP
spool and if applicable, eventually the free power
turbine to break away from the stiction of the oil at
the bearing.
 PURGING:
• Purging is required for all starts with gas fuel,
and may be used for liquid fuels following a
failed engine start or emergency shutdown.
During the process the combustor has been lit
before the HP spool has accelerated to
appoint where engine net resistance equals
the starter assistance.
 Light off-ignition and light around:
• Here the igniters are activated and a constant
light off flat of fuel is metered to the
combustor by control system. Figure shows
that on light off there is a step reduction in
engine resistance. However, starter assistance
is still required to continue HP spool
acceleration.
• Turbine output power is still usually less than
the sum of the compressor input power
bearing and windage loses, and auxiliary
requirements.
 Acceleration to Idle
• Fuel flow is steadily increased, causing the engine to
accelerated to idle. The starter motor continue to
provide crank assistance well after light around.
• As the speed increases the engine assistance eventually
dwarfs that of starter, which cuts out before idle.
• As shown in graph, the engine resistance crosses the x
axis and becomes assistance shortly after light off. This
point is called the self sustain and theoretically if the
starter motor were cut the engine could operate there
steady state.
• On reaching idle, fuel flow is cut back and the engine
assistance/resistance becomes zero, no unbalance
power is required for steady state is idle operation.
 Windmilling
• Windmilling occurs when air flowing through
an unlit engine causes spool rotation.
• Direction of rotation is same as that for
normal operation.
• Free windmilling is where all the engine spools
are free to rotate. Locked rotor windmilling is
where the HP spool is mechanically prevented
from rotation.
• A knowledge of key performance parameters
during windmiling is essential for following
reasons:
– Ensure relight
– Understand bearing lubrication requirements
– Knowledge of drag during windmilling
 Turbojet Windmiling
• Below figure shows windmill regime. Referred
fuel flow and mass flow are shown versus
referred speed for high and low Mach
numbers.
• Mass flow increases with higher Mach
number.
• Figure also shows locus of operating points for
free and locked rotor windmilling on the low
speed compressor map.
 Turbo prop Windmilling
• The dominant parameter determining the turboprop
windmilling behaviour is the propeller pitch.
• Figure shows the compressor working line is lower than
no load line.
• The drag is predominantly created by the propeller. At
high speeds the drag of the propeller approach that of
the engine thrust in normal operations.
• In actual flight situation such a drag makes it impractical
to operate with the propeller in position.
• Hence the engines are fitted with reverse torque switch
in the gear box, with that the propeller is brought to
feather condition, where the propeller blades are parallel
to air flow condition.
Engine Performance monitoring
• In the recent years, a method of monitoring the gas
turbine engines day to day condition has been
adopted by many operators.
• Aerodynamic performance is measured by:
– EPR
– Rpm
– Fuel flow
– EGT
– Throttle position
• Mechanical performance is measured by:
• Vibration amplitude
• Oil consumption (includes periodic spectrometric oil
analysis)
• Cockpit instrumentation readings are taken once
a day or every flight. The data is then processed
to compared with normal data established by
manufacturer. Trend in operating parameters
are ten observed.
• Engine performance monitoring is proving to be
very effective method of providing early warning
information of ongoing or impending failures,
thus reducing unscheduled delays and more
serious failures.
Trend Analysis: A case study
• Compressor contamination: Contamination of compressor
may occur due to operation near salt water, the use of
impure water for water injection, an oil leak in forward part
of the engine that may cause fine dust to adhere to blades, or
contamination from ingestion during reversing.
• Often the effects of compressor contamination can be
eliminated by water washing.
• Contamination of compressor blades changes their
aerodynamic shape, roughens their surface and reduces the
airflow area.
• Reduced airflow area in turn reduces compressor efficiency
and airflow capacity.
• When compressor lose efficiency, more power and higher
rotor speeds are required to achieve the desired compression
ratio and hence EPR.
• The additional power is obtained by pushing the throttle
forward increasing fuel flow and increasing the inlet
temperature.