O B
O B
O B
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR?
Learning Objectives
1. Define organizational behavior (OB)
2. Describe what managers do
3. Explain the value of the systematic study of OB
4. List the major challenges and opportunities for managers to use OB concepts
5. Identify the contributions made by major behavioral science disciplines to OB
6. Describe why managers require a knowledge of OB
7. Explain the need for a contingency approach to the study of OB
8. Identify the three levels of analysis in this book’s OB model
Introduction:
Managers need to develop their interpersonal or people skills if they are going to be effective in
their jobs. Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that
knowledge to make organizations work more effectively. Specifically, OB focuses on how to
improve productivity, reduce absenteeism and turnover, and increase employee citizenship and
job satisfaction.
We all hold generalizations about the behavior of people. Some of our generalizations may
provide valid insights into human behavior, but many are erroneous. Organizational behavior
uses systematic study to improve predictions of behavior that would be made from intuition
alone. Yet, because people are different, we need to look at OB in a contingency framework,
using situational variables to moderate cause‐effect relationships.
Organizational behavior offers both challenges and opportunities for managers. It recognizes
differences and helps managers to see the value of workforce diversity and practices that may
need to be changed when managing in different countries. It can help improve quality and
employee productivity by showing managers how to empower their people as well as how to
design and implement change programs. It offers specific insights to improve a manager’s
people skills. In times of rapid and ongoing change, faced by most managers today, OB can help
managers cope in a world of “temporariness” and learn ways to stimulate innovation. Finally, OB
can offer managers guidance in creating an ethically healthy work climate.
WHAT MANAGER’S DO
Importance of Developing Managers’ Interpersonal Skills
Companies with reputations as a good place to work—such as Hewlett‐Packard, Lincoln Electric,
Southwest Airlines, and Starbucks—have a big advantage when attracting high performing
employees.
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
1 SPCAM(MBA)
A recent national study of the U.S. workforce found that:
• Wages and fringe benefits are not the reason people like their jobs or stay with an
employer.
• More important to workers is the job quality and the supportiveness of the work
environments.
Managers’ good interpersonal skills are likely to make the workplace more pleasant, which in
turn makes it easier to hire and retain high performing employees.
Definitions:
Manager: Someone who gets things done through other people. They make decisions,
allocate resources, and direct the activities of others to attain goals.
Organization: A consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that
functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.
Management Functions
French industrialist Henri Fayol wrote that all managers perform five management functions:
plan, organize, command, coordinate, and control. Modern management scholars have
condensed to four: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.
1. Planning requires a manager to:
• Define goals (organizational, departmental, worker levels)
• Establish an overall strategy for achieving those goals
• Develop a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities.
2. Organizing requires a manager to:
• Determine what tasks are to be done
• Who is to be assigned the tasks
• How the tasks are to be grouped
• Who reports to whom
• Where decisions are to be made (centralized/decentralized)
3. Leading requires a manager to:
• Motivate employees
• Direct the activities of others
• Select the most effective communication channels
• Resolve conflicts among members
4. Controlling requires a manager to:
• Monitor the organization’s performance
• Compare actual performance with the previously set goals
• Correct significant deviations.
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
2 SPCAM(MBA)
Management Roles
In the late 1960s, Henry Mintzberg studied five executives to determine what managers did on
their jobs. He concluded that managers perform ten different, highly interrelated roles or sets of
behaviors attributable to their jobs. The ten roles can be grouped as being primarily concerned
with interpersonal relationships, the transfer of information, and decision making.
1. Interpersonal roles
• Figurehead—duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in nature
• Leadership—hire, train, motivate, and discipline employees
• Liaison—contact outsiders who provide the manager with information. These may be
individuals or groups inside or outside the organization.
2. Informational roles
• Monitor—collect information from organizations and institutions outside their own
• Disseminator—a conduit to transmit information to organizational members
• Spokesperson—represent the organization to outsiders
3. Decisional roles
• Entrepreneur—managers initiate and oversee new projects that will improve their
organization’s performance
• Disturbance handlers—take corrective action in response to unforeseen problems
• Resource allocators—responsible for allocating human, physical, and monetary resources
• Negotiator role—discuss issues and bargain with other units to gain advantages for their
own unit
Management Skills
Robert Katz has identified three essential management skills: technical, human, and conceptual.
1. Technical skills: The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require
some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job.
2. Human skills: The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both
individually and in groups, describes human skills. Many people are technically proficient but
interpersonally incompetent.
3. Conceptual skills: The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations. Decision
making, for example, requires managers to spot problems, identify alternatives that can
correct them, evaluate those alternatives, and select the best one.
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Effective vs. Successful Managerial Activities
Fred Luthans and his associates asked: Do managers who move up most quickly in an
organization do the same activities and with the same emphasis as managers who do the best
job? Surprisingly, those managers who were the most effective were not necessarily promoted
the fastest. Luthans and his associates studied more than 450 managers. They found that all
managers engage in four managerial activities.
• Traditional management—Decision making, planning, and controlling. The average
manager spent 32 percent of his or her time performing this activity.
• Communication—Exchanging routine information and processing paperwork. The
average manager spent 29 percent of his or her time performing this activity.
• Human resource management—Motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing, and
training. The average manager spent 20 percent of his or her time performing this
activity.
• Networking—Socializing, politicking, and interacting with outsiders. The average
manager spent 19 percent of his or her time performing this activity.
Successful managers—defined as those who were promoted the fastest:
• Networking made the largest relative contribution to success.
• Human resource management activities made the least relative contribution.
Effective managers—defined as quality and quantity of performance, as well as, commitment to
employees:
• Communication made the largest relative contribution.
• Networking made the least relative contribution.
Successful managers do not give the same emphasis to each of those activities as do effective
managers—it almost the opposite of effective managers. This finding challenges the historical
assumption that promotions are based on performance, vividly illustrating the importance that
social and political skills play in getting ahead in organizations.
A Review of the Manager’s Job
One common thread runs through the functions, roles, skills, and activities approaches to
management: managers need to develop their people skills if they are going to be effective and
successful.
Definition:
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR: OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of
applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness.
Organizational behavior is a field of study. OB studies three determinants of behavior in
organizations: individuals, groups, and structure. OB applies the knowledge gained about
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individuals, groups, and the effect of structure on behavior in order to make organizations work
more effectively. OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how
that behavior affects the performance of the organization. There is increasing agreement as to
the components of OB, but there is still considerable debate as to the relative importance of
each: motivation, leader behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure
and processes, learning, attitude development and perception, change processes, conflict, work
design, and work stress.
REPLACING INTUITION WITH SYSTEMATIC STUDY
Introduction
Each of us is a student of behavior: A casual or commonsense approach to reading others can
often lead to erroneous predictions. You can improve your predictive ability by replacing your
intuitive opinions with a more systematic approach. The systematic approach used in this book
will uncover important facts and relationships and will provide a base from which more accurate
predictions of behavior can be made. Behavior generally is predictable if we know how the
person perceived the situation and what is important to him or her. While people’s behavior
may not appear to be rational to an outsider, there is reason to believe it usually is intended to
be rational by the individual and that they see their behavior as rational.
There are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the behavior of all individuals that can
be identified and then modified to reflect individual differences.
• These fundamental consistencies allow predictability.
• There are rules (written and unwritten) in almost every setting.
• Therefore, it can be argued that it is possible to predict behavior.
When we use the phrase systematic study, we mean looking at gathered information under
controlled conditions and measured and interpreted in a reasonably rigorous manner.
Systematic study replaces intuition, or those “gut feelings” about “why I do what I do” and
“what makes others tick.” We want to move away from intuition to analysis when predicting
behavior.
CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO THE OB FIELD
Introduction
Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built upon contributions from a
number of behavioral disciplines. The predominant areas are psychology, sociology, social
psychology, anthropology, and political science.
Psychology
Psychology is the science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of
humans and other animals. Early industrial/organizational psychologists concerned themselves
with problems of fatigue, boredom, and other factors relevant to working conditions that could
impede efficient work performance. More recently, their contributions have been expanded to
include learning, perception, personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs
and motivational forces, job satisfaction, decision making processes, performance appraisals,
attitude measurement, employee selection techniques, work design, and job stress.
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Sociology
Sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles; that is, sociology studies
people in relation to their fellow human beings. Their greatest contribution to OB is through
their study of group behavior in organizations, particularly formal and complex organizations.
Social Psychology
Social psychology blends the concepts of psychology and sociology. It focuses on the influence
of people on one another. Major area—how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its
acceptance
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
Anthropologists work on cultures and environments; for instance, they have helped us
understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in
different countries and within different organizations.
Political Science
Frequently overlooked as a contributing discipline. Political science studies the behavior of
individuals and groups within a political environment.
THERE ARE FEW ABSOLUTES IN OB
Introduction
There are few, if any, simple and universal principles that explain organizational behavior.
Human beings are complex. Because they are not alike, our ability to make simple, accurate, and
sweeping generalizations is limited. That does not mean, of course, that we cannot offer
reasonably accurate explanations of human behavior or make valid predictions. It does mean,
however, that OB concepts must reflect situational, or contingency, conditions. Contingency
variables—situational factors are variables that moderate the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. Using general concepts and then altering their
application to the particular situation developed the science of OB. Organizational behavior
theories mirror the subject matter with which they deal.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR OB
There are many challenges and opportunities today for managers to use OB concepts.
Responding to Globalization
Organizations are no longer constrained by national borders. Globalization affects a manager’s
people skills in at least two ways.
• First, if you are a manager, you are increasingly likely to find yourself in a foreign
assignment.
• Second, even in your own country, you are going to find yourself working with bosses,
peers, and other employees who were born and raised in different cultures.
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Managing Workforce Diversity
Workforce diversity is one of the most important and broad‐based challenges currently facing
organizations. While globalization focuses on differences between people from different
countries, workforce diversity addresses differences among people within given countries.
Workforce diversity means that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of
gender, race, and ethnicity. It is an issue in Canada, Australia, South Africa, Japan, and Europe as
well as the United States. A melting‐pot approach assumed people who were different would
automatically assimilate. Employees do not set aside their cultural values and lifestyle
preferences when they come to work. The melting pot assumption is replaced by one that
recognizes and values differences.
Members of diverse groups were a small percentage of the workforce and were, for the most
part, ignored by large organizations (pe‐1980s); now:
• 47 percent of the U.S. labor force are women
• Minorities and immigrants make up 23 percent
• More workers than ever are unmarried with no children.
Workforce diversity has important implications for management practice.
• Shift to recognizing differences and responding to those differences
• Providing diversity training and revamping benefit programs to accommodate the
different needs of employees
Improving Quality and Productivity
Total quality management (TQM) is a philosophy of management that is driven by the constant
attainment of customer satisfaction through the continuous improvement of all organizational
processes. Implementing quality programs requires extensive employee involvement
Process reengineering asks the question: “How would we do things around here if we were
starting over from scratch?” Every process is evaluated in terms of contribution to goals. Rather
than make incremental changes, often old systems are eliminated entirely and replaced with
new systems To improve productivity and quality, managers must include employees.
Responding to the Labor Shortage
If trends continue as expected, the U.S. will have a labor shortage for the next 10‐15 years
(particularly in skilled positions). The labor shortage is a function of low birth rates and labor
participation rates (immigration does little to solve the problem). Wages and benefits are not
enough to keep talented workers. Managers must understand human behavior and respond
accordingly.
Improving Customer Service and People Skills
The majority of employees in developed countries work in service jobs—jobs that require
substantive interaction with the firm’s customers. For example, 80 percent of U.S. workers are
employed in service industries. Employee attitudes and behavior are directly related to
customer satisfaction requiring management to create a customer responsive culture. People
skills are essential to managerial effectiveness. OB provides the concepts and theories that allow
managers to predict employee behavior in given situations.
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Empowering People
Today managers are being called coaches, advisers, sponsors, or facilitators, and in many
organizations, employees are now called associates. There is a blurring between the roles of
managers and workers; decision making is being pushed down to the operating level, where
workers are being given the freedom to make choices about schedules and procedures and to
solve work‐related problems.
Managers are empowering employees.
• They are putting employees in charge of what they do.
• Managers have to learn how to give up control.
• Employees have to learn how to take responsibility for their work and make appropriate
decisions.
Coping with “Temporariness”
Managers have always been concerned with change: What is different today is the length of
time between changes. Change is an ongoing activity for most managers. The concept of
continuous improvement, for instance, implies constant change. In the past, managing could be
characterized by long periods of stability, interrupted occasionally by short periods of change.
Today, long periods of ongoing change are interrupted occasionally by short periods of stability!
Permanent “temporariness”: Both managers and employees must learn to live with flexibility,
spontaneity, and unpredictability. The jobs that workers perform are in a permanent state of
flux, so workers need to continually update their knowledge and skills to perform new job
requirements.
Work groups are also increasingly in a state of flux. Predictability has been replaced by
temporary work groups, teams that include members from different departments and whose
members change all the time, and the increased use of employee rotation to fill constantly
changing work assignments.
Organizations themselves are in a state of flux. They reorganize their various divisions, sell off
poor‐performing businesses, downsize operations, subcontract non‐critical services and
operations to other organizations, and replace permanent employees with temporaries.
Stimulating Innovation and Change
Successful organizations must foster innovation and the art of change. Companies that maintain
flexibility, continually improve quality, and beat their competition to the marketplace with
innovative products and services will be tomorrow’s winners. Employees are critical to an
organization’s ability to change and innovate.
Helping Employees Balance Work‐Life Conflicts
The creation of the global workforce means work no longer sleeps. Workers are on‐call 24‐
hours a day or working non‐traditional shifts. Communication technology has provided a vehicle
for working at any time or any place. Employees are working longer hours per week—from 43 to
47 hours per week since 1977. The lifestyles of families have changes creating conflict: more
dual career couples and single parents find it hard to fulfill commitments to home, children,
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spouse, parents, and friends. Employees want jobs that allow flexibility and provide time for a
“life.”
Improving Ethical Behavior
1. In an organizational world characterized by cutbacks, expectations of increasing worker
productivity, and tough competition, many employees feel pressured to engage in
questionable practices.
2. Members of organizations are increasingly finding themselves facing ethical dilemmas in
which they are required to define right and wrong conduct.
3. Examples of decisions employees might have to make are:
• “Blowing the whistle” on illegal activities
• Following orders with which they do not personally agree
• Possibly giving inflated performance evaluations that could save an employee’s job
• Playing politics to help with career advancement, etc.
4. Organizations are responding to this issue by:
• Writing and distributing codes of ethics
• Providing in‐house advisors
• Creating protection mechanisms for employees who reveal internal unethical practices
5. Managers need to create an ethically healthy environment for employees where they
confront a minimal degree of ambiguity regarding right or wrong behaviors.
COMING ATTRACTIONS: DEVELOPING AN OB MODEL
A model is an abstraction of reality, a simplified representation of some real‐world
phenomenon.
There are three levels of analysis in OB:
• Individual
• Group
• Organizational Systems Level
The three basic levels are analogous to building blocks; each level is constructed upon the
previous level. Group concepts grow out of the foundation laid in the individual section; we
overlay structural constraints on the individual and group in order to arrive at organizational
behavior.
9
The Dependent Variables
Dependent variables are the key factors that you want to explain or predict and that are
affected by some other factor.
Primary dependent variables in OB:
• Productivity
• Absenteeism
• Turnover
• Job satisfaction
• A fifth variable—organizational citizenship—has been added to this list.
Productivity: It is achieving goals by transferring inputs to outputs at the lowest cost. This must
be done both effectively and efficiency. An organization is effective when it successfully meets
the needs of its clientele or customers.
Example: When sales or market share goals are met, productivity also depends on achieving
those goals efficiently. An organization is efficient when it can do so at a low cost. Popular
measures of efficiency include: ROI, profit per dollar of sales, and output per hour of labor.
Productivity is a major concern of OB: What factors influence the effectiveness and efficiency of
individuals, groups and the company?
Absenteeism: Absenteeism is the failure to report to work. Estimated annual cost—over $40
billion for U.S. organizations; $12 billion for Canadian firms; more than 60 billion Deutsch Marks
(U.S. $35.5 billion) each year in Germany. A one‐day absence by a clerical worker can cost a U.S.
employer up to $100 in reduced efficiency and increased supervisory workload. The workflow is
disrupted and often important decisions must be delayed. All absences are not bad. For
instance, illness, fatigue, or excess stress can decrease an employee’s productivity—it may well
be better to not report to work rather than perform poorly.
Turnover: Turnover is the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an
organization. A high turnover rate results in increased recruiting, selection, and training costs;
costs estimated at about $15,000 per employee. All organizations have some turnover and the
“right” people leaving—under‐performing employees—thereby creating opportunity for
promotions, and adding new/fresh ideas, and replacing marginal employees with higher skilled
workers.Turnover often involves the loss of people the organization does not want to lose.
Organizational citizenship: Organizational citizenship is discretionary behavior that is not part of
an employee’s formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective
functioning of the organization. Desired citizenship behaviors include:
• Constructive statements about work group and organization
• Helping others on their team
• Volunteering for extra job activities
• Avoiding unnecessary conflicts
• Showing care for organizational property
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• Respecting rules and regulations
• Tolerating occasional work‐related impositions.
Job satisfaction: Job satisfaction is “the difference between the amount of rewards workers
receive and the amount they believe they should receive.” Unlike the previous three variables,
job satisfaction represents an attitude rather than a behavior. It became a primary dependent
variable for two reasons:
• Demonstrated relationship to performance factors
• The value preferences held by many OB researchers
Managers have believed for years that satisfied employees are more productive, however: Much
evidence questions that assumed causal relationship. It can be argued that advanced societies
should be concerned not just with the quantity of life, but also with the quality of life. Ethically,
organizations have a responsibility to provide employees with jobs that are challenging and
intrinsically rewarding.
The Independent Variables: Organizational behavior is best understood when viewed
essentially as a set of increasingly complex building blocks: individual, group, and organizational
system. The base, or first level, of our model lies in understanding individual behavior.
Individual‐level variables: People enter organizations with certain characteristics that will
influence their behavior at work. The more obvious of these are personal or biographical
characteristics such as age, gender, and marital status; personality characteristics; an inherent
emotional framework; values and attitudes; and basic ability levels. There is little management
can do to alter them, yet they have a very real impact on employee behavior.
1. There are four other individual‐level variables that have been shown to affect employee
behavior:
• Perception
• Individual decision making
• Learning
• Motivation
The middle level of our model lies in understanding behavior of groups.
Group‐level variables: The behavior of people in groups is more than the sum total of all the
individuals acting in their own way. People behave differently in groups than they do when
alone.
People in groups are influenced by:
a. Acceptable standards of behavior by the group
b. Degree of attractiveness to each other
c. Communication patterns
d. Leadership and power
e. Levels of conflict
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The top level of our model lies in understanding organizations system level variables.
Organizational behavior reaches its highest level of sophistication when we add formal
structure.The design of the formal organization, work processes, and jobs; the organization’s
human resource policies and practices, and the internal culture, all have an impact.
Toward a Contingency OB Model: The model does not explicitly identify the vast number of
contingency variables because of the tremendous complexity that would be involved in such a
diagram. We will introduce important contingency variables that will improve the explanatory
linkage between the independent and dependent variables in our OB model. The concepts of
change and stress are acknowledging the dynamics of behavior and the fact that work stress is
an individual, group, and organizational issues.
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS: Managers need to develop their interpersonal
skills. OB is a field that investigates the impact of individuals, groups, and structure on an
organization. OB focuses on improving productivity, reducing absenteeism and turnover, and
increasing employee citizenship and job satisfaction.
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
12 SPCAM(MBA)
Chapter 2
FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Define the key biographical characteristics.
2. Identify two types of ability.
3. Shape the behavior of others.
4. Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforcement.
5. Clarify the role of punishment in learning.
6. Practice self‐management.
7. Exhibit effective discipline skills.
Chapter Overview
This chapter looks at three individual variables—biographical characteristics, ability, and
learning.
Biographical characteristics are readily available to managers. Generally, they include data that
are contained in an employee’s personnel file. The most important conclusions are that age
seems to have no relationship to productivity; older workers and those with longer tenure are
less likely to resign; and married employees have fewer absences, less turnover, and report
higher job satisfaction than do unmarried employees. But what value can this information have
for managers? The obvious answer is that it can help in making choices among job applicants.
Ability directly influences an employee’s level of performance and satisfaction through the
ability‐job fit. Given management’s desire to get a compatible fit, what can be done? First, an
effective selection process will improve the fit. A job analysis will provide information about jobs
currently being done and the abilities that individuals need to perform the jobs adequately.
Applicants can then be tested, interviewed, and evaluated on the degree to which they possess
the necessary abilities. Second, promotion and transfer decisions affecting individuals already in
the organization’s employ should reflect the abilities of candidates. With new employees, care
should be taken to assess critical abilities that incumbents will need in the job and to match
those requirements with the organization’s human resources. Third, the fit can be improved by
fine‐tuning the job to better match an incumbent’s abilities. Often modifications can be made in
the job that, while not having a significant impact on the job’s basic activities, better adapts it to
the specific talents of a given employee. Examples would be to change some of the equipment
used or to reorganize tasks within a group of employees. A final alternative is to provide training
for employees. This is applicable to both new workers and present job incumbents. Training can
keep the abilities of incumbents current or provide new skills as times and conditions change.
Any observable change in behavior is prima facie evidence that learning has taken place. What
we want to do, of course, is ascertain if learning concepts provide us with any insights that
would allow us to explain and predict behavior. Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool for
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modifying behavior. By identifying and rewarding performance‐enhancing behaviors,
management increases the likelihood that they will be repeated. Our knowledge about learning
further suggests that reinforcement is a more effective tool than punishment. Although
punishment eliminates undesired behavior more quickly than negative reinforcement does,
punished behavior tends to be only temporarily suppressed rather than permanently changed.
Punishment may produce unpleasant side effects such as lower morale and higher absenteeism
or turnover. In addition, the recipients of punishment tend to become resentful of the punisher.
Managers, therefore, are advised to use reinforcement rather than punishment.
Finally, managers should expect that employees will look to them as models. Managers who are
constantly late to work, or take two hours for lunch, or help themselves to company office
supplies for personal use should expect employees to read the message they are sending and
model their behavior accordingly.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Finding and analyzing the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, absence,
turnover, and satisfaction is often complicated.
2. Many of the concepts—motivation, or power, politics or organizational culture—are hard to
assess.
3. Other factors are more easily definable and readily available—data that can be obtained
from an employee’s personnel file and would include characteristics such as:
• Age
• Gender
• Marital status
• Length of service, etc.
A. Age
1. The relationship between age and job performance is increasing in importance.
• First, there is a widespread belief that job performance declines with increasing age.
• Second, the workforce is aging; workers over 55 are the fastest growing sector of the
workforce.
• Third, U.S. legislation largely outlaws mandatory retirement.
2. Employers’ perceptions are mixed.
• They see a number of positive qualities that older workers bring to their jobs, specifically
experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.
• Older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as being resistant to new
technology.
• Some believe that the older you get, the less likely you are to quit your job. That
conclusion is based on studies of the age‐turnover relationship.
3. It is tempting to assume that age is also inversely related to absenteeism.
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• Most studies do show an inverse relationship, but close examination finds that the age‐
absence relationship is partially a function of whether the absence is avoidable or
unavoidable.
• In general, older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence. However, they have
higher rates of unavoidable absence, probably due to their poorer health associated with
aging and longer recovery periods when injured.
4. There is a widespread belief that productivity declines with age and that individual skills
decay over time.
• Reviews of the research find that age and job performance are unrelated.
• This seems to be true for almost all types of jobs, professional and nonprofessional.
5. The relationship between age and job satisfaction is mixed.
• Most studies indicate a positive association between age and satisfaction, at least up to
age 60. Other studies, however, have found a U‐shaped relationship. When professional
and nonprofessional employees are separated, satisfaction tends to continually increase
among professionals as they age, whereas it falls among nonprofessionals during middle
age and then rises again in the later years.
B. Gender
1. There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will affect their
job performance, including the areas of:
• Problem‐solving
• Analytical skills
• Competitive drive
• Motivation
• Sociability
• Learning ability
2. Women are more willing to conform to authority, and men are more aggressive and more
likely than women to have expectations of success, but those differences are minor.
3. There is no evidence indicating that an employee’s gender affects job satisfaction.
4. There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for work schedules.
• Mothers of preschool children are more likely to prefer part‐time work, flexible work
schedules, and telecommuting in order to accommodate their family responsibilities.
5. Absence and turnover rates
• Women’s quit rates are similar to men’s.
• The research on absence consistently indicates that women have higher rates of
absenteeism.
The logical explanation: cultural expectation that has historically placed home and family
responsibilities on the woman.
C. Marital Status
1. There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of marital status on
job productivity.
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2. Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo less
turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried coworkers.
3. More research needs to be done on the other statuses besides single or married, such as
divorce, domestic partnering, etc..
D. Tenure
1. The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject to
misconceptions and speculations.
2. Extensive reviews of the seniority‐productivity relationship have been conducted:
• There is a positive relationship between tenure and job productivity.
• There is a negative relationship between tenure to absence.
• Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining turnover.
• Tenure has consistently been found to be negatively related to turnover and has been
suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover.
• The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.
ABILITY
1. We were not all created equal; most of us are to the left of the median on some normally
distributed ability curve.
2. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability in performing certain tasks or
activities; the issue is knowing how people differ in abilities and using that knowledge to
increase performance.
3. Ability refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. It is a
current assessment of what one can do.
4. Individual overall abilities are made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical.
Intellectual Abilities
1. Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental activities.
2. IQ tests are designed to ascertain one’s general intellectual abilities. Examples of such
tests are popular college admission tests such as the SAT, GMAT, and LSAT.
3. The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are: number
aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive
reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory. (See Exhibit 2‐1).
4. Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use their intellectual abilities. For
example, the more information‐processing demands that exist in a job, the more general
intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary to perform the job successfully.
5. A careful review of the evidence demonstrates that tests that assess verbal, numerical,
spatial, and perceptual abilities are valid predictors of job proficiency at all levels of jobs.
6. The major dilemma faced by employers who use mental ability tests is that they may
have a negative impact on racial and ethnic groups.
7. New research in this area focuses on “multiple intelligences,” which breaks down
intelligence into its four sub‐parts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.
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Physical Abilities
1. Specific physical abilities gain importance in doing less skilled and more
standardized jobs.
2. Research has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of
physical tasks. (See Exhibit 2‐2).
3. Individuals differ in the extent to which they have each of these abilities.
4. High employee performance is likely to be achieved when management matches
the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities and the employees’
abilities.
H. The Ability‐Job Fit
1. Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability‐job fit.
2. The specific intellectual or physical abilities required depend on the ability requirements of
the job. For example, pilots need strong spatial‐visualization abilities.
3. Directing attention at only the employee’s abilities, or only the ability requirements of the
job, ignores the fact that employee performance depends on the interaction of the two.
4. When the fit is poor employees are likely to fail.
5. When the ability‐job fit is out of sync because the employee has abilities that far exceed the
requirements of the job, performance is likely to be adequate, but there will be
organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satisfaction.
Abilities significantly above those required can also reduce the employee’s job satisfaction when
the employee’s desire to use his or her abilities is particularly strong and is frustrated by the
limitations of the job.
LEARNING
• All complex behavior is learned.
• If we want to explain and predict behavior, we need to understand how people learn.
A. Definition of Learning
1. What is learning? A generally accepted definition is “any relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of experience.”
2. The definition suggests that we shall never see someone “learning.” We can see changes
taking place but not the learning itself.
3. The definition has several components that deserve clarification:
• First, learning involves change.
• Second, the change must be relatively permanent.
• Third, our definition is concerned with behavior.
Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning.
A. Theories of Learning
There are three theories—classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social .
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Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning grew out of experiments conducted at the turn of the century by a
Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a
bell.
2. Key concepts in classical conditioning [Pavlov’s experiment]
• The meat was an unconditioned stimulus; it invariably caused the dog to react in a
specific way.
• The bell was an artificial stimulus, or what we call the conditioned stimulus.
• The conditioned response. This describes the behavior of the dog; it salivated in reaction
to the bell alone.
3. Learning a conditioned response involves building up an association between a conditioned
stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
4. When the stimuli, one compelling and the other one neutral, are paired, the neutral one
becomes a conditioned stimulus and, hence, takes on the properties of the unconditioned
stimulus.
5. Classical conditioning is passive—something happens, and we react in a specific way. It is
elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event.
Operant Conditioning
1. Operant conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its consequences. People learn to
behave to get something they want or to avoid something they do not want.
2. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement.
3. Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner’s research on operant conditioning expanded our
knowledge.
4. Tenets of Operant Conditioning are:
• Behavior is learned.
• People are likely to engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing
so.
• Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.
• Any situation in which it is either explicitly stated or implicitly suggested that
reinforcements are contingent on some action on your part involves the use of operant
learning.
Social Learning
1. Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people, by being told about
something, as well as by direct experiences.
2. Learning by observing is an extension of operant conditioning; it also acknowledges the
existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning.
3. The influence of models is central to social learning.
4. Four processes determine the influence that a model will have on an individual.
• Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay
attention to its critical features.
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• Retention processes. A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual
remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available.
• Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the
model, the watching must be converted to doing.
• Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior
if positive incentives or rewards are provided.
C. Shaping: A Managerial Tool
1. When we attempt to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps, we are
shaping behavior.
2. It is done by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves the individual closer
to the desired response.
3. Methods of Shaping Behavior.
• Positive reinforcement—following a response with something pleasant
• Negative reinforcement—following a response by the termination or withdrawal of
something unpleasant
• Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable
behavior
• Extinction—eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior. When the
behavior is not reinforced, it tends to gradually be extinguished.
4. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They strengthen a response and
increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction, however, weaken
behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency.
5. Reinforcement, whether it is positive or negative, has an impressive record as a shaping tool.
6. A review of research findings:
• Some type of reinforcement is necessary to produce a change in behavior.
• Some types of rewards are more effective for use in organizations than others.
• The speed with which learning takes place and the permanence of its effects will be
determined by the timing of reinforcement. This point is extremely important and
deserves considerable elaboration.
D. Schedules of Reinforcement
1. The two major types of reinforcement schedules are: 1) continuous and 2) intermittent.
2. A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behavior each and every time it
is demonstrated.
3. In an intermittent schedule, not every instance of the desirable behavior is reinforced, but
reinforcement is given often enough to make the behavior worth repeating.
• It can be compared to the workings of a slot machine.
• The intermittent payoffs occur just often enough to reinforce behavior.
4. Evidence indicates that the intermittent, or varied, form of reinforcement tends to promote
more resistance to extinction than does the continuous form.
5. An intermittent reinforcement can be of a ratio or interval type.
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• Ratio schedules depend upon how many responses the subject makes; the individual is
reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behavior.
1. Interval schedules depend upon how much time has passed since the last reinforcement; the
individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behavior after a particular time has elapsed.
2. A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable.
3. Intermittent techniques be placed into four categories, as shown in Exhibit 2‐4.
4. Fixed‐interval reinforcement schedule—rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals; the
critical variable is time, and it is held constant. Some examples:
• This is the predominant schedule for most salaried workers in North America—the
paycheck.
5. Variable‐interval reinforcements—rewards are distributed in time so that reinforcements
are unpredictable.
• Pop quizzes
• A series of randomly timed unannounced visits to a company office by the corporate
audit staff
6. In a fixed‐ratio schedule, after a fixed or constant number of responses are given, a reward is
initiated.
• A piece‐rate incentive plan is a fixed‐ratio schedule.
7. When the reward varies relative to the behavior of the individual, he or she is said to be
reinforced on a variable‐ratio schedule.
• Salespeople on commission
E. Reinforcement Schedules and Behavior
1. Continuous reinforcement schedules can lead to early satiation. Under this schedule,
behavior tends to weaken rapidly when reinforcers are withheld.
• Continuous reinforcers are appropriate for newly emitted, unstable, or low‐frequency
responses.
2. Intermittent reinforcers preclude early satiation because they do not follow every response.
• They are appropriate for stable or high‐frequency responses.
3. In general, variable schedules tend to lead to higher performance than fixed schedules.
4. Variable‐interval schedules generate high rates of response and more stable and consistent
behavior because of a high correlation between performance and reward. The employee
tends to be more alert since there is a surprise factor.
F. Behavior Modification
1. A classic was study conducted at Emery Air Freight (now part of Federal Express):
• Emery’s management wanted packers to use freight containers for shipments whenever
possible.
• Packers intuitively felt that 90 percent of shipments were containerized. An analysis
showed that it was only 45 percent.
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• Management established a program of feedback and positive reinforcements by asking
each packer to keep a checklist of his or her daily packings, both containerized and
noncontainerized.
• At the end of each day, the packer computed his or her container utilization rate.
• Container utilization jumped to more than 90 percent on the first day of the program
and held.
• This simple program of feedback and positive reinforcements saved the company $2
million over a three‐year period.
2. This program at Emery Air Freight illustrates OB Modification.
3. The typical OB Mod program follows a five‐step problem‐solving model:
• Identifying critical behaviors
• Developing baseline data
• Identifying behavior consequences
• Developing and implementing an intervention strategy
• Evaluating performance improvement
4. Critical behaviors make a significant impact on the employee’s job performance; these are
those 5–10 percent of behaviors that may account for up to 70 or 80 percent of each
employee’s performance.
5. Developing baseline data determines the number of times the identified behavior is
occurring under present conditions.
6. Identifying behavioral consequences tells the manager the antecedent cues that emit the
behavior and the consequences that are currently maintaining it.
7. Developing and implementing an intervention strategy will entail changing some elements of
the performance‐reward linkage‐structure, processes, technology, groups, or the task—with
the goal of making high‐level performance more rewarding.
8. Evaluating performance improvement is important to demonstrate that a change took place
as a result of the intervention strategy.
9. OB Mod has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee productivity and
to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and improve friendliness toward
customers.
G. Specific Organizational Applications
1. Using lotteries to reduce absenteeism
• In the opening case study Continental Airlines has created a lottery that rewards its
40,000 employees for attendance.
• Twice a year, Continental holds a raffle and gives away eight new sport utility vehicles.
• Only employees who have not missed a day of work during the previous six months are
eligible.
• This lottery follows a variable‐ratio schedule.
• Management credits the lottery with significantly reducing the company’s absence rate.
2. Well pay vs. sick pay
• Organizations with paid sick leave programs experience almost twice the absenteeism of
organizations without such programs.
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• One Midwest organization implemented a well‐pay program. It paid a bonus to
employees who had no absence for any given four‐week period and then paid for sick
leave only after the first eight hours of absence
a. The well‐pay program produced increased savings to the organization, reduced
absenteeism, increased productivity, and improved employee satisfaction.
b. Forbes magazine used the same approach to cut its health care costs.
• It rewarded employees who stayed healthy and did not file medical claims by paying
them the difference between $500 and their medical claims, then doubling the amount.
Forbes cut its major medical and dental claims by over 30 percent.
3. Employee discipline
• Every manager will, at some time, have to deal with problem behaviors.
• Managers will respond with disciplinary actions such as oral reprimands, written
warnings, and temporary suspensions.
• The use of discipline carries costs. It may provide only a short‐term solution and result in
serious side effects.
• Disciplining employees for undesirable behaviors tells them only what not to do. It does
not tell them what alternative behaviors are preferred.
• Discipline does have a place in organizations.
• In practice, it tends to be popular because of its ability to produce fast results in the
short run.
4. Developing training programs
• Most organizations have some type of systematic training program.
• In one recent year, U.S. corporations with 100 or more employees spent in excess of $58
billion on formal training for 47.3 million workers.
5. Social‐learning theory suggests that training should:
• Offer a model to grab the trainee’s attention.
• Provide motivational properties.
• Help the trainee to file away what he or she has learned for later use and provide
opportunities to practice new behaviors.
• Offer positive rewards for accomplishments.
• If the training has taken place off the job, allow the trainee some opportunity to transfer
what he/she learned to the job.
6. Self‐management
• Organizational applications of learning concepts can also be used to allow individuals to
manage their own behavior.
• Self‐management requires an individual to deliberately manipulate stimuli, internal
processes, and responses to achieve personal behavioral outcomes.
• The basic processes involve observing one’s own behavior, comparing the behavior with
a standard, and rewarding oneself if the behavior meets the standard.
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Chapter 3
VALUES, ATTITUDES AND JOB SATISFACTION
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Contrast terminal and instrumental values
2. List the dominant values in today’s workforce
3. Identify the five value dimensions of national culture
4. Contrast the three components of an attitude
5. Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior
6. Identify the role that consistency plays in attitudes
7. State the relationship between job satisfaction and behavior
8. Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction
Chapter Overview
Why is it important to know an individual’s values? Although they do not have a direct impact
on behavior, values strongly influence a person’s attitudes. Knowledge of an individual’s value
system can provide insight into his/her attitudes.
Given that people’s values differ, managers can use the Rokeach Value Survey to assess
potential employees and determine if their values align with the dominant values of the
organization. An employee’s performance and satisfaction are likely to be higher if his/her
values fit well with the organization. For instance, the person who places high importance on
imagination, independence, and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with an organization
that seeks conformity from its employees. Managers are more likely to appreciate, evaluate
positively, and allocate rewards to employees who “fit in,” and employees are more likely to be
satisfied if they perceive that they do fit. This argues for management to strive during the
selection of new employees to find job candidates who not only have the ability, experience,
and motivation to perform, but also a value system that is compatible with the organization’s.
Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because attitudes give warnings of
potential problems and because they influence behavior. Satisfied and committed employees,
for instance, have lower rates of turnover and absenteeism. Given that managers want to keep
resignations and absences down—especially among their more productive employees—they will
want to do those things that will generate positive job attitudes.
Managers should also be aware that employees will try to reduce cognitive dissonance. More
importantly, dissonance can be managed. If employees are required to engage in activities that
appear inconsistent to them or are at odds with their attitudes, the pressures to reduce the
resulting dissonance are lessened when the employee perceives that the dissonance is
externally imposed and is beyond his/her control or if the rewards are significant enough to
offset the dissonance.
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
VALUES
1. Values represent basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end‐state of existence
is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end‐state
of existence.”
2. There is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable.
3. Values have both content and intensity attributes.
• The content attribute says that a mode of conduct or end‐state of existence is important.
• The intensity attribute specifies how important it is.
• Ranking an individual’s values in terms of their intensity equals that person’s value
system.
4. Values are not generally fluid and flexible. They tend to be relatively stable and enduring.
• A significant portion of the values we hold is established in our early years—from
parents, teachers, friends, and others.
• The process of questioning our values, of course, may result in a change, but more often,
our questioning acts to reinforce the values we hold.
A. Importance of Values
1. Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation because they
influence our perceptions.
2. Individuals enter organizations with notions of what is right and wrong with which they
interpret behaviors or outcomes—at times this can cloud objectivity and rationality.
3. Values generally influence attitudes and behavior.
B. Types of Values
1. Rokeach Value Survey
• It consists of two sets of values, with each set containing 18 individual value items.
• One set—terminal values—refers to desirable end‐states of existence, the goals that a
person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime.
• The other—instrumental values—refers to preferable modes of behavior, or means of
achieving the terminal values.
2. Several studies confirm that the RVS values vary among groups.
• People in the same occupations or categories tend to hold similar values.
Contemporary Work Cohorts
1. The unique value of different cohorts is that the U.S. workforce can be segmented by the era
they entered the workforce. (Exhibit 3‐3)
2. Veterans—Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early
1960s
• Influenced by the Great Depression and World War II
• Believe in hard work
• Tend to be loyal to their employer
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• Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security
3. Boomers—Employees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid‐1980s
• Influenced heavily by John F. Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, the
Beatles, the Vietnam War, and baby‐boom competition
• Distrust authority, but have a high emphasis on achievement and material success
• Organizations who employ them are vehicles for their careers
• Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition
4. Xers—began to enter the workforce from the mid‐1980s
• Shaped by globalization, two‐career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers
• Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction
• Family and relationships are important and enjoy team‐oriented work
• Money is important, but will trade off for increased leisure time
• Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations
• Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure
5. Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce.
• Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and
confident in their ability to succeed
• Never‐ending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with job‐hopping
• Seek financial success
• Enjoy team work, but are highly self‐reliant
• Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life
6. Individuals’ values differ, but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in which they
grew up. This can be a valuable aid in explaining and predicting behavior. Employees in
their 60s, for instance, are more likely to accept authority than coworkers 15 years younger.
7. Workers under 35 are more likely than the other groups to balk at having to work overtime
or weekends, and are more prone to leave a job in mid‐career to pursue another that
provides more leisure time.
A. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior
1. Many people think there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 1970s. The
four‐stage model of work cohort values might explain this perception. (Exhibit 3‐2)
2. Managers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor influencing
ethical and unethical behavior in the organization.
3. Through the mid‐1970s, the managerial ranks were dominated by Veterans whose loyalty
was to their employer; their decisions were made in terms of what was best for the
employer.
4. Boomers entered the workforce at this time and by the 1990’s had risen into the majority of
management positions. Loyalty was to their careers. Self‐centered values would be
consistent with a decline in ethical values. Did this really happen?
5. Recent entrants to the workforce—Xers—are now moving into middle management. Loyalty
is to relationships, therefore they may be more likely to consider the ethical implications of
their actions on others around them.
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B. Values Across Cultures
1. Values differ across cultures, therefore, understanding these differences helps to explain and
to predict behavior of employees from different countries. One of the most widely
referenced approaches for analyzing variations among cultures has been done by Geert
Hofstede.
2. Hofstede’s A framework for assessing cultures; five value dimensions of national culture
(Exhibit 3‐4):
a. Power distance:
• The degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and
organizations is distributed unequally.
b. Individualism versus collectivism:
• Individualism is the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals
rather than as members of groups.
• Collectivism equals low individualism.
c. Quantity of life versus quality of life:
• Quantity of life is the degree to which values such as assertiveness, the acquisition of
money and material goods, and competition prevail.
• Quality of life is the degree to which people value relationships and show sensitivity
and concern for the welfare of others.
d. Uncertainty avoidance:
• The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured
situations.
e. Long‐term versus short‐term orientation:
• Long‐term orientations look to the future and value thrift and persistence.
• Short‐term orientation values the past and present and emphasizes respect for
tradition and fulfilling social obligations.
f. Conclusions:
• Asian countries were more collectivist than individualistic. US ranked highest on
individualism. German and Hong Kong ranked highest on quality of life; Russia and
The Netherlands were low. China and Hong Kong had a long‐term orientation;
France and US were low.
3. Hofstede’s work is the basic framework for assessing cultures. However, it is nearly 30 years
old. In 1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) has
begun updating this research with date from 825 organizations and 62 countries.
a. GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures:
• Assertiveness: The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough,
confrontational, assertive, and competitive versus modest and tender
• Future Orientation: The extent to which a society encourages and rewards future‐
oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future and delaying gratification
• Gender differentiation: The extent to which a society maximized gender role
differences
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• Uncertainly avoidance: Society’s reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate
the unpredictability of future events
• Power distance: The degree to which members of a society expect power to be
unequally shared
• Individualism/Collectivism: The degree to which individuals are encouraged by
societal institutions to be integrated into groups within organizations and society
• In‐group collectivism: The extent to which society’s members take pride in
membership in small groups such as their families and circles of close friends, and the
organizations where they are employed
• Performance orientation: The degree to which society encourages and rewards
group members for performance improvement and excellence
• Humane orientation: The degree to which a society encourages and rewards
individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others
b. Conclusion: The GLOBE study had extended Hofstede’s work rather than replaced it. It
confirms Hofstede’s five dimensions are still valid and provides updated measures of
where countries are on each dimension. For example, the U.S. in the 70s led the world in
individualism—today, it is in the mid‐ranks of countries.
C. Implications for OB
1. Americans have developed organizational behavior within domestic contexts—more than 80
percent of the articles published in journals were by Americans.
2. Follow‐up studies continue to confirm the lack of cross‐cultural considerations in
management and OB research. From a cultural perspective this means:
• Not all OB theories and concepts are universally applicable.
• You should take into consideration cultural values when trying to understand the
behavior of people in different countries.
ATTITUDES
1. Attitudes are evaluative statements that are either favorable or unfavorable concerning
objects, people, or events.
2. Attitudes are not the same as values, but the two are interrelated.
3. Three components of an attitude:
• Cognition
• Affect
• Behavior
4. The belief that “discrimination is wrong” is a value statement and an example of the
cognitive component of an attitude.
A. Types of Attitudes
1. OB focuses our attention on a very limited number of job‐related attitudes. Most of the
research in OB has been concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement,
and organizational commitment.
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2. Job satisfaction
• Definition: It is an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job.
• A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the job and vice versa.
• Employee attitudes and job satisfaction are frequently used interchangeably.
• Often when people speak of “employee attitudes” they mean “employee job
satisfaction.”
3. Job involvement
• A workable definition: the measure of the degree to which a person identifies
psychologically with his/her job and considers his/her perceived performance level
important to self‐worth.
• High levels of job involvement is thought to result in fewer absences and lower
resignation rates.
• Job involvement more consistently predicts turnover than absenteeism.
4. Organizational commitment
• Definition: A state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its
goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.
• Research evidence demonstrates negative relationships between organizational
commitment and both absenteeism and turnover.
• An individual’s level of organizational commitment is a better indicator of turnover than
the far more frequently used job satisfaction predictor because it is a more global and
enduring response to the organization as a whole than is job satisfaction.
• This evidence, most of which is more than two decades old, needs to be qualified to
reflect the changing employee‐employer relationship.
• Organizational commitment is probably less important as a job‐related attitude than it
once was because the unwritten “loyalty” contract in place when this research was
conducted is no longer in place.
• In its place, we might expect “occupational commitment” to become a more relevant
variable because it better reflects today’s fluid workforce.
B. Attitudes and Consistency
1. People sometimes change what they say so it does not contradict what they do.
2. Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and
between their attitudes and their behavior.
3. Individuals seek to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behavior so
they appear rational and consistent.
4. When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an equilibrium
state where attitudes and behavior are again consistent, by altering either the attitudes or
the behavior, or by developing a rationalization for the discrepancy.
C. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
1. Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance, seeking to
explain the linkage between attitudes and behavior. He argued that any form of
inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance.
2. Dissonance means “an inconsistency.”
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3. Cognitive dissonance refers to “any incompatibility that an individual might perceive
between two or more of his/her attitudes, or between his/her behavior and attitudes.“
4. No individual can completely avoid dissonance.
a. The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by:
• The importance of the elements creating the dissonance.
• The degree of influence the individual believes he/she has over the elements.
• The rewards that may be involved in dissonance.
5. Importance: If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the
pressure to correct this imbalance will be low.
6. Influence: If the dissonance is perceived as an uncontrollable result, they are less likely to be
receptive to attitude change. While dissonance exists, it can be rationalized and justified.
7. Rewards: The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced with high rewards.
8. Moderating factors suggest that individuals will not necessarily move to reduce
dissonance—or consistency.
9. Organizational implications
• Greater predictability of the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioral change
• The greater the dissonance—after it has been moderated by importance, choice, and
rewards factors—the greater the pressures to reduce it.
D. Measuring the A‐B Relationship
1. Early research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal relationship to behavior. In
the late 1960s, this assumed relationship between attitudes and behavior (A‐B) was
challenged. Recent research has demonstrated that attitudes significantly predict future
behavior.
2. The most powerful moderators:
• Importance
• Specificity
• Accessibility
• Social pressures
• Direct experience
3. Importance: Reflects fundamental values, self‐interest, or identification with individuals or
groups that a person values.
4. Specificity: The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior, the stronger
the link between the two.
5. Accessibility: Attitudes that are easily remembered are more likely to predict behavior than
attitudes that are not accessible in memory.
6. Social pressures: Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior are more likely to occur
where social pressures to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power.
7. Direct experience: The attitude‐behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an
attitude refers to an individual’s direct personal experience.
E. Self‐perception theory:‐
1. Researchers have achieved still higher correlations by pursuing whether or not behavior
influences attitudes.
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2. Self‐perception theory argues that attitudes are used to make sense out of an action that
has already occurred rather than devices that precede and guide action. Example: I’ve had
this job for 10 years, no one has forced me to stay, so I must like it!
3. Contrary to cognitive dissonance theory, attitudes are just casual verbal statements; they
tend to create plausible answers for what has already occurred.
4. While the traditional attitude‐behavior relationship is generally positive, the behavior‐
attitude relationship is stronger particularly when attitudes are vague and ambiguous or
little thought has been given to it previously.
F. An Application: Attitude Surveys
1. The most popular method for getting information about employee attitudes is through
attitude surveys. (See Exhibit 3‐5)
2. Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with valuable feedback on how
employees perceive their working conditions. Managers present the employee with set
statements or questions to obtain specific information.
3. Policies and practices that management views as objective and fair may be seen as
inequitable by employees in general or by certain groups of employees and can lead to
negative attitudes about the job and the organization.
4. Employee behaviors are often based on perceptions, not reality. Often employees do not
have objective data from which to base their perceptions.
5. The use of regular attitude surveys can alert management to potential problems and
employees’ intentions early so that action can be taken to prevent repercussions.
G. Attitudes and Workforce Diversity
1. A survey of U.S. organizations with 100 or more employees found that 47 percent or so of
them sponsored some sort of diversity training.
2. These diversity programs include a self‐evaluation phase where people are pressed to
examine themselves and to confront ethnic and cultural stereotypes they might hold. This is
followed by discussion with people from diverse groups.
3. Additional activities designed to change attitudes include arranging for people to do
volunteer work in community or social service centers in order to meet face to face with
individuals and groups from diverse backgrounds, and using exercises that let participants
feel what it is like to be different.
JOB SATISFACTION
A. Measuring Job Satisfaction
1. Job satisfaction is “an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job.”
2. Jobs require interaction with co‐workers and bosses, following organizational rules and
policies, meeting performance standards, living with working conditions that are often less
than ideal, and the like. This means that an employee’s assessment of how satisfied or
dissatisfied he or she is with his/her job is a complex summation of a number of discrete job
elements.
3. The two most widely used approaches are a single global rating and a summation score
made up of a number of job facets.
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
30 SPCAM(MBA)
a. The single global rating method is nothing more than asking individuals to respond to one
question, such as “All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?”
b. A summation of job facets is more sophisticated:
• It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employee’s feelings about each
one ranked on a standardized scale.
• Typical factors that would be included are the nature of the work, supervision,
present pay, promotion opportunities, and relations with co‐workers.
4. Comparing these approaches, simplicity seems to work as well as complexity. Comparisons
of one‐question global ratings with the summation‐of‐job‐factors method indicate both are
valid.
B. How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?
1. Most people are satisfied with their jobs in the developed countries surveyed.
2. However, there has been a decline in job satisfaction since the early 1990s. In the US nearly
an eight percent drop in the 90s. Surprisingly those last years were one’s of growth and
economic expansion.
3. What factors might explain the decline despite growth:
• Increased productivity through heavier employee workloads and tighter deadlines
• Employees feeling they have less control over their work
4. While some segments of the market are more satisfied than others, they tend to be higher
paid, higher skilled jobs which gives workers more control and challenges.
C. The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance
1. Managers’ interest in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employee
performance. Much research has been done on the impact of job satisfaction on employee
productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
2. Satisfaction and productivity:
• Happy workers are not necessarily productive workers—the evidence suggests that
productivity is likely to lead to satisfaction.
• At the organization level, there is renewed support for the original satisfaction‐
performance relationship. It seems organizations with more satisfied workers as a whole
are more productive organizations.
3. Satisfaction and absenteeism
• We find a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism. The
more satisfied you are, the less likely you are to miss work.
• It makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work, but other factors
have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient. For example,
you might be a satisfied worker, yet still take a “mental health day” to head for the
beach now and again.
4. Satisfaction and turnover
• Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover, but the correlation is stronger than
what we found for absenteeism.
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• Other factors such as labor market conditions, expectations about alternative job
opportunities, and length of tenure with the organization are important constraints on
the actual decision to leave one’s current job.
• Evidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction‐turnover relationship
is the employee’s level of performance.
D. How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction
1. There are a number of ways employees can express dissatisfaction
• Exit
• Voice
• Loyalty
• Neglect
2. Exit: Behavior directed toward leaving the organization, including looking for a new position
as well as resigning.
3. Voice: Actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting
improvements, discussing problems with superiors, and some forms of union activity.
4. Loyalty: Passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including speaking up
for the organization in the face of external criticism, and trusting the organization and its
management to “do the right thing.”
E. Job Satisfaction and OCB
1. It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an
employee’s organizational citizenship behavior. More recent evidence, however, suggests
that satisfaction influences OCB, but through perceptions of fairness.
2. There is a modest overall relationship between job satisfaction and OCB.
3. Basically, job satisfaction comes down to conceptions of fair outcomes, treatment, and
procedures. When you trust your employer, you are more likely to engage in behaviors that
go beyond your formal job requirements.
F. Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction
1. Evidence indicates that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.
2. Customer retention and defection are highly dependent on how front‐line employees deal
with customers. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly, upbeat, and responsive.
Customers appreciate that.
3. Dissatisfied customers can also increase an employee’s dissatisfaction. The more employees
work with rude and thoughtless customers, the more likely they are to be dissatisfied.
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Chapter ‐4
Personality and Emotions
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Explain the factors that determine an individual’s personality.
2. Describe the MBTI personality framework
3. Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model.
4. Explain the impact of job typology on the personality‐job performance relationship.
5. Differentiate emotions from moods.
6. Contrast felt vs. displayed emotions.
7. Read emotions.
8. Explain any gender‐differences in emotions.
9. Describe external constraints on emotions.
10. Apply concepts on emotions to OB issues
Chapter Overview
PERSONALITY
A review of the personality literature offers general guidelines that can lead to effective job
performance. As such, it can improve hiring, transfer, and promotion decisions. Because
personality characteristics create the parameters for people’s behavior, they give us a
framework for predicting behavior. For example, individuals who are shy, introverted, and
uncomfortable in social situations would probably be ill‐suited as salespeople. Individuals who
are submissive and conforming might not be effective as advertising “idea” people.
Can we predict which people will be high performers in sales, research, or assembly‐line work on
the basis of their personality characteristics alone? The answer is no. Personality assessment
should be used in conjunction with other information such as skills, abilities, and experience.
However, knowledge of an individual’s personality can aid in reducing mismatches, which, in
turn, can lead to reduced turnover and higher job satisfaction.
We can look at certain personality characteristics that tend to be related to job success, test for
those traits, and use the data to make selection more effective. A person who accepts rules,
conformity, dependence, and rates high on authoritarianism is likely to feel more comfortable
in, say, a structured assembly‐line job, as an admittance clerk in a hospital, or as an
administrator in a large public agency than as a researcher or an employee whose job requires a
high degree of creativity.
EMOTIONS
Can managers control the emotions of their colleagues and employees? No. Emotions are a
natural part of an individual’s makeup. Where managers err is if they ignore the emotional
elements in organizational behavior and assess individual behavior as if it were completely
rational. As one consultant aptly put it, “You can’t divorce emotions from the workplace because
33
you can’t divorce emotions from people.’’ Managers who understand the role of emotions will
significantly improve their ability to explain and predict individual behavior.
Do emotions affect job performance? Yes. They can hinder performance, especially negative
emotions. That is probably why organizations, for the most part, try to extract emotions out of
the workplace. Emotions can also enhance performance. How? Two ways. First, emotions can
increase arousal levels, thus acting as motivators to higher performance. Second, emotional
labor recognizes that feelings can be part of a job’s required behavior. For instance, the ability to
effectively manage emotions in leadership and sales positions may be critical to success in those
positions.
What differentiates functional from dysfunctional emotions at work? While there is no precise
answer to this, it has been suggested that the critical moderating variable is the complexity of
the individual’s task. The more complex a task, the lower the level of arousal that can be
tolerated without interfering with performance. While a certain minimal level of arousal is
probably necessary for good performance, very high levels interfere with the ability to function,
especially if the job requires calculative and detailed cognitive processes. Given that the trend is
toward jobs becoming more complex, you can see why organizations are likely to go to
considerable efforts to discourage the overt display of emotions—especially intense ones—in
the workplace.
Chapter Outline
PERSONALITY
A. What Is Personality?
1. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s
whole psychological system‐‐it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum
of the parts.
2. Gordon Allport coined the most frequent used definition:
Personality—“the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”
3. Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.
4. It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits.
B. Personality Determinants
1. An early argument centered on whether or not personality was the result of heredity or of
environment.
• Personality appears to be a result of both influences.
• Today, we recognize a third factor—the situation.
2. Heredity
• Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.
• The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality
is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.
• Three different streams of research lend some credibility to the heredity argument:
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a. The genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young
children. Evidence demonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear, and distress are
most likely caused by inherited genetic characteristics.
b. The study of twins who were separated at birth. Genetics accounts for about 50
percent of the variation in personality differences and over 30 percent of
occupational and leisure interest variation.
c. The consistency in job satisfaction over time and across situations. Individual job
satisfaction is remarkably stable over time. This is indicates that satisfaction is
determined by something inherent in the person.
• Personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. If they were, they
would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter them.
3. Environment
• Factors that exert pressures on our personality formation:
a. The culture in which we are raised
b. Early conditioning
c. Norms among our family
d. Friends and social groups
• The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role in shaping our personalities.
• Culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values passed from one generation to the
next and creates consistencies over time.
• The arguments for heredity or environment as the primary determinant of personality
are both important.
• Heredity sets the parameters or outer limits, but an individual’s full potential will be
determined by how well he or she adjusts to the demands and requirements of the
environment.
4. Situation
• Influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality
• The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one’s
personality.
• There is no classification scheme that tells the impact of various types of situations.
• Situations seem to differ substantially in the constraints they impose on behavior.
C. Personality Traits
1. Early work revolved around attempts to identify and label enduring characteristics.
• Popular characteristics include shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and
timid. These are personality traits.
• The more consistent the characteristic, the more frequently it occurs, the more
important it is.
2. Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of traits—17,953 in
one study alone—that made it impossible to predict behavior.
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3. One researcher reduced a set of 171 traits to sixteen personality factors, or primary, traits.
(Exhibit 4‐2).
4. The Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator
• One of the most widely used personality frameworks is the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI).
• It is 100‐question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in
particular situations.
• Individuals are classified as:
a. Extroverted or introverted (E or I).
b. Sensing or intuitive (S or N).
c. Thinking or feeling (T or F).
d. Perceiving or judging (P or J).
• These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types. For example:
a. INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own
ideas and purposes. They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent,
determined, and often stubborn.
b. ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural
head for business or mechanics. They like to organize and run activities.
c. The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative, individualistic, versatile,
and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving
challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments.
• More than 2 million people a year take the MBTI in the United States alone, however,
there is no hard evidence that the MBTI is a valid measure of personality.
D. The Big Five Model
1. An impressive body of research supports that five basic dimensions underlie all other
personality dimensions. The five basic dimensions are:
• Extraversion. Comfort level with relationships. Extraverts tend to be gregarious,
assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet.
• Agreeableness. Individual’s propensity to defer to others. High agreeableness people—
cooperative, warm, and trusting. Low agreeableness people—cold, disagreeable, and
antagonistic.
• Conscientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high conscientious person is responsible,
organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily
distracted, disorganized, and unreliable.
• Emotional stability. A person’s ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional
stability tend to be calm, self‐confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores
tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.
• Openness to experience. The range of interests and fascination with novelty. Extremely
open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the
openness category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.
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2. Research found important relationships between these personality dimensions and job
performance.
• A broad spectrum of occupations was examined in addition to job performance ratings,
training proficiency (performance during training programs), and personnel data such as
salary level.
• The results showed that conscientiousness predicted job performance for all
occupational groups.
• Individuals who are dependable, reliable, careful, thorough, able to plan, organized,
hardworking, persistent, and achievement‐oriented tend to have higher job
performance.
• Employees higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge.
• For the other personality dimensions, predictability depended upon both the
performance criterion and the occupational group.
• Extraversion predicted performance in managerial and sales positions.
• Openness to experience is important in predicting training proficiency.
E. Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB
1. Locus of control
• A person’s perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control.
• Internals: People who believe that they are masters of their own fate.
• Externals: People who believe they are pawns of fate.
• Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher
absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting, and are less involved on
their jobs than are internals.
• Internals, facing the same situation, attribute organizational outcomes to their own
actions. Internals believe that health is substantially under their own control through
proper habits; their incidences of sickness and, hence, of absenteeism, are lower.
2. There is not a clear relationship between locus of control and turnover because there are
opposing forces at work.
3. Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one should consider differences in jobs.
• Internals search more actively for information before making a decision, are more
motivated to achieve, and make a greater attempt to control their environment,
therefore, internals do well on sophisticated tasks.
• Internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of action.
• Externals are more compliant and willing to follow directions, and do well on jobs that
are well structured and routine and in which success depends heavily on complying with
the direction of others.
4. Machiavellianism
• Named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the sixteenth century on how to gain and
use power.
• An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and
believes that ends can justify means.
• High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and persuade others more.
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• High Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and flourish when they
interact face to face with others, rather than indirectly, and when the situation has a
minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation.
• High Machs make good employees in jobs that require bargaining skills or that offer
substantial rewards for winning.
5. Self‐esteem
• Self‐esteem—the degree to which people like or dislike themselves.
• (SE) is directly related to expectations for success.
• Individuals with high self‐esteem will take more risks in job selection and are more likely
to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self‐esteem.
• The most generalizable finding is that low SEs are more susceptible to external influence
than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from
others.
• In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others.
• High SEs are more satisfied with their jobs than are low SEs.
6. Self‐monitoring
• It refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational
factors.
• Individuals high in self‐monitoring show considerable adaptability. They are highly
sensitive to external cues, can behave differently in different situations, and are capable
of presenting striking contradictions between their public persona and their private self.
• Low self‐monitors cannot disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display their true
dispositions and attitudes in every situation resulting in a high behavioral consistency
between who they are and what they do.
• The research on self‐monitoring is in its infancy, so predictions must be guarded.
Preliminary evidence suggests:
a. High self‐monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of others.
b. High self‐monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers and receive
more promotions.
c. High self‐monitor is capable of putting on different “faces” for different audiences.
7. Risk taking
• The propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it
takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require before
making their choice.
• High risk‐taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in
making their choices.
• While managers in organizations are generally risk‐aversive, there are still individual
differences on this dimension. As a result, it makes sense to recognize these differences
and even to consider aligning risk‐taking propensity with specific job demands.
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
38 SPCAM(MBA)
8. Type A
• A Type A personality is “aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve
more and more in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the opposing
efforts of other things or other persons.’’
• They are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly, are impatient with the rate at which
most events take place, are doing do two or more things at once and cannot cope with
leisure time. They are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how
many or how much of everything they acquire.
9. Type B
• Type Bs never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience and
feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless
such exposure is demanded by the situation.
• Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost and can
relax without guilt.
10. Type A’s operate under moderate to high levels of stress.
• They subject themselves to continuous time pressure, are fast workers, quantity over
quality, work long hours, and are also rarely creative.
• Their behavior is easier to predict than that of Type Bs.
11. Are Type As or Type Bs more successful?
• Type Bs are the ones who appear to make it to the top.
• Great salespersons are usually Type As; senior executives are usually Type Bs.
F. Personality and National Culture
1. The Big Five model translates across almost all cross‐cultural studies.
2. Differences tend to surface by the emphasis on dimensions.
• Chinese use the category of conscientiousness more often and use the category of
agreeableness less often than do Americans.
• There is a surprisingly high amount of agreement, especially among individuals from
developed countries.
• There are no common personality types for a given country.
• There is evidence that cultures differ in terms of people’s relationship to their
environment. In North America, people believe that they can dominate their
environment. People in Middle Eastern countries believe that life is essentially
preordained.
2. The prevalence of Type A personalities will be somewhat influenced by the culture in which
a person grows up.
G. Achieving Personality Fit
1. The Person‐Job Fit: This concern is best articulated in John Holland’s personality‐job fit
theory.
• Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the propensity
to leave a job depend on the degree to which individuals successfully match their
personalities to an occupational environment.
39
• Each one of the six personality types has a congruent occupational environment. (See
Exhibit 4‐3)
• Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire contains 160 occupational titles.
Respondents indicate which of these occupations they like or dislike; their answers are
used to form personality profiles.
• The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and
occupation are in agreement.
2. The Person‐Organization Fit
• Most important for an organization facing a dynamic and changing environment, and
requiring employees who are able to readily change tasks and move fluidly between
teams.
• It argues that people leave jobs that are not compatible with their personalities.
• Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in higher
employee satisfaction and reduced turnover.
EMOTIONS
A. Introduction
1. Emotions are a critical factor in employee behavior. Until very recently, the topic of
emotions had been given little or no attention within the field of OB.
2. The myth of rationality. Organizations have been specifically designed with the objective of
trying to control emotions. A well‐run organization was one that successfully eliminated
frustration, fear, anger, love, hate, joy, grief, and similar feelings.
3. The belief that emotions of any kind were disruptive. The discussion focused on strong
negative emotions that interfered with an employee’s ability to do his or her job effectively.
B. What Are Emotions?
1. Affect is a generic term that covers a broad range of feelings that people experience and
encompasses both emotions and moods.
• Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. They are
reactions, not a trait.
• Moods are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and which lack a
contextual stimulus. They are not directed at an object.
2. Emotions can turn into moods when you lose focus on the contextual object.
3. A related affect‐term that is gaining increasing importance in organizational behavior is
emotional labor. Originally developed in relation to service jobs. It is when an employee
expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.
C. Felt vs. Displayed Emotions
1. Emotional labor creates dilemmas for employees when their job requires them to exhibit
emotions incongruous with their actual feelings. It is a frequent occurrence. For example,
40
when there are people that you have to work with whom you find it very difficult to be
friendly toward. You are forced to feign friendliness.
2. Felt emotions are an individual’s actual emotions.
3. Displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate
in a given job. They are learned.
4. Key—felt and displayed emotions are often different. This is particularly true in
organizations, where role demands and situations often require people to exhibit emotional
behaviors that mask their true feelings.
D. Emotion Dimensions
1. Variety
• There are many emotions. Six universal emotions have been identified: anger, fear,
sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise. (See Exhibit 4‐6).
• Emotions are identified along a continuum from positive to negative. The closer any two
emotions are to each other on this continuum, the more people are likely to confuse
them.
2. Intensity
• People give different responses to identical emotion‐provoking stimuli. Sometimes this
can be attributed to personality.
• People vary in their inherent ability to express intensity—from never showing feelings to
displaying extreme happiness or sadness
• Jobs make different intensity demands in terms of emotional labor. For example, air
traffic controllers must remain calm even in stressful situations.
3. Frequency and duration
• Emotional labor that requires high frequency or long duration is more demanding and
requires more exertion by employees.
• Whether or not the employee can successfully meet the emotional demands of a job
depends on both the intensity of the emotions displayed and for how long the effort has
to be made.
E. Can People Be Emotionless?
1. Some people have difficulty in expressing their emotions and understanding the emotions of
others. Psychologists call this alexithymia.
2. People who suffer from alexithymia rarely cry and are often seen by others as bland and
cold. Their own feelings make them uncomfortable, and they are not able to discriminate
among their different emotions.
3. Are people who suffer from alexithymia poor work performers? Not necessarily. They might
very well be effective performers, in a job requiring little or no emotional labor. Sales or
customer service jobs would not be good career choices.
F. Gender and Emotions
1. It is widely assumed that women are more “in touch” with their feelings than men.
2. The evidence does confirm differences between men and women when it comes to
emotional reactions and ability to read others.
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• Women show greater emotional expression than men, experience emotions more
intensely, and display more frequent expressions of both positive and negative
emotions.
• Women also report more comfort in expressing emotions.
• Women are better at reading nonverbal cues than are men.
3. These differences may be explained several ways:
• The different ways men and women have been socialized.
• Women may have more innate ability to read others and present their emotions than do
men.
• Women may have a greater need for social approval and, thus, a higher propensity to
show positive emotions such as happiness.
F. External Constraints on Emotions
1. Every organization defines boundaries that identify what emotions are acceptable and the
degree to which they can be expressed. The same applies in different cultures.
2. Organizational influences:
• There is no single emotional “set” sought by all organizations.
• In the United States, there is a bias against negative and intense emotions. Expressions
of negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, and anger tend to be unacceptable except
under fairly specific conditions.
• Consistent with the myth of rationality, well‐managed organizations are expected to be
essentially emotion‐free.
3. Cultural influences:
• Cultural norms in the United States dictate that employees in service organizations
should smile and act friendly when interacting with customers. But this norm does not
apply worldwide.
• Cultures differ in terms of the interpretation they give to emotions. There tends to be
high agreement on what emotions mean within cultures but not between cultures. For
example, smiling is often seen as an expression of happiness by Americans. However, in
Israel, smiling by cashiers is seen as being inexperienced.
• Studies indicate that some cultures lack words for such standard emotions as anxiety,
depression, or guilt.
G. OB Applications
1. Ability and Selection: People who know their own emotions and are good at reading others’
emotions may be more effective in their jobs.
• Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to an assortment of non‐cognitive skills, capabilities,
and competencies that influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures.
a. Self‐awareness. Being aware of what you are feeling.
b. Self‐management. The ability to manage one’s own emotions and impulses.
c. Self‐motivation. The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures.
d. Empathy. The ability to sense how others are feeling.
e. Social skills. The ability to handle the emotions of others.
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• Several studies suggest EI may play an important role in job performance. EI, not
academic I.Q., characterized high performers.
• The implications from the initial evidence on EI is that employers should consider it as a
factor in selection, especially in jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction.
2. Decision making
• Traditional approaches to the study of decision making in organizations have emphasized
rationality. That approach is probably naïve. People use emotions as well as rational and
intuitive processes in making decisions.
• Negative emotions can result in a limited search for new alternatives and a less vigilant
use of information.
• Positive emotions can increase problem solving and facilitate the integration of
information.
3. Motivation
• Motivation theories basically propose that individuals “are motivated to the extent that
their behavior is expected to lead to desired outcomes.”
• The image is that of rational exchange. People’s perceptions and calculations of
situations are filled with emotional content that significantly influences how much effort
they exert.
• Not everyone is emotionally engaged in their work, but many are.
4. Leadership
• The ability to lead others is a fundamental quality sought by organizations.
• Effective leaders almost all rely on the expression of feelings to help convey their
messages and is often the critical element that results in individuals accepting or
rejecting a leader’s message.
• When effective leaders want to implement significant changes, they rely on “the
evocation, framing, and mobilization of emotions.’’
5. Interpersonal Conflict
• Whenever conflicts arise, you can be fairly certain that emotions are also surfacing.
• A manager’s success in trying to resolve conflicts, in fact, is often largely due to his or her
ability to identify the emotional elements in the conflict and to get the conflicting parties
to work through their emotions.
6. Deviant workplace behaviors
• Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace behaviors.
• Employee Deviance: Voluntary actions that violate established norms and which
threaten the organization, its members, or both.
• They fall into categories such as:
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a. Production: leaving early, intentionally working slowly
b. Property: stealing, sabotage
c. Political: gossiping, blaming co‐workers
d. Personal aggression: sexual harassment, verbal abuse
• Many of these deviant behaviors can be traced to negative emotions. For example, envy
is an emotion that occurs when you resent someone for having something that you do
not, and which you strongly desire and can lead to malicious deviant behaviors.
Chapter 5
PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING
ON AND INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Explain how two people can see the same thing and interpret it differently
2. List the three determinants of attribution
3. Describe how shortcuts can assist in or distort our judgment of others
4. Explain how perception affects the decision making process
5. Outline the six steps in the rational decision making model
6. Describe the actions of the boundedly rational decision maker
7. Identify the conditions in which individuals are most likely to use intuition in decision
making
8. Describe four styles of decision making
9. Define heuristics, and explain how they bias decisions
10. Contrast the three ethical decision criteria
Chapter Overview
Perception
Individuals behave in a given manner based not on the way their external environment actually
is but, rather, on what they see or believe it to be. An organization may spend millions of dollars
to create a pleasant work environment for its employees. However, in spite of these
expenditures, if an employee believes that his or her job is lousy, that employee will behave
accordingly. It is the employee’s perception of a situation that becomes the basis for his or her
behavior. The employee who perceives his/her supervisor as a hurdle reducer who helps
him/her do a better job and the employee who sees the same supervisor as “big brother, closely
monitoring every motion, to ensure that I keep working” will differ in their behavioral responses
to their supervisor. The difference has nothing to do with the reality of the supervisor’s actions;
the difference in employee behavior is due to different perceptions.
The evidence suggests that what individuals perceive from their work situation will influence
their productivity more than will the situation itself. Whether or not a job is actually interesting
or challenging is irrelevant. Whether or not a manager successfully plans and organizes the work
of his or her employees and actually helps them to structure their work more efficiently and
effectively is far less important than how employees perceive the manager’s efforts. Similarly,
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issues like fair pay for work performed, the validity of performance appraisals, and the adequacy
of working conditions are not judged by employees in a way that assures common perceptions,
nor can we be assured that individuals will interpret conditions about their jobs in a favorable
light. Therefore, to be able to influence productivity, it is necessary to assess how workers
perceive their jobs.
Absenteeism, turnover, and job satisfaction are also reactions to the individual’s perceptions.
Dissatisfaction with working conditions or the belief that there is a lack of promotion
opportunities in the organization are judgments based on attempts to make some meaning out
of one’s job. The employee’s conclusion that a job is good or bad is an interpretation. Managers
must spend time understanding how each individual interprets reality and, where there is a
significant difference between what is seen and what exists, try to eliminate the distortions.
Failure to deal with the differences when individuals perceive the job in negative terms will
result in increased absenteeism and turnover and lower job satisfaction.
Individual Decision Making
Individuals think and reason before they act. It is because of this that an understanding of how
people make decisions can be helpful for explaining and predicting their behavior.
Under some recent decision situations, people follow the rational decision‐making model. But
for most people, and most non‐routine decisions, this is probably more the exception than the
rule. Few important decisions are simple or unambiguous enough for the rational model’s
assumptions to apply, so we find individuals looking for solutions that satisfice rather than
optimize, injecting biases and prejudices into the decision process, and relying on intuition.
Given the evidence we have described on how decisions are actually made in organizations,
what can managers do to improve their decision‐making? We offer five suggestions.
First, analyze the situation. Adjust your decision making style to the national culture you are
operating in and to the criteria your organization evaluates and rewards. For instance, if you are
in a country that does not value rationality, do not feel compelled to follow the rational decision
making model or even to try to make your decisions appear rational. Similarly, organizations
differ in terms of the importance they place on risk, the use of groups, and the like. Adjust your
decision style to ensure it is compatible with the organization’s culture. Second, be aware of
biases. We all bring biases to the decisions we make. If you understand the biases influencing
your judgment, you can begin to change the way you make decisions to reduce those biases.
Third, combine rational analysis with intuition. These are not conflicting approaches to decision
making. By using both, you can actually improve your decision‐making effectiveness. As you gain
managerial experience, you should feel increasingly confident in imposing your intuitive
processes on top of your rational analysis. Fourth, do not assume that your specific decision
style is appropriate for every job. Just as organizations differ, so do jobs within organizations.
And your effectiveness as a decision maker will increase if you match your decision style to the
requirements of the job. For instance, if your decision‐making style is directive, you will be more
effective working with people whose jobs require quick action. This style would match well with
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managing stockbrokers. An analytic style, on the other hand, would work well managing
accountants, market researchers, or financial analysts.
Finally, try to enhance your creativity. Overtly look for novel solutions to problems, attempt to
see problems in new ways, and use analogies. Additionally, try to remove work and
organizational barriers that might impede your creativity.
Chapter Outline
WHAT IS PERCEPTION, AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
Definition: Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret
their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.
Why is this important to the study of OB?
• Because people’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality
itself.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION
1. Factors that shape (and can distort perception):
• Perceiver
• Target
• Situation
2. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, that
interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver.
3. The more relevant personal characteristics affecting perception of the perceiver are
attitudes, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.
4. Characteristics of the target can also affect what is being perceived. This would include
attractiveness, gregariousness, and our tendency to group similar things together. For
example, members of a group with clearly distinguishable features or color are often
perceived as alike in other, unrelated characteristics as well.
5. The context in which we see objects or events also influences our attention. This could
include time, heat, light, or other situational factors.
Person Perception: Making Judgments about Others
A. Attribution Theory
1. Our perceptions of people differ from our perceptions of inanimate objects.
• We make inferences about the actions of people that we do not make about inanimate
objects.
• Nonliving objects are subject to the laws of nature.
• People have beliefs, motives, or intentions.
2. Our perception and judgment of a person’s actions are influenced by these assumptions.
3. Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to
determine whether it was internally or externally caused. That determination depends
largely on three factors:
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• Distinctiveness
• Consensus
• Consistency
4. Clarification of the differences between internal and external causation:
• Internally caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the personal control
of the individual.
• Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside causes; that is, the person is
seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation.
5. Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different
situations. What we want to know is whether the observed behavior is unusual.
• If it is, the observer is likely to give the behavior an external attribution.
• If this action is not unusual, it will probably be judged as internal.
6. Consensus occurs if everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way.
If consensus is high, you would be expected to give an external attribution to the employee’s
tardiness, whereas if other employees who took the same route made it to work on time,
your conclusion as to causation would be internal.
7. Consistency in a person’s actions. Does the person respond the same way over time? The
more consistent the behavior, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it to internal
causes.
8. Fundamental Attribution Error
• There is substantial evidence that we have a tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors.
• There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal
factors such as ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external factors
such as luck. This is called the “self‐serving bias” and suggests that feedback provided to
employees will be distorted by recipients.
9. Are these errors or biases that distort attribution universal across different cultures? While
there is no definitive answer there is some preliminary evidence that indicates cultural
differences:
• Korean managers found that, contrary to the self‐serving bias, they tended to accept
responsibility for group failure.
• Attribution theory was developed largely based on experiments with Americans and
Western Europeans.
• The Korean study suggests caution in making attribution theory predictions in non‐
Western societies, especially in countries with strong collectivist traditions.
B. Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
1. We use a number of shortcuts when we judge others. An understanding of these shortcuts
can be helpful toward recognizing when they can result in significant distortions.
2. Selective Perception
• Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the
probability that it will be perceived.
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• It is impossible for us to assimilate everything we see—only certain stimuli can be taken
in.
• A classic example:
a. Dearborn and Simon performed a perceptual study in which 23 business executives
read a comprehensive case describing the organization and activities of a steel
company.
b. The results along with other results of the study, led the researchers to conclude that
the participants perceived aspects of a situation that were specifically related to the
activities and goals of the unit to which they were attached.
c. A group’s perception of organizational activities is selectively altered to align with the
vested interests they represent.
d. Selectivity works as a shortcut in judging other people by allowing us to “speed‐read”
others, but not without the risk of drawing an inaccurate picture. Because we see
what we want to see, we can draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous
situation.
3. Halo Effect
• The halo effect occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single
characteristic:
a. This phenomenon frequently occurs when students appraise their classroom
instructor.
b. Students may give prominence to a single trait such as enthusiasm and allow their
entire evaluation to be tainted by how they judge the instructor on that one trait.
• The reality of the halo effect was confirmed in a classic study.
a. Subjects were given a list of traits such as intelligent, skillful, practical, industrious,
determined, and warm, and were asked to evaluate the person to whom those traits
applied. When the word “warm” was substituted with “cold” the subjects changed
their evaluation of the person.
b. The experiment showed that subjects were allowing a single trait to influence their
overall impression of the person being judged.
c. Research suggests that it is likely to be most extreme when the traits to be perceived
are ambiguous in behavioral terms, when the traits have moral overtones, and when
the perceiver is judging traits with which he or she has had limited experience.
4. Contrast Effects
• We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to one person is influenced by
other persons we have recently encountered.
• For example, an interview situation in which one sees a pool of job applicants can distort
perception. Distortions in any given candidate’s evaluation can occur as a result of his or
her place in the interview schedule.
5. Projection
• This tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other people—which is called
projection—can distort perceptions made about others.
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• When managers engage in projection, they compromise their ability to respond to
individual differences. They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really
are.
6. Stereotyping
• Stereotyping—judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he
or she belongs
• Generalization is not without advantages. It just a means of simplifying a complex world,
and it permits us to maintain consistency. The problem, of course, is when we
inaccurately stereotype.
• In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent stereotypes based on
gender, age, race, ethnicity, and even weight.
• From a perceptual standpoint, if people expect to see these stereotypes, that is what
they will perceive, whether or not they are accurate.
C. Specific Applications in Organizations
1. Employment Interview
• Evidence indicates that interviewers make perceptual judgments that are often
inaccurate.
• In addition, agreement among interviewers is often poor. Different interviewers see
different things in the same candidate and thus arrive at different conclusions about the
applicant.
• Interviewers generally draw early impressions that become very quickly entrenched.
Studies indicate that most interviewers’ decisions change very little after the first four or
five minutes of the interview.
• Because interviews usually have so little consistent structure and interviewers vary in
terms of what they are looking for in a candidate, judgments of the same candidate can
vary widely.
2. Performance Expectations
• Evidence demonstrates that people will attempt to validate their perceptions of reality,
even when those perceptions are faulty.
• Self‐fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effect characterizes the fact that people’s
expectations determine their behavior. Expectations become reality.
• A study was undertaken with 105 soldiers in the Israeli Defense Forces who were taking a
fifteen‐week combat command course. Soldiers were randomly divided and identified as
having high potential, normal potential, and potential not known. Instructors got better
results from the high potential group because they expected it confirming the effect of a
self‐fulfilling prophecy.
3. Performance Evaluation
• An employee’s performance appraisal is very much dependent on the perceptual
process.
• Although the appraisal can be objective, many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms.
Subjective measures are, by definition, judgmental.
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• To the degree that managers use subjective measures in appraising employees, what the
evaluator perceives to be good or bad employee characteristics or behaviors will
significantly influence the outcome of the appraisal.
4. Employee Effort
• An individual’s future in an organization is usually not dependent on performance alone.
An assessment of an individual’s effort is a subjective judgment susceptible to perceptual
distortions and bias.
THE LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING
1. Individuals in organizations make decisions; they make choices from among two or more
alternatives.
• Top managers determine their organization’s goals, what products or services to offer,
how best to finance operations, or where to locate a new manufacturing plant.
• Middle‐ and lower‐level managers determine production schedules, select new
employees, and decide how pay raises are to be allocated.
• Non‐managerial employees also make decisions including whether or not to come to
work on any given day, how much effort to put forward once at work, and whether or
not to comply with a request made by the boss.
• A number of organizations in recent years have been empowering their non‐managerial
employees with job‐related decision‐making authority that historically was reserved for
managers.
2. Decision‐making occurs as a reaction to a problem.
• There is a discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state,
requiring consideration of alternative courses of action.
• The awareness that a problem exists and that a decision needs to be made is a
perceptual issue.
3. Every decision requires interpretation and evaluation of information. The perceptions of the
decision maker will address these two issues.
• Data are typically received from multiple sources.
• Which data are relevant to the decision and which are not?
• Alternatives will be developed, and the strengths and weaknesses of each will need to be
evaluated.
HOW SHOULD DECISIONS BE MADE?
A. The Rational Decision‐Making Process
1. The optimizing decision maker is rational. He or she makes consistent, value‐maximizing
choices within specified constraints.
2. The Rational Model—six steps listed in Exhibit 5‐3
3. Step 1: Defining the problem
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• A problem is a discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs.
• Many poor decisions can be traced to the decision maker overlooking a problem or
defining the wrong problem.
4. Step 2: Identify the decision criteria important to solving the problem.
• The decision maker determines what is relevant in making the decision. Any factors not
identified in this step are considered irrelevant to the decision maker.
• This brings in the decision maker’s interests, values, and similar personal preferences.
5. Step 3: Weight the previously identified criteria in order to give them the correct priority in
the decision.
6. Step 4: Generate possible alternatives that could succeed in resolving the problem.
7. Step 5: Rating each alternative on each criterion.
• Critically analyze and evaluate each alternative
• The strengths and weaknesses of each alternative become evident as they are compared
with the criteria and weights established in the second and third steps.
8. Step 6: The final step is to compute the optimal decision:
• Evaluating each alternative against the weighted criteria and selecting the alternative
with the highest total score.
9. Assumptions of the Model
• Problem clarity. The decision maker is assumed to have complete information regarding
the decision situation.
• Known options. It is assumed the decision maker is aware of all the possible
consequences of each alternative.
• Clear preferences. Criteria and alternatives can be ranked and weighted to reflect their
importance.
• Constant preferences. Specific decision criteria are constant and the weights assigned to
them are stable over time.
• No time or cost constraints. The rational decision maker can obtain full information
about criteria and alternatives because it is assumed that there are no time or cost
constraints.
• Maximum payoff. The rational decision maker will choose the alternative that yields the
highest perceived value.
B. Improving Creativity in Decision Making
Definition: Creativity is the ability to produce novel and useful ideas. These are ideas that are
different from what has been done before, but that are also appropriate to the problem or
opportunity presented.
1. Creative Potential
• Most people have creative potential.
• People have to get out of the psychological ruts most of us get into and learn how to
think about a problem in divergent ways.
2. People differ in their inherent creativity.
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• A study of lifetime creativity of 461 men and women found that fewer than one percent
were exceptionally creative.
• Ten percent were highly creative, and about sixty percent were somewhat creative.
3. Three‐component model of creativity. This model proposes that individual creativity
essentially requires expertise, creative‐thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation. (See
Exhibit 5‐4.)
• Expertise is the foundation for all creative work. The potential for creativity is enhanced
when individuals have abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise in their
field of endeavor.
• Creative thinking skills. This encompasses personality characteristics associated with
creativity, the ability to use analogies, as well as the talent to see the familiar in a
different light.
• Intrinsic task motivation. The desire to work on something because it’s interesting,
involving, exciting, satisfying, or personally challenging. This turns creativity potential
into actual creative ideas. It determines the extent to which individuals fully engage their
expertise and creative skills.
HOW ARE DECISIONS ACTUALLY MADE IN ORGANIZATIONS?
1. Are decision makers in organizations rational?
• When decision makers are faced with a simple problem having few alternative courses of
action, and when the cost of searching out and evaluating alternatives is low, the rational
model is fairly accurate.
2. Most decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model.
• Decision makers generally make limited use of their creativity.
• Choices tend to be confined to the neighborhood of the problem symptom and to the
neighborhood of the current alternative.
A. Bounded Rationality
1. When faced with a complex problem, most people respond by reducing the problem to a
level at which it can be readily understood.
• This is because the limited information‐processing capability of human beings makes it
impossible to assimilate and understand all the information necessary to optimize.
• People satisfice—they seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient.
2. Individuals operate within the confines of bounded rationality. They construct simplified
models that extract the essential features.
3. How does bounded rationality work?
• Once a problem is identified, the search for criteria and alternatives begins.
• The decision maker will identify a limited list made up of the more conspicuous choices,
which are easy to find, tend to be highly visible, and they will represent familiar criteria
and previously tried‐and‐true solutions.
• Once this limited set of alternatives is identified, the decision maker will begin reviewing
it.
a. The decision maker will begin with alternatives that differ only in a relatively small
degree from the choice currently in effect.
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b. The first alternative that meets the “good enough” criterion ends the search.
• The order in which alternatives are considered is critical in determining which alternative
is selected.
• Assuming that a problem has more than one potential solution, the satisficing choice will
be the first acceptable one the decision maker encounters.
• Alternatives that depart the least from the status quo are the most likely to be selected.
A. Intuition
1. Intuitive decision‐making has recently come out of the closet and into some respectability.
2. What is intuitive decision making?
• It is an unconscious process created out of distilled experience. It operates in
complement with rational analysis.
• Some consider it a form of extrasensory power or sixth sense.
• Some believe it is a personality trait that a limited number of people are born with.
3. Research on chess playing provides an excellent example of how intuition works.
• The expert’s experience allows him or her to recognize the pattern in a situation and
draw upon previously learned information associated with that pattern to quickly arrive
at a decision choice.
• The result is that the intuitive decision maker can decide rapidly with what appears to be
very limited information.
• Eight conditions when people are most likely to use intuitive decision making:
a. when a high level of uncertainty exists
b. when there is little precedent to draw on
c. when variables are less scientifically predictable
d. when “facts” are limited
e. when facts do not clearly point the way to go
f. when analytical data are of little use
g. when there are several possible alternative solutions to choose from, with good
arguments for each
h. when time is limited, and there is pressure to come up with the right decision
• Although intuitive decision making has gained in respectability, don’t expect people—
especially in North America, Great Britain, and other cultures where rational analysis is
the approved way of making decisions—to acknowledge they are using it. Rational
analysis is considered more socially desirable in these cultures.
B. Problem Identification
1. Problems that are visible tend to have a higher probability of being selected than ones that
are important. Why?
• Visible problems are more likely to catch a decision maker’s attention.
• Second, remember we are concerned with decision making in organizations. If a decision
maker faces a conflict between selecting a problem that is important to the organization
and one that is important to the decision maker, self‐interest tends to win out.
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• The decision maker’s self interest also plays a part. When faced with selecting a problem
important to the decision maker or important to the organization, self interest tends to
win out.
C. Alternative Development
1. Since decision makers seek a satisficing solution, there is a minimal use of creativity in the
search for alternatives. Efforts tend to be confined to the neighborhood of the current
alternative.
2. Evidence indicates that decision‐making is incremental rather than comprehensive. Decision
makers make successive limited comparisons. The picture that emerges is one of a decision
maker who takes small steps toward his or her objective.
D. Making Choices
1. In order to avoid information overload, decision makers rely on heuristics or judgmental
shortcuts in decision making.
• There are two common categories of heuristics—availability and representativeness.
Each creates biases in judgment.
• Another bias is the tendency to escalate commitment to a failing course of action.
2. Availability heuristic
• The availability heuristic is “the tendency for people to base their judgments on
information that is readily available to them.”
• Events that evoke emotions, that are particularly vivid, or that have occurred more
recently tend to be more available in our memory. Fore example, many more people
suffer from fear of flying than fear of driving in a car.
3. Representative heuristic
• To assess the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a preexisting
category, managers frequently predict the performance of a new product by relating it to
a previous product’s success.
4. Escalation of commitment
• Escalation of commitment is an increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of
negative information.
• It has been well documented that individuals escalate commitment to a failing course of
action when they view themselves as responsible for the failure.
• Implications for the organizations:
a. An organization can suffer large losses when a manager continues to invest in a failed
plan just to prove his or her original decision was correct.
b. Consistency is a characteristic often associated with effective leaders. Managers
might be reluctant to change a failed course of action to appear consistent.
E. Individual Differences: Decision‐Making Styles
1. Research on decision styles has identified four different individual approaches to making
decisions.
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2. People differ along two dimensions. The first is their way of thinking.
• Some people are logical and rational. They process information serially.
• Some people are intuitive and creative. They perceive things as a whole.
3. The other dimension is a person’s tolerance for ambiguity
• Some people have a high need to minimize ambiguity.
• Others are able to process many thoughts at the same time.
4. These two dimensions, diagrammed, form four styles of decision making. (See Exhibit 5‐5.)
• Directive:
a. Low tolerance for ambiguity and seek rationality
b. Efficient and logical
c. Decisions are made with minimal information and with few alternatives assessed.
d. Make decisions fast and focus on the short‐run.
• Analytic
a. Greater tolerance for ambiguity
b. Desire for more information and consideration of more alternatives
c. Best characterized as careful decision makers with the ability to adapt to or cope with
new situations
• Conceptual
a. Tend to be very broad in their outlook and consider many alternatives
b. Their focus is long range, and they are very good at finding creative solutions to
problems.
• Behavioral
a. Characterizes decision makers who work well with others
b. Concerned with the achievement of peers and subordinates and are receptive to
suggestions from others, relying heavily on meetings for communicating
c. Tries to avoid conflict and seeks acceptance
5. Most managers have characteristics that fall into more than one. It is best to think in terms
of a manager’s dominant style and his or her backup styles.
• Business students, lower‐level managers, and top executives tend to score highest in the
analytic style.
• Focusing on decision styles can be useful for helping you to understand how two equally
intelligent people, with access to the same information, can differ in the ways they
approach decisions and the final choices they make.
F. Organizational Constraints
1. The organization itself constrains decision makers. This happens due to policies, regulations,
time constraints, etc.
2. Performance evaluation
• Managers are strongly influenced in their decision making by the criteria by which they
are evaluated. Their performance in decision making will reflect expectation.
3. Reward systems
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• The organization’s reward system influences decision makers by suggesting to them
what choices are preferable in terms of personal payoff.
4. Programmed routines
• All but the smallest of organizations create rules, policies, procedures, and other
formalized regulations in order to standardize the behavior of their members.
• By programming decisions, organizations are able to get individuals to achieve high levels
of performance without paying for the years of experience.
5. System‐imposed time constraints
• Organizations impose deadlines on decisions.
• Decisions must be made quickly in order to stay ahead of the competition and keep
customers satisfied.
• Almost all important decisions come with explicit deadlines.
6. Historical Precedents
• Decisions have a context. Individual decisions are more accurately characterized as
points in a stream of decisions.
• Decisions made in the past are ghosts which continually haunt current choices. It is
common knowledge that the largest determining factor of the size of any given year’s
budget is last year’s budget.
G. Cultural Differences
1. The rational model makes no acknowledgment of cultural differences. We need to recognize
that the cultural background of the decision maker can have significant influence on:
a. selection of problems
b. depth of analysis
c. the importance placed on logic and rationality
d. whether organizational decisions should be made autocratically by an individual manager
or collectively in groups
2. Cultures, for example, differ in terms of time orientation, the importance of rationality, their
belief in the ability of people to solve problems, and preference for collective decision
making.
• Some cultures emphasize solving problems, while others focus on accepting situations as
they are.
• Decision making by Japanese managers is much more group‐oriented than in the United
States.
WHAT ABOUT ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING?
Ethical considerations should be an important criterion in organizational decision making.
A. Three Ethical Decision Criteria
1. Utilitarian criterion—decisions are made solely on the basis of their outcomes or
consequences. The goal of utilitarianism is to provide the greatest good for the greatest
number. This view tends to dominate business decision making.
2. Focus on rights—calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties
and privileges as set forth in documents such as the Bill of Rights.
• An emphasis on rights means respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals,
such as the right to privacy, to free speech, and to due process.
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3. Focus on justice—requires individuals to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially.
There is an equitable distribution of benefits and costs.
4. Advantages and liabilities of these three criteria:
• Utilitarianism
a. Promotes efficiency and productivity
b. It can result in ignoring the rights of some individuals, particularly those with minority
representation in the organization.
• Rights
a. Protects individuals from injury and is consistent with freedom and privacy
b. It can create an overly legalistic work environment that hinders productivity and
efficiency.
• Justice
a. Protects the interests of the underrepresented and less powerful
b. It can encourage a sense of entitlement that reduces risk taking, innovation, and
productivity.
c. Decision makers tend to feel safe and comfortable when they use utilitarianism.
Many critics of business decision makers argue that this perspective needs to change.
5. Increased concern in society about individual rights and social justice suggests the need for
managers to develop ethical standards based solely on non‐utilitarian criteria.
B. Ethics and National Culture
1. There are no global ethical standards.
2. Contrasts between Asia and the West illustrate:
• Bribery is commonplace in countries such as China. Should a Western business
professional pay a bribe to secure business if it is an accepted part of that country’s
culture?
• A manager of a large U.S. company operating in China caught an employee stealing. She
fired him, turned him over to the local authorities, only to learn later that the employee
had been summarily executed.
• While ethical standards may seem ambiguous in the West, criteria defining right and
wrong are actually much clearer in the West than in Asia. Few issues are black‐and‐white
there; most are gray.
C. Individual Decision Making
1. Most people do not follow the rational decision‐making model—but satisfice rather than
optimize. What can managers do to improve their decision making?
2. Be aware of these five strategies:
• Analyze the situation: Adjust to national culture, the criteria the organization evaluates
and rewards.
• Be aware of biases: Understanding how they influence judgment can help to reduce
their impact.
• Combine rational analysis with intuition: Using both can improve decision making
effectiveness.
• Realize that no specific decision style is appropriate for every job: Organizations differ, as
do jobs. Matching decision style to the situation is the most effective strategy.
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Chapter 6
BASIC MOTIVATION WORK
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Outline the motivation process.
2. Describe Maslow’s need hierarchy.
3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y.
4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors.
5. List the characteristics that high achievers prefer in a job.
6. Summarize the types of goals that increase performance.
7. State the impact of under‐rewarding employees.
8. Clarify the key relationships in expectancy theory.
9. Explain how the contemporary theories of motivation complement each other.
Chapter Overview
The theories we have discussed in this chapter address different outcome variables. Some, for
instance, are directed at explaining turnover, while others emphasize productivity. The theories
also differ in their predictive strength. In this section, we 1) review the key motivation theories
to determine their relevance in explaining our dependent variables, and 2) assess the predictive
power of each.
Need theories. We introduced four theories that focused on needs. These were Maslow’s
hierarchy, two‐factor, ERG, and McClelland’s needs theories. The strongest of these is probably
the last, particularly regarding the relationship between achievement and productivity. If the
other three have any value at all, that value relates to explaining and predicting job satisfaction.
Goal‐setting theory. There is little dispute that clear and difficult goals lead to higher levels of
employee productivity. This evidence leads us to conclude that goal‐setting theory provides one
of the more powerful explanations of this dependent variable. The theory, however, does not
address absenteeism, turnover, or satisfaction.
Reinforcement theory. This theory has an impressive record for predicting factors like quality
and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates. It does
not offer much insight into employee satisfaction or the decision to quit.
Equity theory. Equity theory deals with all four dependent variables. However, it is strongest
when predicting absence and turnover behaviors and weakest when predicting differences in
employee productivity.
Expectancy theory. Our final theory focused on performance variables. It has proved to offer a
relatively powerful explanation of employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover, but
expectancy theory assumes that employees have few constraints on their decision discretion. It
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makes many of the same assumptions that the rational model makes about individual decision‐
making (see Chapter 5). This acts to restrict its applicability.
For major decisions, such as accepting or resigning from a job, expectancy theory works well
because people do not rush into decisions of this nature. They are more prone to take the time
to carefully consider the costs and benefits of all the alternatives. However, expectancy theory is
not a very good explanation for more typical types of work behavior, especially for individuals in
lower‐level jobs, because such jobs come with considerable limitations imposed by work
methods, supervisors, and company policies. We would conclude, therefore, that expectancy
theory’s power in explaining employee productivity increases where the jobs being performed
are more complex and higher in the organization (where discretion is greater).
A Guide through the Maze. Exhibit 6‐10 summarizes what we know about the power of the more
well known motivation theories to explain and predict our four dependent variables. While
based on a wealth of research, it also includes some subjective judgments. However, it does
provide a reasonable guide through the motivation theory maze.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
1. Many people incorrectly view motivation as a personal trait—that is, some have it and
others do not. Motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation.
2. Definition: Motivation is “the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction,
and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.”
3. We will narrow the focus to organizational goals in order to reflect our singular interest in
work‐related behavior.
4. The three key elements of our definition are intensity, direction, and persistence:
• Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus
on when we talk about motivation.
• Direction is the orientation that benefits the organization.
• Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort. Motivated
individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.
EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1. In the 1950s three specific theories were formulated and are the best known: hierarch of
needs theory, Theories X and Y, and the two‐factor theory.
2. These early theories are important to understand because they represent a foundation from
which contemporary theories have grown. Practicing managers still regularly use these
theories and their terminology in explaining employee motivation.
A. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
1. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the most well‐known theory of motivation. He
hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs: (See
Exhibit 6‐1).
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• Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs
• Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm
• Social: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship
• Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors such as self‐respect, autonomy, and
achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention
• Self‐actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes
growth, achieving one’s potential, and self‐fulfillment
2. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. No need is ever
fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates.
3. Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders.
• Physiological and safety needs are described as lower‐order.
• Social, esteem, and self‐actualization are as higher‐order needs
• Higher‐order needs are satisfied internally.
• Lower‐order needs are predominantly satisfied externally.
4. Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing
managers. Research does not generally validate the theory.
5. Maslow provided no empirical substantiation, and several studies that sought to validate the
theory found no support for it.
B. Theory X and Theory Y
1. Douglas McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based
on a certain grouping of assumptions and he or she tends to mold his or her behavior toward
employees according to these assumptions.
2. Theory X assumptions are basically negative.
• Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
• Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with
punishment.
• Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.
• Most workers place security above all other factors and will display little ambition.
3. Theory Y assumptions are basically positive.
• Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
• People will exercise self‐direction and self‐control if they are committed to the
objectives.
• The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
• The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population.
4. What are the implications for managers? This is best explained by using Maslow’s
framework:
• Theory X assumes that lower‐order needs dominate individuals.
• Theory Y assumes that higher‐order needs dominate individuals.
• McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than
Theory X.
• There is no evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is valid.
• Either Theory X or Theory Y assumptions may be appropriate in a particular situation.
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C. Two‐Factor Theory
1. The Two‐Factor Theory is sometimes also called motivation‐hygiene theory.
2. Proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg when he investigated the question, “What do
people want from their jobs?” He asked people to describe, in detail, situations in which
they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. These responses were then tabulated
and categorized.
3. From the categorized responses, Herzberg concluded:
• Intrinsic factors, such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement
seem to be related to job satisfaction.
• Dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic factors, such as supervision, pay,
company policies, and working conditions.
• The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.
• Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job
satisfying.
4. Job satisfaction factors are separate and distinct from job dissatisfaction factors. Managers
who eliminate job dissatisfaction factors may not necessarily bring about motivation.
5. When hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be
satisfied. To motivate people, emphasize factors intrinsically rewarding that are associated
with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it.
6. Criticisms of the theory:
• The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology.
• The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned.
• No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.
• Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity, but the research
methodology he used looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity.
7. Regardless of criticisms, Herzberg’s theory has been widely read, and few managers are
unfamiliar with his recommendations.
• The popularity of vertically expanding jobs to allow workers greater responsibility can
probably be attributed to Herzberg’s findings.
• Contemporary Theories of Motivation
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
The following theories are considered contemporary not because they necessarily were
developed recently, but because they represent the current state of the art in explaining
employee motivation.
A. ERG Theory
1. Clayton Alderfer reworked Maslow’s need hierarchy to align it with the empirical research.
His revised need hierarchy is labeled ERG theory.
2. Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and
growth.
3. The existence group
• Provides our basic material existence requirements
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• They include Maslow’s physiological and safety needs.
4. Relatedness
• The desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships
• These social and status desires require interaction with others.
• They align with Maslow’s social need and the external component.
5. Growth needs
• An intrinsic desire for personal development
• These include the intrinsic component from Maslow’s esteem category and the
characteristics included under self‐actualization.
6. In addition to collapsing Maslow’s five into three, Alderfer’s ERG theory also differs from
Maslow’s in that:
• More than one need may be operative at the same time.
• If the gratification of a higher‐level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower‐level need
increases.
• ERG theory does not assume that there exists a rigid hierarchy. A person can be working
on growth even though existence or relatedness needs are unsatisfied, or all three need
categories could be operating at the same time.
7. ERG theory also contains a frustration‐regression dimension.
• Maslow argued that an individual would stay at a certain need level until that need was
satisfied. ERG argues that multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same
time.
• ERG theory notes that when a higher‐order need level is frustrated, the individual’s
desire to increase a lower‐level need takes place.
8. ERG theory is more consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people.
• Variables such as education, family background, and cultural environment can alter the
importance or driving force that a group of needs holds for a particular individual.
• The evidence demonstrating that people in other cultures rank the need categories
differently would be consistent with ERG theory.
B. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
1. The theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.
• Need for achievement: The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to
strive to succeed
• Need for power: The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have
behaved otherwise
• Need for affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
2. Some people have a compelling drive to succeed. They are striving for personal achievement
rather than the rewards of success per se. This drive is the achievement need (nAch).
3. McClelland found that high achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to
do things better.
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• They seek personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.
• They want to receive rapid feedback on their performance so they can tell easily whether
they are improving or not.
• They can set moderately challenging goals. High achievers are not gamblers; they dislike
succeeding by chance.
• High achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of success as 50‐50.
• They like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little.
4. The need for power (nPow) is the desire to have impact, to be influential, and to control
others.
• Individuals high in nPow enjoy being “in charge.”
• Strive for influence over others
• Prefer to be placed into competitive and status‐oriented situations
• Tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with
effective performance
5. The third need isolated by McClelland is affiliation (nAfl).
• This need has received the least attention from researchers.
• Individuals with a high affiliation motive strive for friendship.
• Prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones
• Desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual understanding
6. Relying on an extensive amount of research, some reasonably well‐supported predictions
can be made based on the relationship between achievement need and job performance.
• First, as shown in Exhibit 6‐4, individuals with a high need to achieve prefer job situations
with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk. When these
characteristics are prevalent, high achievers will be strongly motivated.
• Second, a high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to being a good manager,
especially in large organizations. People with a high achievement need are interested in
how well they do personally and not in influencing others to do well.
• Third, the needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial
success. The best managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for
affiliation.
• Finally, employees have been successfully trained to stimulate their achievement need.
Trainers have been effective in teaching individuals to think in terms of
accomplishments, winning, and success, and then helping them to learn how to act in a
high achievement way by preferring situations where they have personal responsibility,
feedback, and moderate risks.
C. Cognitive Evaluation Theory
1. In the late 1960s, one researcher proposed that the introduction of extrinsic rewards, such
as pay, for work effort that had been previously intrinsically rewarding due to the pleasure
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associated with the content of the work itself, would tend to decrease the overall level of
motivation.
2. This has come to be called the cognitive evaluation theory. Well researched and supported
theorists have assumed that intrinsic motivations, such as achievement, etc., are
independent of extrinsic motivators such as high pay, promotions, etc.
3. Cognitive evaluation theory suggests otherwise. When extrinsic rewards are used by
organizations as payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are derived
from individuals doing what they like, are reduced.
4. The popular explanation is that the individual experiences a loss of control over his or her
own behavior so that the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes.
5. Furthermore, the elimination of extrinsic rewards can produce a shift—from an external to
an internal explanation—in an individual’s perception of causation of why he or she works
on a task.
6. If the cognitive evaluation theory is valid, it should have major implications for managerial
practices.
• If pay or other extrinsic rewards are to be effective motivators, they should be made
contingent on an individual’s performance.
• Cognitive evaluation theorists would argue that this will tend only to decrease the
internal satisfaction that the individual receives from doing the job.
• If correct, it would make sense to make an individual’s pay non‐contingent on
performance in order to avoid decreasing intrinsic motivation.
7. While supported in a number of studies, cognitive evaluation theory has also met with
attacks, specifically on the methodology used and in the interpretation of the findings.
10. Further research is needed to clarify some of the current ambiguity. The evidence does lead
us to conclude that the interdependence of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards is a real
phenomenon.
11. Its impact on employee motivation at work may be considerably less than originally thought.
• First, many of the studies testing the theory were done with students.
• Second, evidence indicates that very high intrinsic motivation levels are strongly resistant
to the detrimental impacts of extrinsic rewards.
• The theory may have limited applicability to work organizations because most low‐level
jobs are not inherently satisfying enough to foster high intrinsic interest, and many
managerial and professional positions offer intrinsic rewards.
D. Goal‐Setting Theory
1. In the late 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major
source of work motivation.
2. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. The
evidence strongly supports the value of goals.
3. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than do the generalized goals.
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4. If factors like ability and acceptance of the goals are held constant, we can also state that
the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance.
5. People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward
their goals. Self‐generated feedback is more powerful a motivator than externally
generated feedback.
6. The evidence is mixed regarding the superiority of participative over assigned goals. If
employees have the opportunity to participate in the setting of their own goals, will they try
harder? A major advantage of participation may be in increasing acceptance.If people
participate in goal setting, they are more likely to accept even a difficult goal than if they are
arbitrarily assigned it by their boss.
7. There are contingencies in goal‐setting theory. In addition to feedback, four other factors
influence the goals‐performance relationship.
Goal commitment: Goal‐setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the
goal.
Adequate self‐efficacy: Self‐efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is
capable of performing a task. The higher your self‐efficacy, the more confidence you
have in your ability to succeed in a task.
Task characteristics: Individual goal setting does not work equally well on all tasks. Goals
seem to have a more substantial effect on performance when tasks are simple, well‐
learned, and independent.
National culture: Goal‐setting theory is culture bound and it is well adapted to North
American cultures.
8. Intentions, as articulated in terms of hard and specific goals, are a potent motivating force.
However, there is no evidence that such goals are associated with increased job satisfaction.
E. Reinforcement Theory
1. In contrast to Goal‐Setting theory, which is a cognitive approach, Reinforcement theory is
behavioristic approach. It argues that reinforcement conditions behavior.
• Reinforcement theorists see behavior as being environmentally caused.
• Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely
on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.
2. The two theories are clearly at odds philosophically. Reinforcement is undoubtedly an
important influence on behavior, but few scholars are prepared to argue that it is the only
influence.
F. Flow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory
1. A state of absolute concentration that occurs when doing a favorite activity. You lose
yourself in the task and often lose track of time. Athletes call this being “in the zone.”
2. A key element of the flow experience is that its motivation is unrelated to end goals.
• When a person experiences the flow he or she is completely intrinsically motivated.
• There is extreme concentration during the activity. It is when the individual looks back
on the experience he or she is flooded with feelings of gratitude for the experience.
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• It is the desire to repeat the experience that creates continued motivation.
3. Conditions likely to produce a flow state:
• Task is challenging and require high level of skill
• They were goal directed and received feedback on how they were doing.
• Task demanded total concentration and creativity.
• More often to occur at work than home (flow is not associated with leisure.
4. A Model of Intrinsic Motivation, as described by Ken Thomas, is an extension of the flow
concept. He identifies the key elements that create intrinsic motivation as:
• Choice: The ability to select task activities that make sense to you and perform them as
you think appropriate.
• Competence: The accomplishment you feel in skillfully performing task activities you
have chosen.
• Meaningfulness: The opportunity to pursue a worthy task purpose, that matters in the
larger scheme of things.
• Progress: Feeling you are making significant advancement in achieving the task’s
purpose.
5. Studies with managerial staff demonstrate that these four components are significantly
related to improved job satisfaction and increased performance.
G. Equity Theory
1. What role does equity play in motivation? An employee with several years experience can
be frustrated to find out that a recent college grad hired at a salary level higher than he or
she is currently earnings, causing motivation levels to drop. Why?
2. Employees make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others.
• If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we
compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as fair.
• When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension.
3. Additionally, the referent that an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity theory.
There are four referent comparisons that an employee can use:
• Self‐inside: An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her current
organization
• Self‐outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her
current organization
• Other‐inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s
organization
• Other‐outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s
organization
4. Which referent an employee chooses will be influenced by the information the employee
holds about referents, as well as by the attractiveness of the referent.
• There are four moderating variables: gender, length of tenure, level in the organization,
and amount of education or professionalism.
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• Men and women prefer same‐sex comparisons. This also suggests that if women are
tolerant of lower pay, it may be due to the comparative standard they use.
• Employees in jobs that are not sex‐segregated will make more cross‐sex comparisons
than those in jobs that are either male‐ or female‐dominated.
5. Employees with short tenure in their current organizations tend to have little information
about others.
6. Employees with long tenure rely more heavily on coworkers for comparison.
7. Upper‐level employees tend to be more cosmopolitan and have better information about
people in other organizations. Therefore, these types of employees will make more other‐
outside comparisons.
8. When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices:
• Change their inputs.
• Change their outcomes.
• Distort perceptions of self.
• Distort perceptions of others.
• Choose a different referent.
• Leave the field.
9. The theory establishes the following propositions relating to inequitable pay:
• Given payment by time, over‐rewarded employees will produce more than will equitably
paid employees.
• Given payment by quantity of production, over‐rewarded employees will produce fewer,
but higher quality, units than will equitably paid employees.
• Given payment by time, under‐rewarded employees will produce less or poorer quality
of output.
• Given payment by quantity of production, under‐rewarded employees will produce a
large number of low‐quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees.
10. These propositions have generally been supported with a few minor qualifications.
• Inequities created by overpayment do not seem to have a very significant impact on
behavior in most work situations.
• Not all people are equity sensitive.
11. Employees also seem to look for equity in the distribution of other organizational rewards.
12. Finally, recent research has been directed at expanding what is meant by equity or fairness.
• Historically, equity theory focused on distributive justice or the perceived fairness of the
amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.
• Equity should also consider procedural justice, the perceived fairness of the process used
to determine the distribution of rewards.
• The evidence indicates that distributive justice has a greater influence on employee
satisfaction than procedural justice.
• Procedural justice tends to affect an employee’s organizational commitment, trust in his
or her boss, and intention to quit.
• By increasing the perception of procedural fairness, employees are likely to view their
bosses and the organization as positive even if they are dissatisfied with pay,
promotions, and other personal outcomes.
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13. Equity theory demonstrates that, for most employees, motivation is influenced significantly
by relative rewards as well as by absolute rewards, but some key issues are still unclear.
I. Expectancy Theory
1. Expectancy theory is one of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation. Victor
Vroom’s expectancy theory has its critics but most of the research is supportive.
2. Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on
the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
3. It says that an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he/she
believes that:
• Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal.
• That a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards.
• That the rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals.
4. Three key relationships
• Effort‐performance relationship: the probability perceived by the individual that exerting
a given amount of effort will lead to performance
• Performance‐reward relationship: the degree to which the individual believes that
performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
• Rewards‐personal goals relationship: the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy
an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards
for the individual
5. Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers merely do the minimum necessary to
get by. For example:
• If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?
No, if the organization’s performance appraisal assesses nonperformance factors. The
employee, rightly or wrongly, perceives that his/her boss does not like him/her.
• If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?
Typically many employees see the performance‐reward relationship in their job as weak.
• If I am rewarded, are the rewards ones that I find personally attractive?
It is important the rewards being tailored to individual employee needs
6. The key to expectancy theory is the understanding of an individual’s goals and the linkage
between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and finally, between
the rewards and individual goal satisfaction.
7. As a contingency model, expectancy theory recognizes that there is no universal principle for
explaining everyone’s motivations.
8. Attempts to validate the theory have been complicated by methodological criterion and
measurement problems.
• Published studies that purport to support or negate the theory must be viewed with
caution.
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• Importantly, most studies have failed to replicate the methodology as it was originally
proposed.
• Some critics suggest that the theory has only limited use, arguing that it tends to be
more valid for predicting in situations where effort‐performance and performance‐
reward linkages are clearly perceived by the individual.
H. Don’t Forget Ability and Opportunity
1. Success on a job is facilitated or hindered by the existence or absence of support resources.
2. A popular although arguably simplistic way of thinking about employee performance is as a
function of the interaction of ability and motivation; that is, performance = f(A × M).
3. If either is inadequate, performance will be negatively affected. We need to add opportunity
to perform to our equation—performance = f(A × M × O).
4. When you attempt to assess why an employee may not be performing to the level that you
believe he or she is capable of, look to the environment to see if it is supportive.
INTEGRATING CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1. The Model in Exhibit 6‐10 integrates much of what we know about motivation. Its basic
foundation is the expectancy model.
2. Expectancy theory predicts that an employee will exert a high level of effort if he/she
perceives that there is a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance
and rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals.
3. Each of these relationships, in turn, is influenced by certain factors. For effort to lead to good
performance, the individual must have the requisite ability to perform, and the performance
appraisal system must be perceived as being fair and objective.
4. The final link in expectancy theory is the rewards‐goals relationship.
5. ERG theory would come into play at this point. Motivation would be high to the degree that
the rewards an individual received for his or her high performance satisfied the dominant
needs consistent with his or her individual goals.
6. The model considers the achievement, need, reinforcement, and equity theories. High
achievers are internally driven as long as the jobs they are doing provide them with personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.
7. Reinforcement theory recognizes that the organization’s rewards reinforce the individual’s
performance.
8. Individuals will compare the rewards (outcomes) they receive from the inputs they make
with the outcome‐input ratio of relevant others and inequities may influence the effort
expended.
CAVEAT EMPTOR: MOTIVATION THEORIES ARE CULTURE BOUND
Many—Theories Were Developed in the United States
1. The most blatant pro‐American characteristic inherent in these theories is the strong
emphasis on individualism and quantity of life. Both goal‐setting and expectancy theories
emphasize goal accomplishment as well as rational and individual thought.
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2. Maslow’s need hierarchy
• People start at the physiological level and then move progressively up the hierarchy in
this order: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self‐actualization. This hierarchy
aligns with American culture.
• In countries where uncertainty avoidance characteristics are strong, Japan, Greece and
Mexico, security needs would be on top of the need hierarchy. Countries like the
Netherlands and Denmark who score high on quality of life characteristics would have
social needs at the top.
• The view that a high achievement need acts as an internal motivator presupposes two
cultural characteristics—a willingness to accept a moderate degree of risk and a concern
with performance.
3. Equity theory
• It is based on the assumption that workers are highly sensitive to equity in reward
allocations. In the United States, equity is meant to be closely tying pay to performance.
• However, in collectivist cultures such as the former socialist countries, employees expect
rewards to reflect their individual needs as well as their performance. Moreover,
consistent with a legacy of communism and centrally planned economies, employees
exhibited an entitlement attitude.
4. There are cross‐cultural consistencies.
• The desire for interesting work seems important to almost all workers.
• Growth, achievement, and responsibility were rated the top three and had identical
rankings in another study of several countries.
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
70 SPCAM(MBA)
Chapter 11
BASIC APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Contrast leadership and management.
2. Summarize the conclusions of trait theories.
3. Identify the limitations of behavioral theories.
4. Describe Fiedler’s contingency model.
5. Explain Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory.
6. Summarize leader‐member exchange theory.
7. Describe the path‐goal theory.
8. Identify the situation variables in the leader‐participation model.
Chapter Overview
Leadership plays a central part in understanding group behavior, for it is the leader who usually
provides the direction toward goal attainment. Therefore, a more accurate predictive capability
should be valuable in improving group performance.
The original search for a set of universal leadership traits failed. At best, we can say that
individuals who are ambitious, have high energy, a desire to lead, self‐confidence, intelligence,
hold job‐relevant knowledge, are perceived as honest and trustworthy, and are flexible are
more likely to succeed as leaders than individuals without these traits. The behavioral
approach’s major contribution was narrowing leadership into task‐oriented and people‐oriented
styles, but no one style was found to be effective in all situations. A major breakthrough in our
understanding of leadership came when we recognized the need to develop contingency
theories that included situational factors. At present, the evidence indicates that relevant
situational variables would include the task structure of the job; level of situational stress; level
of group support; the leader’s intelligence and experience; and follower characteristics such as
personality, experience, ability, and motivation.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
A. Definitions
1. John Kotter feels that management is about coping with complexity.
• Good management brings about order and consistency by drawing up formal plans,
designing rigid organization structures, and monitoring results against the plans.
• Leadership is about coping with change.
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• Leaders establish direction by developing a vision of the future; then they align people by
communicating this vision and inspiring them to overcome hurdles.
2. Robert House of Wharton basically concurs:
• Managers use the authority inherent in their designated formal rank to obtain
compliance.
• Management consists of implementing vision and strategy, coordinating and staffing,
and handling day‐to‐day problems.
3. We define leadership as “the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.”
• The source of this influence may be formal. A person may assume a leadership role
simply because of his/her position.
• Not all leaders are managers, nor, for that matter, are all managers leaders.
• Non‐sanctioned leadership—the ability to influence that arises outside the formal
structure of the organization—is often as important as or more important than formal
influence.
• Leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by formal appointment to lead a
group.
4. Organizations need strong leadership and strong management for optimum effectiveness.
Leaders must challenge the status quo, create visions of the future, and inspire
organizational members.
TRAIT THEORIES
1. The media has long been a believer in trait theories of leadership. They identify leaders by
focusing on personal qualities and characteristics such as charismatic, enthusiastic, and
courageous.
2. The search for attributes that describe leaders and differentiate them goes back to the
1930s.
3. Research efforts at isolating leadership traits resulted in a number of dead ends. A review of
20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits, but only five of these traits were
common to four or more of the investigations.
4. A search to identify traits that were consistently associated with leadership has better
results.
• Six traits on which leaders tend to differ from nonleaders are:
a. Ambition and energy
b. Desire to lead
c. Honesty and integrity
d. Self‐confidence
e. Intelligence
f. Job‐relevant knowledge.
• Recent research provides strong evidence that people who are high self‐monitors are
much more likely to emerge as leaders in groups than low self‐monitors.
• The cumulative findings from a half of a century of research show that some traits
increase the likelihood of success as a leader, but none guarantee success.
5. The trait approach has at least four limitations:
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• First, there are no universal traits that predict in all situations.
• Second, traits predict behavior more in “weak” situations than in “strong” situations.
a. Strong situations are those in which there are strong behavioral norms, strong
incentives for specific types of behaviors, and clear expectations.
b. Such strong situations create less opportunity for leaders to express their inherent
dispositional tendencies.
• Third, the evidence is unclear in separating cause from effect.
• Finally, traits do a better job at predicting the appearance of leadership than in actually
distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders.
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
1. Researchers began to wonder if there was something unique in the way that effective
leaders behave. The behavioral approach would have implications quite different from those
of the trait approach.
2. Trait and behavioral theories differ in terms of their underlying assumptions.
3. Trait theories assumption: Leadership is basically inborn, therefore we could select the right
leaders.
4. Behavioral approach assumption: suggests that we could train people to be leaders. We can
design programs to implant behavioral patterns. If training worked, we could have an infinite
supply of effective leaders.
The Ohio State Studies
1. The most comprehensive and replicated of the behavioral theories resulted from research
that began at Ohio State University in the late 1940s. These researchers sought to identify
independent dimensions of leader behavior.
2. They narrowed over a thousand dimensions into two dimensions—initiating structure and
consideration.
3. Initiating structure refers to the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure
his/her role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment.
• It includes attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals.
• The leader high in initiating structure could be described as someone who “assigns group
members to particular tasks,” “expects workers to maintain definite standards of
performance,” and “emphasizes the meeting of deadlines.”
4. Consideration is described as “the extent to which a person is likely to have job relationships
that are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their
feelings.”
• The leader shows concern for followers’ comfort, well‐being, status, and satisfaction.
• A leader high in consideration could be described as one who helps employees with
personal problems, is friendly and approachable, and treats all employees as equals.
5. Leaders high in initiating structure and consideration tended to achieve high employee
performance and satisfaction.
• The “high‐high” style did not always result in positive consequences.
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• Leader behavior characterized as high on initiating structure led to greater rates of
grievances, absenteeism, and turnover, and lower levels of job satisfaction for routine
tasks.
• High consideration was negatively related to performance ratings of the leader by
his/her superior.
University of Michigan Studies
1. Leadership studies were undertaken at the same time as those being done at Ohio State,
with similar research objectives. They discovered two dimensions of leadership behavior—
employee‐oriented and production‐oriented.
2. Employee‐oriented leaders emphasized interpersonal relations. They took a personal
interest in the needs of their employees and accepted individual differences among
members.
3. The production‐oriented leaders tended to emphasize the technical or task aspects of the
job—group members were a means to that end.
4. Michigan researchers’ conclusions strongly favored the leaders who were employee
oriented. Employee‐oriented leaders were associated with higher group productivity and
higher job satisfaction.
5. Production‐oriented leaders tended to be associated with low group productivity and lower
job satisfaction.
The Managerial Grid
1. Blake and Mouton proposed a managerial grid based on the styles of “concern for people”
and “concern for production,” which essentially represent the Ohio State dimensions of
consideration and initiating structure or the Michigan dimensions of employee‐oriented and
production‐oriented.
2. The grid has nine possible positions along each axis, creating 81 different positions. (See
Exhibit 11‐1).
3. The grid shows the dominating factors in a leader’s thinking in regard to getting results.
4. Based on the findings of Blake and Mouton, managers were found to perform best under a
9,9 style, as contrasted, for example, with a 9,1 (authority type) or 1,9 (lassiez‐faire type)
style. Unfortunately, the grid offers a better framework for conceptualizing leadership style
than for presenting any tangible new information.
E. Scandinavian Studies
1. The previous three behavioral approaches were essentially developed between the late
1940s and early 1960s—when the world was a more stable place.
2. Researchers in Finland and Sweden have been reassessing the two‐dimension model. Their
basic premise is that effective leaders would exhibit development‐oriented behavior. These
leaders value experimentation, seek new ideas, and generate and implement change.
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3. The Scandinavian researchers’ review of the original Ohio State data found development
items such as “pushes new ways of doing things,” “originates new approaches to problems,”
and “encourages members to start new activities.”
4. These items, at the time, did not explain much toward effective leadership. The Scandinavian
researchers proposed that this was because developing new ideas and implementing change
were not critical in those days.
5. The Scandinavian researchers have been conducting new studies looking to see if there is a
third dimension—development orientation—that is related to leader effectiveness.
6. The early evidence is positive. Using samples of leaders in Finland and Sweden, the
researchers have found strong support for development‐oriented leader behavior as a
separate and independent dimension.
F. Summary of Behavioral Theories
1. The behavioral theories have had modest success in identifying consistent relationships
between leadership behavior and group performance.
2. However, situational factors that influence success or failure need to be explored further.
CONTINGENCY THEORIES
A. Fiedler Model
1. The first comprehensive contingency model for leadership was developed by Fred Fiedler
who proposed that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between
the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader.
2. Identifying leadership style:
• Fiedler believed that a key factor in leadership success is the individual’s basic leadership
style. He created the least preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire for this purpose.
a. It purports to measure whether a person is task‐ or relationship‐oriented.
b. The questionnaire contains 16 contrasting adjectives (such as pleasant‐unpleasant,
efficient‐inefficient, open‐guarded, supportive‐hostile).
c. It asks respondents to describe the one person they least enjoyed working with by
rating him or her on a scale of one‐to‐eight for each of the 16 sets of contrasting
adjectives.
d. Fiedler believes that based on the respondents’ answers to this questionnaire, he can
determine their basic leadership style.
e. If the least preferred coworker is described in relatively positive terms (a high LPC
score), the respondent is primarily interested in good personal relations with this
coworker.
f. If the least preferred coworker is seen in relatively unfavorable terms (a low LPC
score), the respondent is primarily interested in productivity and thus would be
labeled task‐oriented.
g. About 16 percent of respondents cannot be classified as either.
• Fiedler assumes that an individual’s leadership style is fixed.
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3. Defining the situation:
• After assessing leadership style, it is necessary to match the leader with the situation.
Fiedler has identified three contingency dimensions:
a. Leader‐member relations—The degree of confidence, trust, and respect members
have in their leader
b. Task structure—The degree to which the job assignments are procedural.
c. Position power—The degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as
hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases
• The next step is to evaluate the situation in terms of these three contingency variables.
a. Leader‐member relations are either good or poor.
b. Task structure is either high or low.
c. Position power is either strong or weak.
• Fiedler states the better the leader‐member relations, the more highly structured the
job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has.
• Altogether, by mixing the three contingency variables, there are potentially eight
different situations or categories in which leaders could find themselves.
4. Matching leaders and situations:
• The Fiedler model proposes matching them up to achieve maximum leadership
effectiveness.
• Fiedler concluded that task‐oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations that
were very favorable to them and in situations that were very unfavorable. (See Exhibit
11‐2).
a. Fiedler would predict that when faced with a category I, II, Ill, VII, or VIII situation,
task‐ oriented leaders perform better.
b. Relationship‐oriented leaders, however, perform better in moderately favorable
situations—categories IV through VI.
• Fiedler has condensed these eight situations to three. Task‐oriented leaders perform
best in situations of high and low control, while relationship‐oriented leaders perform
best in moderate control situations.
• Given Fiedler’s findings, you would seek to match leaders and situations. Because Fiedler
views an individual’s leadership style as being fixed, there are only two ways to improve
leader effectiveness.
a. First, you can change the leader to fit the situation.
b. The second alternative would be to change the situation to fit the leader.
5. Evaluation:
• There is considerable evidence to support at least substantial parts of the model. If
predictions from the model use only three categories rather than the original eight, there
is ample evidence to support Fiedler’s conclusions.
• There are problems and the practical use of the model that need to be addressed. The
logic underlying the LPC is not well understood and studies have shown that
respondents’ LPC scores are not stable.
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• Also, the contingency variables are complex and difficult for practitioners to assess.
6. Cognitive resource theory:
• Fiedler and an associate, Joe Garcia, re‐conceptualized the original theory focusing on
the role of stress as a form of situational unfavorableness and how a leader’s intelligence
and experience influence his/her reaction to stress. The re‐conceptualization is Cognitive
Resource Theory.
• The essence of the new theory is that stress is the enemy of rationality. It is difficult for
leaders to think logically and analytically when they are under stress.
• The importance of a leader’s intelligence and experience to his/her effectiveness differs
under low‐ and high‐stress situations. Intelligence and experience interfere with each
other. Three conclusions:
a. Directive behavior results in good performance only if linked with high intelligence in
supportive, low‐stress situations.
b. In high stress situations, there is a positive relationship between job experience and
performance.
c. The intellectual abilities of leaders correlate with group performance in situations
that the leader perceives as low in stress.
• Cognitive resource theory is developing a solid body of research support.
B. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
1. Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed a leadership model that has gained a strong
following among management development specialists. This model—Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT)—has been incorporated into leadership training programs at over 400 of the
Fortune 500 companies, and over one million managers a year from a wide variety of
organizations are being taught its basic elements.
2. Situational leadership is a contingency theory that focuses on the followers.
• Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which is
contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness. The term readiness refers to “the
extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.”
• The emphasis on the followers in leadership effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the
followers who accept or reject the leader.
a. SLT views the leader‐follower relationship as analogous to that between a parent and
child.
b. Just as a parent needs to relinquish control as a child becomes more mature and
responsible, so too should leaders.
3. Hersey and Blanchard identify four specific leader behaviors—from highly directive to highly
laissez‐faire. The most effective behavior depends on a followers’ ability and motivation.
4. SLT has an intuitive appeal. Yet, research efforts to test and support the theory have
generally been disappointing.
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C. Leader‐Member Exchange Theory
a. The leader‐member exchange (LMX) theory argues that because of time pressures, leaders
establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers.
b. These individuals make up the in‐group—they are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of
the leader’s attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges.
c. The theory proposes that early in the history of the interaction between a leader and a given
follower, the leader implicitly categorizes the follower as an “in” or an “out” and that
relationship is relatively stable over time.
• How the leader chooses who falls into each category is unclear. (See Exhibit 11‐3).
• The leader does the choosing on the basis of the follower’s characteristics.
• The theory and research surrounding it provide substantive evidence that leaders do
differentiate among followers and that these disparities are far from random.
Path‐Goal Theory
1. One of the most respected approaches to leadership is the path‐goal theory developed by
Robert House.
2. It is a contingency model of leadership which extracts key elements from the Ohio State
leadership research on initiating structure and consideration and the expectancy theory of
motivation.
3. It is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary
direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall
objectives of the firm.
4. The term path‐goal is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help
their followers achieve their work goals.
5. House identified four leadership behaviors:
• The directive leader lets followers know what is expected of them, etc.
• The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers.
• The participative leader consults with followers and uses their suggestions before making
a decision.
• The achievement‐oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to
perform at their highest level.
6. In contrast to Fiedler, House assumes leaders are flexible and can display any of these
behaviors. (See Exhibit 11‐4).
7. Two classes of situational or contingency variables moderate the leadership behavior:
• Environmental or outcome relationship. These factors determine the type of leader
behavior required as a complement if follower outcomes are to be maximized.
• Personal characteristics of the employee. These determine how the environment and
leader behavior are interpreted.
a. Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or
stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out.
b. Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when
employees are performing structured tasks.
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c. Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with
high perceived ability or with considerable experience.
d. Employees with an internal locus of control will be more satisfied with a participative
style.
e. Achievement‐oriented leadership will increase employees’ expectancies that effort
will lead to high performance when tasks are ambiguously structured.
8. Research evidence generally supports the logic underlying the path‐goal theory.
Leader‐Participation Model
1. In 1973, Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed a leader‐participation model.
Recognizing that task structures have varying demands for routine and non‐routine
activities, these researchers argued that leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task
structure.
2. The model was normative—it provided a sequential set of rules that should be followed in
determining the form and amount of participation in decision making, as determined by
different types of situations.
3. The model was a decision tree incorporating seven contingencies and five leadership styles.
4. More recent work by Vroom and Arthur Jago revised this model.
• Retaining the same five alternative leadership styles but adds a set of problem types and
expands the contingency variables to twelve
• The twelve contingency variables are listed in Exhibit 11‐5.
5. Research testing both the original and revised leader‐participation models has been
encouraging.
• Criticism has focused on variables that have been omitted and on the model’s overall
complexity.
• Other contingency theories demonstrate that stress, intelligence, and experience are
important situational variables.
• The model is far too complicated for the typical manager to use on a regular basis.
6. Vroom and his associates have provided us with some specific, empirically‐supported
contingency variables that you should consider when choosing your leadership style.
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
79 SPCAM(MBA)
Chapter 13
POWER AND POLITICS
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Contrast leadership and power.
2. Define the four bases of power.
3. Clarify what creates dependency in power relationships.
4. List seven power tactics and their contingencies.
5. Explain how sexual harassment is about the abuse of power.
6. Describe the importance of a political perspective.
7. List those individual and organizational factors that stimulate political behavior.
8. Identify seven techniques for managing the impression one makes on others.
9. Explain how defensive behaviors can protect an individual’s self‐interest.
10. List the three questions that can help determine if a political action is ethical.
Chapter Overview
If you want to get things done in a group or organization, it helps to have power. As a
manager who wants to maximize your power, you will want to increase others’ dependence on
you. You can, for instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by developing
knowledge or a skill that he needs and for which he perceives no ready substitute, but power is
a two‐way street. You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Others,
particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to make you dependent on them. The result is
a continual battle. While you seek to maximize others’ dependence on you, you will be seeking
to minimize your dependence on others, and, of course, others you work with will be trying to
do the same.
Few employees relish being powerless in their job and organization. It has been argued,
for instance, that when people in organizations are difficult, argumentative, and
temperamental, it may be because they are in positions of powerlessness, where the
performance expectations placed on them exceed their resources and capabilities.
There is evidence that people respond differently to the various power bases. Expert and
referent power are derived from an individual’s personal qualities. In contrast, coercion, reward,
and legitimate power are essentially organizationally derived. Since people are more likely to
enthusiastically accept and commit to an individual whom they admire or whose knowledge
they respect (rather than someone who relies on his or her position to reward or coerce them),
the effective use of expert and referent power should lead to higher employee performance,
commitment, and satisfaction. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use
as a power base results in high performance by group members. The message for managers
seems to be: Develop and use your expert power base!
The power of your boss may also play a role in determining your job satisfaction. “One of
the reasons many of us like to work for and with people who are powerful is that they are
generally more pleasant, not because it is their native disposition, but because the reputation
and reality of being powerful permits them more discretion and more ability to delegate to
others.
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The effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. By assessing
behavior in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use this
information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work
unit.
Some people are just significantly more “politically astute” than are others. Those who
are good at playing politics can be expected to get higher performance evaluations, and hence,
larger salary increases and promotions. They are more likely to exhibit higher job satisfaction.
A DEFINITION OF POWER
1. Definition: Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B
acts in accordance with A’s wishes.
• Power may exist but not be used. It is, therefore, a capacity or potential.
2. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency.
• The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater is A’s power in the relationship.
• Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B
places on the alternative(s) that A controls.
• A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire.
CONTRASTING LEADERSHIP AND POWER
1. Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. Leaders achieve goals, and power is
a means of facilitating their achievement.
2. Differences between Leadership and Power:
• Goal compatibility:
a. Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence.
b. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the
leader and those being led.
• The direction of influence:
a. Leadership focuses on the downward influence on one’s followers.
b. Leadership research, for the most part, emphasizes style.
c. Power does not minimize the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns.
d. The research on power has tended to encompass a broader area and focus on tactics
for gaining compliance.
BASES OF POWER
A. Formal Power
1. Coercive Power:
• The coercive power base is being dependent on fear.
• It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the
infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the
controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs.
• At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or
demote B, assuming that B values his or her job.
• Similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner
that B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B.
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2. Reward Power:
• The opposite of coercive power is reward power.
• People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can
distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others.
• These rewards can be anything that another person values.
• Coercive power and reward power are actually counterparts of each other.
a. If you can remove something of positive value from another or inflict something of
negative value upon him/her, you have coercive power over that person.
b. If you can give someone something of positive value or remove something of
negative value, you have reward power over that person.
3. Legitimate Power:
• In formal groups and organizations, the most frequent access power is one’s structural
position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the
formal hierarchy.
• Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.
• Legitimate power, however, is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes
acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.
4. Information Power:
• Refers to power that comes from access to and control over information. When people
have needed information, others become dependant on them. (For example, managers
have access to data that subordinates do not have).
B. Personal Power
1. Expert Power:
• Expert power is "influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge."
• Expertise has become a powerful source of influence as the world has become more
technological. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on
experts to achieve goals.
2. Referent Power:
• Its base is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I
admire and identify with you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please
you.
• Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that
person; it is a lot like charisma.
• Referent power explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products
in commercials.
3. Charismatic Power:
• Is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual’s personality and
interpersonal style.
• Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks,
demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.
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DEPENDENCY: THE KEY TO POWER
1. The General Dependency Postulate:
• The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B.
a. When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make
them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them.
• Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.
a. This is why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather using just one.
b. It also explains why so many of us aspire to financial independence.
2. What Creates Dependency?
• Importance
a. To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being
important.
b. Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty.
c. Therefore, those individuals or groups who can absorb an organization’s uncertainty
will be perceived as controlling an important resource.
• Scarcity
a. A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency.
b. Low‐ranking members in an organization who have important knowledge not
available to high‐ranking members gain power over the high‐ranking members.
c. The scarcity‐dependency relationship can further be seen in the power of
occupational categories.
d. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand
can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more attractive
than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates.
• Nonsubstitutability
a. The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over
that resource provides.
POWER TACTICS
1. Ways Powerholders Get What They Want
• One hundred sixty five managers were asked to write essays describing an incident in
which they influenced their bosses, co‐workers, or employees. From those essays:
a. Three hundred seventy power tactics were identified and grouped into 14 categories.
b. These were condensed into a 58‐item questionnaire, and given to over 750
employees.
c. These respondents were asked not only how they went about influencing others at
work but also for the possible reasons for influencing the target person.
2. The findings identified seven tactical dimensions or strategies:
• Reason—Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas
• Friendliness—Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly
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• Coalition—Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the
request
• Bargaining—Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors
• Assertiveness—Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance
• Higher authority—Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up
requests
• Sanctions—Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments
3. Employees do not rely on the seven tactics equally.
• The most popular strategy was the use of reason.
• Contingency variables that affect the selection of a power tactic
a. The manager’s relative power impacts the selection of tactics in two ways.
• First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who are
perceived to be in positions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do
those with less power.
• Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do
those with less power.
• Resistance leads to managers using more directive strategies.
b. The manager’s objectives for wanting to influence causes them to vary their power
tactics.
• Seeking benefits from a superior, they use friendliness.
• Attempting to persuade their superiors to accept new ideas, they usually rely on
reason.
• Managers use reason to sell ideas to employees and friendliness to obtain favors.
c. The manager’s expectation of the target person’s willingness to comply
• When past experience indicates a high probability of success, managers use simple
requests to gain compliance.
• Where success is less predictable, managers are more tempted to use assertiveness
and sanctions to achieve their objectives.
d. The organization’s culture
• The organizational culture in which a manager works, therefore, will have a
significant bearing on defining which tactics are considered appropriate.
• The organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as
acceptable for use by managers.
e. People in different countries tend to prefer different power tactics.
• US prefers reason whereas China prefers coalition tactics.
• Differences are consistent with values among countries—reason is consistent with
American’s preference for direct confrontation and coalition is consistent with the
Chinese preference for using indirect approaches.
POWER IN GROUPS: COALITIONS
1. Those “out of power” and seeking to be “in” will first try to increase their power individually.
2. If ineffective, the alternative is to form a coalition—an informal group bound together by the
active pursuit of a single issue.
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3. The natural way to gain influence is to become a powerholder but this may be difficult, risky,
costly, or impossible.
• In such cases, efforts will be made to form a coalition of two or more “outs” who, by
joining together, can combine their resources to increase rewards for themselves.
• Successful coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able to form
swiftly, achieve their target issue, and quickly disappear.
4. Predictions about Coalition Formation
• First, coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their size.
a. Decision‐making in organizations does not end just with selection from among a set
of alternatives.
b. The decision must also be implemented.
c. The implementation of and commitment to the decision is at least as important as
the decision.
d. It is necessary for coalitions in organizations to seek a broad constituency.
e. This coalition expansion is to facilitate consensus building
f. In political science theory, coalitions move the other way—they try to minimize their
size.
• Another prediction relates to the degree of interdependence within the organization.
a. More coalitions will likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource
interdependence.
b. In contrast, there will be less interdependence among subunits and less coalition
formation activity where subunits are largely self‐contained or resources are
abundant.
• Finally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks that workers do.
a. The more routine the task of a group, the greater the likelihood that coalitions will
form.
b. The more that the work that people do is routine, the greater their substitutability.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT: UNEQUAL POWER IN THE WORKPLACE
1. Importance:
• The issue received increasing attention by corporations and the media in the 1980s
because of the growing ranks of female employees.
• It was the congressional hearings in the fall of 1991 in which law professor Anita Hill
graphically accused Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment that
challenged organizations to reassess their harassment policies and practices.
2. Sexual Harassment Defined:
• "Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment."
• A 1993 Supreme Court decision added that the key test for determining if sexual
harassment has occurred is whether comments or behavior in a work environment
“would reasonably be perceived, and is perceived, as hostile or abusive.’’
• There continues to be disagreement as to what specifically constitutes sexual
harassment:
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a. Overt forms of sexual harassment of female employees. This includes unwanted
physical touching, recurring requests for dates when it is made clear the woman is
not interested, and coercive threats that a woman will lose her job if she refuses a
sexual proposition.
b. The problem today—subtle forms of sexual harassment such as unwanted looks or
comments, off‐color jokes, sexual artifacts like nude calendars in the workplace, etc.
• Most studies confirm that the concept of power is central to understanding sexual
harassment.
• The supervisor‐employee dyad best characterizes an unequal power relationship.
a. It is also worth noting that individuals who occupy high‐status roles (like
management positions) sometimes believe that sexually harassing female employees
is merely an extension of their right to make demands on lower‐status individuals.
b. Because of power inequities, sexual harassment by one’s boss typically creates the
greatest difficulty for those who are being harassed.
• Although coworkers do not have position power, they can have influence and use it to
sexually harass peers.
a. Coworkers are the most frequent perpetrators of sexual harassment in organizations.
b. Coworkers exercise power by providing or withholding information, cooperation, and
support.
• Women in positions of power can be subjected to sexual harassment from males who
occupy less powerful positions. The employee devalues the woman through highlighting
traditional gender stereotypes that reflect negatively on the woman in power.
• Sexual harassment is about power:
a. It is about an individual controlling or threatening another individual.
b. It is wrong.
c. It is illegal.
POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION
1. Definition: those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the
organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages within the organization.
2. This definition encompasses key elements.
a. Political behavior is outside one’s specified job requirements.
b. It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision‐
making.
c. It includes such varied political behaviors as withholding key information from
decision makers, whistle blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information,
etc.
3. The “Legitimate‐Illegitimate” Dimension
• Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics—complaining to your
supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc.
• Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game, such as
sabotage, whistle blowing, and symbolic protests, etc.
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• The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme
illegitimate forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational
membership or extreme sanction.
A. The Reality of Politics
1. Politics is a fact of life in organizations.
2. Organizations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals, and
interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over resources.
3. Resources in organizations are also limited, which often turns potential conflict into real
conflict. Because resources are limited, not everyone’s interests can be provided for causing
the conflict.
• Gains by one individual or group are often perceived as being at the expense of others.
• These forces create a competition.
4. The most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most
of the “facts” that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to interpretation.
a. What is good performance?
b. What’s an adequate improvement?
5. Most managerial decisions take place in the large and ambiguous middle ground of
organizational life.
6. Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity, people within
organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals
and interests. These are activities we call politicking.
7. It is possible for an organization to be politics free, if all members of that organization hold
the same goals and interests, however, that is not the organization most people work in.
Factors Contributing to Political Behavior
1. Individual factors:
• Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are
likely to be related to political behavior.
a. Employees who are high self‐monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have
a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior.
b. The high self‐monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in
political behavior than the low self‐monitor.
c. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance
and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor.
d. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further
his/her self‐interest.
• An individual’s investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations
of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action.
a. The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the less likely
he/she is to use illegitimate means.
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b. The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent reputation, or
influential contacts outside the organization, the more likely he/she will risk
illegitimate political actions.
c. A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means diminishes the probability of
its use.
2. Organizational factors:
• Political activity is probably more a function of the organization’s characteristics than of
individual difference variables.
• When an organization’s resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is
changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to
surface.
a. Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation
systems, zero‐sum reward allocation practices, democratic decision‐making, high
pressures for performance, and self‐serving senior managers will create breeding
grounds for politicking.
b. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political
actions to safeguard what they have.
c. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in
organizations.
d. The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political
behavior and the more likely it will be illegitimate.
e. Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not clear.
• There are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employee’s political
actions.
• The greater the role ambiguity, the more one can engage in political activity with
little chance of it being visible.
f. Subjective criteria in the appraisal process:
• Subjective performance criteria create ambiguity.
• Single outcome measures encourage doing whatever is necessary to “look good.”
• The more time that elapses between an action and its appraisal, the more
unlikely that the employee will be held accountable for his/her political
behaviors.
g. The zero‐sum approach treats the reward “pie” as fixed so that any gain one person
or group achieves has to come at the expense of another person or group. If I win,
you must lose!
• This encourages making others look bad and increasing the visibility of what you
do.
h. Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more
democratically is not necessarily embraced by all individual managers.
• Sharing their power with others runs directly against some managers’ desires.
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• The result is that managers, especially those who began their careers in the 1950s
and 1960s, may use the required committees, conferences, and group meetings
in a superficial way as arenas for maneuvering and manipulating.
i. The more pressure that employees feel to perform well, the more likely they are to
engage in politicking.
• If a person perceives that his or her entire career is riding on the next “whatever,”
there is motivation to do whatever is necessary to make sure the outcome is
favorable.
j. When employees see top management successfully engaging in political behavior, a
climate is created that supports politicking.
A. How Do People Respond to Organizational Politics?
1. There is very strong evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational politics are
negatively related to job satisfaction.
2. The perception of politics leads to anxiety or stress. When it get too much to handle,
employees quit.
3. It is a de‐motivating force and performance may suffer as a result.
4. The effect of politics is moderated by the knowledge the individual has of the decision
making system and his/her political skills:
• High political skills individuals often have improved performance.
• Low political skills individuals often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and
protective behaviors to avoid action, change, or blame.
5. Reaction to organizational politics is also moderated by culture. In countries that are more
unstable politically, workers will tolerate higher levels of politicking that more politically
stable counties.
B. Impression Management
1. The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them
• We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate
them.
• Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations.
2. Who engages in IM—the high self‐monitor
• Low self‐monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their
personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them.
• High self‐monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and
behavior to fit each situation.
3. IM does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false.
• Excuses and acclaiming, for instance, may be offered with sincerity.
• You can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region or that you are
the key to the tripling of your division’s sales.
4. Misrepresentation can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be discredited.
5. Situations that are characterized by high uncertainty or ambiguity that provide relatively
little information for challenging a fraudulent claim increase the likelihood of individuals
misrepresenting themselves.
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6. Only a limited number of studies have been undertaken to test the effectiveness of IM
techniques.
• These have been essentially limited to job interview success.
• The evidence is that IM behavior works.
7. In one study, interviewers felt that those applicants for a position as a customer service
representative who used IM techniques performed better in the interview, and the
interviewers seemed somewhat more inclined to hire these people. When the applicants’
credentials were also considered, it was apparent that the IM techniques alone that
influenced the interviewers.
8. Another employment interview study looked at which IM techniques worked best.
• The researchers compared IM techniques that focused the conversation on themselves
(called a controlling style) with techniques that focused on the interviewer (referred to
as a submissive style).
• Those applicants who used the controlling style were rated higher by interviewers on
factors such as motivation, enthusiasm, and even technical skills, and they received more
job offers.
• A more recent study confirmed the value of a controlling style.
C. The Ethics of Behaving Politically
1. Three ethical decision criteria are utilitarianism, rights, and justice. See Exhibit 13‐8 for an
illustration of a decision tree to guide ethical actions.
2. The first question you need to answer addresses self‐interest versus organizational goals.
Ethical actions are consistent with the organization’s goals.
3. The second question concerns the rights of other parties.
4. The final question that needs to be addressed relates to whether or not the political activity
conforms to standards of equity and justice.
5. Unfortunately, the answers to these questions are often argued in ways to make unethical
practices seem ethical. Powerful people can become very good at explaining self‐serving
behaviors. They can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just.
Chapter 14
CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Define conflict.
2. Differentiate between the traditional, human relations, and interactionist views of conflict.
3. Contrast task, relationship, and process conflict.
4. Outline the conflict process.
5. Describe the five conflict‐handling intentions.
6. Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining.
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7. Identify the five steps in the negotiation process.
8. Describe cultural differences in negotiations.
Chapter Overview
Many people automatically assume that conflict is related to lower group and
organizational performance. This chapter has demonstrated that this assumption is frequently
incorrect. Conflict can be either constructive or destructive to the functioning of a group or unit.
As shown in Exhibit 14‐8, levels of conflict can be either too high or too low. Either extreme
hinders performance. An optimal level is where there is enough conflict to prevent stagnation,
stimulate creativity, allow tensions to be released, and initiate the seeds for change, yet not so
much as to be disruptive or deter coordination of activities.
Inadequate or excessive levels of conflict can hinder the effectiveness of a group or an
organization, resulting in reduced satisfaction of group members, increased absence and
turnover rates, and, eventually, lower productivity. On the other hand, when conflict is at an
optimal level, complacency and apathy should be minimized, motivation should be enhanced
through the creation of a challenging and questioning environment with a vitality that makes
work interesting, and there should be the amount of turnover needed to rid the organization of
misfits and poor performers.
What advice can we give managers faced with excessive conflict and the need to reduce it?
Do not assume there is one conflict‐handling intention that will always be best! You should
select an intention appropriate for the situation. The following provides some guidelines:
• Use competition when quick, decisive action is vital (in emergencies); on important issues,
where unpopular actions need implementing (in cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules,
discipline); on issues vital to the organization’s welfare when you know you are right; and
against people who take advantage of noncompetitive behavior.
• Use collaboration to find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too
important to be compromised; when your objective is to learn; to merge insights from
people with different perspectives; to gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a
consensus; and to work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship.
• Use avoidance when an issue is trivial, or more important issues are pressing; when you
perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns; when potential disruption outweighs the
benefits of resolution; to let people cool down and regain perspective; when gathering
information supersedes immediate decision; when others can resolve the conflict more
effectively; and when issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issues.
• Use accommodation when you find you are wrong and to allow a better position to be
heard, to learn, and to show your reasonableness; when issues are more important to others
than yourself and to satisfy others and maintain cooperation; to build social credits for later
issues; to minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing; when harmony and stability
are especially important; and to allow employees to develop by learning from mistakes.
• Use compromise when goals are important but not worth the effort of potential disruption
of more assertive approaches; when opponents with equal power are committed to
mutually exclusive goals; to achieve temporary settlements to complex issues; to arrive at
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expedient solutions under time pressure; and as a backup when collaboration or
competition is unsuccessful.
Negotiation was shown to be an ongoing activity in groups and organizations. Distributive
bargaining can resolve disputes but it often negatively affects one or more negotiators’
satisfaction because it is focused on the short term and because it is confrontational. Integrative
bargaining, in contrast, tends to provide outcomes that satisfy all parties and that build lasting
relationships.
CHAPTER NOTES
A DEFINITION OF CONFLICT
1. There are several common themes which underlie most definitions:
• The parties to it must perceive conflict.
• Commonalties in the definitions are opposition or incompatibility and some form of
interaction.
2. We define conflict as “a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has
negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares
about.”
• This describes that point when an interaction “crosses over” to become an inter‐party
conflict.
• It encompasses the wide range of conflicts that people experience in organizations.
TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT
1. The traditional view of conflict argues that it must be avoided—it indicates a malfunctioning
with the group.
2. The human relations view argues that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any
group and that it need not be evil, but has the potential to be a positive force in determining
group performance.
3. The inter‐actionist approach proposes that conflict can be a positive force in a group but
explicitly argues that some conflict is absolutely necessary for a group to perform effectively.
A. The Traditional View
1. This early approach assumed that all conflict was bad. Conflict was synonymous with such
terms that reinforced its negative connotation. By definition, it was harmful and was to be
avoided.
2. This view was consistent with the prevailing attitudes about group behavior in the 1930s and
1940s. Conflict was seen as a dysfunctional outcome resulting from poor communication, a
lack of openness and trust between people, and the failure of managers to be responsive to
their employees.
B. The Human Relations View
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1. Conflict is a natural occurrence in all groups and organizations. Since it was natural and
inevitable it should be accepted.
2. It cannot be eliminated and may even contribute to group performance.
3. The human relations view dominated conflict theory from the late 1940s through the mid‐
1970s.
C. The Inter‐actionist View
1. The inter‐actionist view is the one taken in this chapter.
2. This approach encourages conflict on the grounds that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and
cooperative group is prone to becoming static and non‐responsive to needs for change and
innovation.
3. Group leaders maintain enough conflict to keep the group viable, self‐critical, and creative.
4. Whether a conflict is good or bad depends on the type of conflict.
FUNCTIONAL VS. DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICT
1. Not all conflicts are good. Functional, constructive forms of conflict support the goals of the
group and improve its performance. Conflicts that hinder group performance are
dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict.
2. What differentiates functional from dysfunctional conflict? You need to look at the type of
conflict.
• Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Low‐to‐moderate levels of task
conflict are functional and consistently demonstrate a positive effect on group
performance because it stimulates discussion, improving group performance.
• Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships.
a. These conflicts are almost always dysfunctional.
b. The friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase
personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding.
• Process conflict relates to how the work gets done.
a. Low‐levels of process conflict are functional and could enhance team performance.
b. For process conflict to be productive, it must be kept low.
c. Intense arguments create uncertainty.
THE CONFLICT PROCESS
A. Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
First is the presence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise. Three general
categories: communication, structure, and personal variables
1. Communication
• Communication as a source of conflict represents those opposing forces that arise from
semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and “noise” in the communication channels.
• Differing word connotations, jargon, insufficient exchange of information, and noise in
the communication channel are all barriers to communication and potential antecedents
to conflict.
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• Semantic difficulties are a result of differences in training, selective perception, and
inadequate information.
• The potential for conflict increases when either too little or too much communication
takes place.
• The channel chosen for communicating can have an influence on stimulating opposition.
2. Structure
• The term structure includes variables such as size, degree of specialization, jurisdictional
clarity, member‐goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of
dependence.
• Size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict. The larger the group and more
specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict.
• The potential for conflict is greatest where group members are younger and turnover is
high.
• The greater the ambiguity in responsibility for actions lies, the greater the potential for
conflict.
• The diversity of goals among groups is a major source of conflict.
• A close style of leadership increases conflict potential.
• Too much reliance on participation may also stimulate conflict.
• Reward systems, too, are found to create conflict when one member’s gain is at
another’s expense.
• Finally, if a group is dependent on another group, opposing forces are stimulated.
3. Personal variables
• Include individual value systems and personality characteristics. Certain personality
types lead to potential conflict.
• Most important is differing value systems. Value differences are the best explanation for
differences of opinion on various matters.
B. Stage II: Cognition and Personalization
1. Antecedent conditions lead to conflict only when the parties are affected by and aware of it.
2. Conflict is personalized when it is felt and when individuals become emotionally involved.
3. This stage is where conflict issues tend to be defined and this definition delineates the
possible settlements.
4. Second, emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions.
• Negative emotions produce oversimplification of issues, reductions in trust, and negative
interpretations of the other party’s behavior.
• Positive feelings increase the tendency to see potential relationships among the
elements of a problem, to take a broader view of the situation, and to develop more
innovative solutions.
C. Stage III: Intentions
1. Intentions are decisions to act in a given way.
2. Why are intentions separated out as a distinct stage? Merely one party attributing the wrong
intentions to the other escalates a lot of conflicts.
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3. One author’s effort to identify the primary conflict‐handling intentions is represented in
Exhibit 14‐2 is along two dimensions:
• Cooperativeness—“the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s
concerns.”
• Assertiveness—“the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own
concerns.”
4. Five conflict‐handling intentions can be identified.
• Competing: When one person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests, regardless of the
impact on the other parties to the conflict
• Collaborating: When the parties to conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all
parties. The intention is to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather than by
accommodating.
• Avoiding: A person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or
suppress it.
• Accommodating: When one party seeks to appease an opponent, that party is willing to
be self‐sacrificing.
• Compromising: When each party to the conflict seeks to give up something, sharing
occurs, resulting in a compromised outcome. There is no clear winner or loser, and the
solution provides incomplete satisfaction of both parties’ concerns.
5. Intentions provide general guidelines for parties in a conflict situation. They define each
party’s purpose, but they are not fixed.
• They might change because of reconceptualization or because of an emotional reaction.
• However, individuals have preferences among the five conflict‐handling intentions.
• It may be more appropriate to view the five conflict‐handling intentions as relatively
fixed rather than as a set of options from which individuals choose to fit an appropriate
situation.
D. Stage IV: Behavior
1. Stage IV is where conflicts become visible. The behavior stage includes the statements,
actions, and reactions made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviors are usually
overt attempts to implement each party’s intentions.
2. Stage IV is a dynamic process of interaction; conflicts exist somewhere along a continuum
(See Exhibit 14‐4).
• At the lower part of the continuum, conflicts are characterized by subtle, indirect, and
highly controlled forms of tension.
• Conflict intensities escalate as they move upward along the continuum until they
become highly destructive.
• Functional conflicts are typically confined to the lower range of the continuum.
3. Exhibit 14‐4 lists the major resolution and stimulation techniques.
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E. Stage V: Outcomes
1. Outcomes may be functional—improving group performance, or dysfunctional in hindering
it.
2. Functional outcomes
• How might conflict act as a force to increase group performance?
• Conflict is constructive when it:
a. Improves the quality of decisions.
b. Stimulates creativity and innovation.
c. Encourages interest and curiosity.
d. Provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released.
e. Fosters an environment of self‐evaluation and change.
• The evidence suggests that conflict can improve the quality of decision‐making.
• Conflict is an antidote for groupthink.
• Conflict challenges the status quo, furthers the creation of new ideas, promotes
reassessment of group goals and activities, and increases the probability that the group
will respond to change.
• Research studies in diverse settings confirm the functionality of conflict.
a. The comparison of six major decisions made during the administration of four
different US presidents found that conflict reduced the chance of groupthink.
b. When groups analyzed decisions that had been made by the individual members of
that group, the average improvement among the high‐conflict groups was 73 percent
greater than was that of those groups characterized by low‐conflict conditions.
• Increasing cultural diversity of the workforce should provide benefits to organizations.
a. Heterogeneity among group and organization members can increase creativity,
improve the quality of decisions, and facilitate change by enhancing member
flexibility.
b. The ethnically diverse groups produced more effective and more feasible ideas and
higher quality, unique ideas than those produced by the all‐Anglo group.
• Similarly, studies of professionals—systems analysts and research and development
scientists—support the constructive value of conflict.
a. An investigation of 22 teams of systems analysts found that the more incompatible
groups were likely to be more productive.
E. Research and development scientists have been found to be most productive where
there is a certain amount of intellectual conflict.
3. Dysfunctional outcomes
• Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and
eventually leads to the destruction of the group.
• Undesirable consequences:
a. A retarding of communication
b. Reductions in group cohesiveness
c. Subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting between members
• Conflict can bring group functioning to a halt and potentially threaten the group’s
survival.
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• The demise of an organization as a result of too much conflict is not as unusual as it
might first appear. One of New York’s best‐known law firms, Shea & Gould, closed down
solely because the 80 partners just could not get along.
4. Creating functional conflict
• If managers accept the inter‐actionist view toward conflict, they encourage functional
conflict.
5. Creating functional conflict is a tough job, particularly in large American corporations.
• A high proportion of people who get to the top are conflict avoiders.
• At least seven out of ten people in American business hush up when their opinions are at
odds with those of their superiors, allowing bosses to make mistakes even when they
know better.
• Such anti‐conflict cultures are not tolerable in today’s fiercely competitive global
economy.
6. This process frequently results in decisions and alternatives that previously had not been
considered.
• One common ingredient in organizations that successfully create functional conflict is
that they reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders.
• The real challenge for managers is when they hear news that they do not want to hear.
• Managers should ask calm, even‐tempered questions: “Can you tell me more about what
happened?,” “What do you think we ought to do?,” and offer a sincere “Thank you.”
NEGOTIATION
1. Negotiation is a “process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and
attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them.” We use the terms negotiation and
bargaining interchangeably.
2. Negotiation permeates the interactions of almost everyone in groups and organizations. For
example, labor bargains with management.
3. Not so obvious, however,
• Managers negotiate with employees, peers, and bosses.
• Salespeople negotiate with customers.
• Purchasing agents negotiate with suppliers.
• A worker agrees to answer a colleague’s phone for a few minutes in exchange for some
past or future benefit.
G. Bargaining Strategies
1. There are two general approaches to negotiation: distributive bargaining and integrative
bargaining. (See Exhibit 14‐5)
2. Distributive bargaining
• An example of distributive bargaining is buying a car:
a. You go out to see the car. It is great and you want it.
b. The owner tells you the asking price. You do not want to pay that much.
c. The two of you then negotiate over the price.
• Its most identifying feature is that it operates under zero‐sum conditions. Any gain I
make is at your expense, and vice versa.
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• The most widely cited example of distributive bargaining is in labor‐management
negotiations over wages.
• The essence of distributive bargaining is depicted in Exhibit 14‐6.
a. Parties A and B represent two negotiators.
b. Each has a target point that defines what he or she would like to achieve.
c. Each also has a resistance point, which marks the lowest outcome that is acceptable.
d. The area between these two points makes up each one’s aspiration range.
e. As long as there is some overlap between A and B’s aspiration ranges, there exists a
settlement range where each one’s aspirations can be met.
• When engaged in distributive bargaining, one’s tactics focus on trying to get one’s
opponent to agree to one’s specific target point or to get as close to it as possible.
3. Integrative bargaining
• An example: A sales rep calls in the order and is told that the firm cannot approve credit
to this customer because of a past slow‐pay record.
a. The next day, the sales rep and the firm’s credit manager meet to discuss the
problem. They want to make the sale, but do not want to get stuck with
uncollectable debt.
b. The two openly review their options.
c. After considerable discussion, they agree on a solution that meets both their needs.
The sale will go through with a bank guarantee that will ensure payment if not made
in 60 days.
• This example operates under the assumption that there exists one or more settlements
that can create a win‐win solution.
• In terms of intra‐organizational behavior, all things being equal, integrative bargaining is
preferable to distributive bargaining.
• Because integrative bargaining builds long‐term relationships and facilitates working
together in the future, it bonds negotiators and allows each to leave the bargaining table
feeling victorious.
• Distributive bargaining, on the other hand, leaves one party a loser. It tends to build
animosities and deepens divisions.
• Why do we not see more integrative bargaining in organizations? The answer lies in the
conditions necessary for this type of negotiation to succeed.
a. Parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns
b. A sensitivity by both parties to the other’s needs
c. The ability to trust one another
d. A willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility
H. The Negotiation Process
1. A simplified model of the negotiation process is provided in Exhibit 14‐7.
2. Preparation and planning:
• Do your homework. What is the nature of the conflict? What is the history leading up to
this negotiation? Who is involved, and what are their perceptions of the conflict? What
do you want from the negotiation? What are your goals?
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• You also want to prepare an assessment of what you think the other party to your
negotiation’s goals are.
a. When you can anticipate your opponent’s position, you are better equipped to
counter his or her arguments with the facts and figures that support your position.
• Once you have gathered your information, use it to develop a strategy.
• Determine your and the other side’s Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement
(BATNA).
a. Your BATNA determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated
agreement.
b. Any offer you receive that is higher than your BATNA is better than an impasse.
3. Definition of ground rules:
• Who will do the negotiating? Where will it take place? What time constraints, if any, will
apply?
• To what issues will negotiation be limited? Will there be a specific procedure to follow if
an impasse is reached?
• During this phase, the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands.
4. Clarification and justification:
• When initial positions have been exchanged, explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify
your original demands
• This need not be confrontational.
• You might want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support
your position.
5. Bargaining and problem solving:
• The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying to hash out an
agreement.
• Concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by both parties.
6. Closure and implementation:
• The final step—formalizing the agreement that has been worked out and developing any
procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring
• Major negotiations will require hammering out the specifics in a formal contract.
• For most cases, however, closure of the negotiation process is nothing more formal than
a handshake.
I. Issues in Negotiation
1. The role of personality traits in negotiation
• Can you predict an opponent’s negotiating tactics if you know something about his/her
personality? The evidence says no.
• Overall assessments of the personality‐negotiation relationship finds that personality
traits have no significant direct effect on either the bargaining process or negotiation
outcomes.
2. Gender differences in negotiations
• Men and women do not negotiate differently.
• A popular stereotype is that women are more cooperative, pleasant, and relationship‐
oriented in negotiations than are men. The evidence does not support this.
• Comparisons between experienced male and female managers find women are:
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a. Neither worse nor better negotiators.
b. Neither more cooperative nor open to the other.
c. Neither more nor less persuasive nor threatening than are men.
• The belief that women are “nicer” is probably due to confusing gender and the lack of
power typically held by women.
a. Low‐power managers, regardless of gender, attempt to placate their opponents and
to use softly persuasive tactics rather than direct confrontation and threats.
• Women’s attitudes toward negotiation and toward themselves appear to be different
from men’s.
a. Managerial women demonstrate less confidence in anticipation of negotiating and
are less satisfied with their performance despite achieving similar outcomes as men.
b. Women may unduly penalize themselves by failing to engage in negotiations when
such action would be in their best interests.
3. Cultural differences in negotiations
• Negotiating styles clearly vary across national cultures.
• The French like conflict.
a. They gain recognition and develop their reputations by thinking and acting against
others.
b. They tend to take a long time in negotiating agreements, and they are not overly
concerned about whether their opponents like or dislike them.
• The Chinese also draw out negotiations but that is because they believe negotiations
never end.
a. Just when you think you have reached a final solution, the Chinese executive might
smile and start the process all over again.
b. Like the Japanese, the Chinese negotiate to develop a relationship and a commitment
to work together.
• Americans are known around the world for their impatience and their desire to be liked.
a. Astute negotiators often turn these characteristics to their advantage.
4. The cultural context of the negotiation significantly influences the amount and type of
preparation for bargaining, the emphasis on task versus interpersonal relationships, the
tactics used, etc.
5. A study compared North Americans, Arabs, and Russians negotiating style, how they
responded to an opponent’s arguments, their approach to making concessions, and how
they handled negotiating deadlines.
• North Americans tried to persuade others by relying on facts and appealing to logic.
a. They made small concessions early in the negotiation to establish a relationship and
usually reciprocated the opponent’s concessions.
b. North Americans treated deadlines as very important.
• The Arabs tried to persuade by appealing to emotion.
a. They countered opponent’s arguments with subjective feelings.
b. They made concessions throughout the bargaining process and almost always
reciprocated opponents’ concessions.
c. Arabs approached deadlines very casually.
• The Russians based their arguments on asserted ideals.
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a. They made few, if any, concessions.
b. Any concession offered by an opponent was viewed as a weakness and almost never
reciprocated.
c. Finally, the Russians tended to ignore deadlines.
3. A second study looked at verbal and nonverbal negotiation tactics exhibited by North
Americans, Japanese, and Brazilians during half‐hour bargaining sessions.
• Brazilians on average said “No” 83 times compared to five times for the Japanese and
nine times for the North Americans.
• The Japanese displayed more than five periods of silence lasting longer than ten seconds
during the 30‐minute sessions.
• North Americans averaged 3.5 such periods; the Brazilians had none.
• The Japanese and North Americans interrupted their opponent about the same number
of times, but the Brazilians interrupted 2.5 to 3 times more often.
• Finally, while the Japanese and the North Americans had no physical contact with their
opponents during negotiations except for handshaking, the Brazilians touched each
other almost five times every half‐hour.
7. Third‐party negotiations
• When individuals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve
their differences through direct negotiations, they may turn to a third party.
• A mediator is a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using
reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives, and the like.
a. They are widely used in labor‐management negotiations and in civil court disputes.
b. Their settlement rate is approximately 60 percent, with negotiator satisfaction at
about 75 percent.
c. The key to success—the conflicting parties must be motivated to bargain and resolve
their conflict, intensity cannot be too high, and the mediator must be perceived as
neutral and noncoercive.
• An arbitrator is “a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement.”
a. It can be voluntary (requested) or compulsory (forced on the parties by law or
contract).
b. The authority of the arbitrator varies according to the rules set by the negotiators.
c. The arbitrator might be limited to choosing one of the negotiator’s last offers or to
suggesting an agreement point that is nonbinding, or free to choose and make any
judgment.
d. The big plus of arbitration over mediation is that it always results in a settlement.
e. Any negative depends on how “heavy‐handed” the arbitrator appears.
• A conciliator is “a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link
among parties.”
a. This role was made famous by Robert Duval in the first Godfather film.
b. Conciliation is used extensively in international, labor, family, and community
disputes.
c. Comparing its effectiveness to mediation has proven difficult.
d. Conciliators engage in fact finding, interpreting messages, and persuading disputants
to develop agreements.
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• A consultant is “a skilled and impartial third party who attempts to facilitate problem
solving through communication and analysis, aided by his or her knowledge of conflict
management.”
a. In contrast to the previous roles, the consultant’s role is to improve relations
between the conflicting parties so that they can reach a settlement themselves.
b. This approach has a longer‐term focus: to build new and positive perceptions and
attitudes between the conflicting parties.
Chapter 16
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Describe institutionalization and its relationship to organizational culture.
2. Define the common characteristics making up organizational culture.
3. Contrast strong and weak cultures.
4. Identify the functional and dysfunctional effects of organizational culture on people
and the organization.
5. Explain the factors determining an organization’s culture.
6. List the factors that maintain an organization’s culture.
7. Clarify how culture is transmitted to employees.
8. Outline the various socialization alternatives available to management.
9. Describe a customer‐responsive culture.
10. Identify characteristics of a spiritual culture.
Chapter Overview
Exhibit 18‐7 depicts organizational culture as an intervening variable. Employees form an overall
subjective perception of the organization based on such factors as degree of risk tolerance,
team emphasis, and support of people. This overall perception becomes, in effect, the
organization’s culture or personality. These favorable or unfavorable perceptions then affect
employee performance and satisfaction, with the impact being greater for stronger cultures.
Just as people’s personalities tend to be stable over time, so too do strong cultures. This makes
strong cultures difficult for managers to change. When a culture becomes mismatched to its
environment, management will want to change it. However, as the Point‐Counterpoint debate
for this chapter demonstrates, changing an organization’s culture is a long and difficult process.
The result, at least in the short term, is that managers should treat their organization’s culture
as relatively fixed.
One of the more important managerial implications of organizational culture relates to selection
decisions. Hiring individuals whose values do not align with those of the organization is likely to
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lead to employees who lack motivation and commitment and who are dissatisfied with their
jobs and the organization. Not surprisingly, employee “misfits” have considerably higher
turnover rates than individuals who perceive a good fit.
We should also not overlook the influence socialization has on employee performance. An
employee’s performance depends to a considerable degree on knowing what he should or
should not do. Understanding the right way to do a job indicates proper socialization.
Furthermore, the appraisal of an individual’s performance includes how well the person fits into
the organization. Can he or she get along with coworkers? Does he/she have acceptable work
habits and demonstrate the right attitude? These qualities differ between jobs and
organizations. For instance, on some jobs, employees will be evaluated more favorably if they
are aggressive and outwardly indicate that they are ambitious. On another job, or on the same
job in another organization, such an approach may be evaluated negatively. As a result, proper
socialization becomes a significant factor in influencing both actual job performance and how it
is perceived by others.
CHAPTER NOTES
INSTITUTIONALIZATION: A FORERUNNER OF CULTURE
1. Viewing organizations as cultures—where there is a system of shared meaning among
members—is a relatively recent phenomenon. Until the mid‐1980s, organizations were
rational means by which to coordinate and control people.
2. Organizations have personalities too, just like individuals:
• They can be rigid or flexible, unfriendly or supportive, innovative or conservative.
• General Electric offices and people are different from the offices and people at General
Mills.
• Harvard and MIT are in the same business—education—but each has a unique character.
3. The origin of culture as an independent variable affecting an employee’s attitudes and
behavior can be traced back more than 50 years ago to the notion of institutionalization.
4. When an organization becomes institutionalized, it is valued for itself, not merely what it
produces:
• It acquires immortality.
• It redefines itself.
5. Institutionalization produces common understandings about what is appropriate and,
fundamentally, meaningful behavior.
6. Acceptable modes of behavior become largely self‐evident to its members. This is essentially
the same thing that organizational culture does.
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE?
1. Organizational culture—“a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes
the organization from other organizations.”
2. This system of shared meaning is a set of key characteristics that the organization values.
The research suggests seven primary characteristics:
• Innovation and risk taking
• Attention to detail
• Outcome orientation
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• People orientation
• Team orientation
• Aggressiveness
• Stability
3. Each exists on a continuum from low to high. Appraising the organization on these gives a
composite picture of the organization’s culture. This is the basis for:
• Shared understanding that members have.
• How things are done.
• The way members are supposed to behave.
A. Culture Is a Descriptive Term
1. Organizational culture is concerned with how employees perceive its characteristics, not if
they like them. Research on organizational culture has sought to measure how employees
see their organization.
2. Job satisfaction seeks to measure affective responses to the work environment, such as how
employees feel about the organization’s expectations, reward practices, etc.
3. Organizational culture is descriptive, while job satisfaction is evaluative.
B. Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures?
1. Individuals with different backgrounds or at different levels in the organization will tend to
describe the organization’s culture in similar terms.
2. There can be subcultures. Most large organizations have a dominant culture and numerous
sets of subcultures.
3. A dominant culture expresses the core values that are shared by a majority:
• An organization’s culture is its dominant culture.
• This macro view of culture that gives an organization its distinct personality.
4. Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems, situations,
or experiences that members face:
• Defined by department designations and geographical separation
• It will include the core values plus additional values unique to members of the
subculture.
• The core values are essentially retained but modified to reflect the subculture.
5. If organizations had no dominant culture and were composed only of numerous subcultures,
the value of organizational culture as an independent variable would be significantly
lessened:
• It is the “shared meaning” aspect of culture that makes it such a potent device for
guiding and shaping behavior.
• We cannot ignore the reality that many organizations also have subcultures that can
influence the behavior of members.
C. Strong vs. Weak Cultures
1. The argument is that strong cultures have a greater impact on employee behavior and are
more directly related to reduced turnover:
• The organization’s core values are both intensely held and widely shared.
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• A strong culture will have a great influence on the behavior of its members because the
high degree of shared‐ness and intensity creates an internal climate of high behavioral
control.
2. One specific result of a strong culture should be lower employee turnover. A high agreement
about what the organization stands for builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organizational
commitment.
D. Culture vs. Formalization
1. A strong organizational culture increases behavioral consistency. A strong culture can act as
a substitute for formalization.
2. High formalization in an organization creates predictability, orderliness, and consistency.
3. A strong culture achieves the same end without the need for written documentation.
Therefore, formalization and culture are two different roads to a common destination.
E. Organizational Culture vs. National Culture
1. National cultures must be taken into account if accurate predictions are to be made about
organizational behavior in different countries.
2. Does national culture override an organization’s culture? The research indicates that
national culture has a greater impact on employees than does their organization’s culture.
3. This has to be qualified to reflect the self‐selection that goes on at the hiring stage. The
employee selection process will be used by multinationals to find and hire job applicants
who are a good fit to their organization’s dominant culture.
WHAT DO CULTURES DO?
A. Culture’s Functions
1. It has a boundary‐defining role. It creates distinctions between one organization and others.
2. It conveys a sense of identity for organization members.
3. Culture facilitates commitment to something larger than one’s individual self‐interest.
4. Culture is the social glue that helps hold the organization together. It enhances social system
stability.
5. Culture serves as a sense‐making and control mechanism that guides and shapes the
attitudes and behavior of employees. This last function is of particular interest to us:
• Culture by definition is elusive, intangible, implicit, and taken for granted.
• Every organization develops a core set of assumptions, understandings, and implicit rules
that govern day‐to‐day behavior in the workplace.
6. The role of culture in influencing employee behavior appears to be increasingly important.
The shared meaning of a strong culture ensures that everyone is pointed in the same
direction.
7. Who receives a job offer to join the organization, who is appraised as a high performer, and
who gets the promotion is strongly influenced by the individual‐organization “fit.”
B. Culture as a Liability
1. We are treating culture in a nonjudgmental manner.
2. Culture enhances organizational commitment and increases the consistency of employee
behavior, but there are potentially dysfunctional aspects of culture.
3. Barrier to change:
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• Culture is a liability when the shared values are not in agreement with those that will
further the organization’s effectiveness. This is most likely to occur when an
organization’s environment is dynamic.
• This helps to explain the challenges that executives at companies like Mitsubishi, General
Motors, Eastman Kodak, Kellogg, and Boeing have had in recent years in adapting to
upheavals in their environment.
4. Barrier to diversity:
• Hiring new employees who, because of race, gender, disability, or other differences, are
not like the ajority of the organization’s members creates a paradox.
• Management wants new employees to accept the organization’s core cultural values but,
at the same time, they want to support the differences that these employees bring to
the workplace.
• Strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to conform. They limit the range
of values and styles that are acceptable.
• Organizations seek out and hire diverse individuals because of their alternative
strengths, yet these diverse behaviors and strengths are likely to diminish in strong
cultures.
• Strong cultures, therefore, can be liabilities when:
a. They effectively eliminate the unique strengths that diverse people bring to the
organization.
b. They support institutional bias or become insensitive to people who are different.
5. Barrier to acquisitions and mergers:
• Historically, the key factors that management looked at in making acquisition/merger
decisions:
a. Financial advantages
b. Product synergy
• Cultural compatibility has become the primary concern. Whether the acquisition actually
works seems to have more to do with how well the two organizations’ cultures match
up.
CREATING AND SUSTAINING CULTURE
A. How a Culture Begins
1. An organization’s culture comes from what it has done before and the degree of success it
has had. The ultimate source of an organization’s culture is its founders.
2. The founders of an organization traditionally have a major impact on that organization’s
early culture:
• They had the vision; they are unconstrained by previous customs or ideologies.
• The small size of new organizations facilitates the founders’ imposition of the vision on
all organizational members.
3. Culture creation occurs in three ways:
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• First, founders hire and keep only employees who think and feel the way the way they
do.
• Second, they indoctrinate and socialize these employees to their way of thinking and
feeling.
• The founders’ own behavior acts as a role model that encourages employees to identify
with them and thereby internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions.
4. When the organization succeeds, the founders’ entire personality becomes embedded in the
culture of the organization.
B. Keeping a Culture Alive
1. There are practices within the organization that act to maintain it by giving employees a set
of similar experiences.
2. Three forces play a particularly important part in sustaining a culture: selection practices, the
actions of top management, and socialization methods.
3. Selection
• The explicit goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals who have the
knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform the jobs within the organization successfully.
• The final decision as to who is hired will be significantly influenced by the decision
maker’s judgment of how well the candidates will fit into the organization.
• This results in the hiring of people who have values consistent with those of the
organization.
• Additionally, the selection process provides information to applicants about the
organization. Selection, therefore, becomes a two‐way street.
• Example—applicants for entry‐level positions in brand management at Procter & Gamble
(P&G). Each encounter seeks corroborating evidence of the traits that the firm believes
correlate highly with “what counts” for success at P&G.
4. Top management
• The actions of top management, what they say and how they behave, establish norms
that filter down through the organization as to:
a. Risk taking.
b. How much freedom managers should give their employees.
c. What is appropriate dress.
d. What actions will pay off in terms of pay raises, promotions, and other rewards.
5. Socialization
• New employees are not fully indoctrinated in the organization’s culture. They are
unfamiliar with the organization’s culture and are potentially likely to disturb the beliefs
and customs that are in place.
• Socialization is the organization helping new employees adapt to its culture.
• All Marines must go through boot camp, where they “prove” their commitment. At the
same time, the Marine trainers are indoctrinating new recruits in the “Marine way.”
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• At Starbucks, all new employees go through 24 hours of training covering everything
necessary to make them brewing consultants. In addition, they learn the Starbucks
philosophy, the company jargon, and even how to help customers make decisions about
beans, grind, and espresso machines.
• The most critical socialization stage is at the time of entry into the organization:
a. This is when the organization seeks to mold the outsider into an employee.
b. The organization socializes every employee throughout his/her entire career.
6. Socialization is a process made up of three stages: pre‐arrival, encounter, and
metamorphosis.
• The first stage, pre‐arrival, encompasses all the learning that occurs before a new
member joins.
• The pre‐arrival stage recognizes that each individual arrives with a set of values,
attitudes, and expectations about both the work to be done and the organization:
a. In many jobs, particularly professional work, new members will have undergone a
considerable degree of prior socialization in training and in school.
b. The selection process informs prospective employees about the organization as a
whole and acts to ensure the inclusion of the “right type”—those who will fit in.
• In the second stage, encounter, the new employee sees what the organization is really
like and confronts the possibility that expectations and reality may diverge.
a. The individual confronts the possible dichotomy between his/her expectations—
about his/her job, coworkers, boss, and the organization in general—and reality.
b. If expectations are accurate, this stage merely reaffirms them.
c. Where expectations and reality differ, the new employee must undergo socialization
that will detach him/her from his/her previous assumptions and replace them with
another set that the organization deems desirable.
d. At the extreme, a new member may become totally disillusioned and resign.
• In the third stage, metamorphosis, the relatively long‐lasting changes take place. The
new employee masters the skills required for his/her job, successfully performs his/her
new roles, and makes the adjustments to his/her work group’s values and norms.
a. The more management relies on socialization programs that are formal, collective,
fixed, serial, and emphasize divestiture, the greater the likelihood that newcomers’
differences and perspectives will be stripped away and replaced by standardized and
predictable behaviors.
b. Metamorphosis and the entry socialization process is complete when the new
member has become comfortable with the organization and his job.
° He has internalized the norms of the organization and his work group and
understands and accepts these norms.
° Exhibit 18‐4 shows successful metamorphosis should have a positive impact on the
new employee’s productivity and his commitment to the organization, and reduce his
propensity to leave the organization.
HOW EMPLOYEES LEARN CULTURE
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
108 SPCAM(MBA)
A. Stories
1. During the days when Henry Ford II was chairman of the Ford Motor Co., the message was
Henry Ford II ran the company.
2. Nordstrom employees are fond of the story when Mr. Nordstrom instructed the clerk to take
the tires back and provide a full cash refund. After the customer had received his refund and
left, the perplexed clerk looked at the boss. “But, Mr. Nordstrom, we don’t sell tires!,” “I
know,” replied the boss, “but we do whatever we need to do to make the customer happy.
3. Stories such as these typically contain a narrative of events about the organization’s
founders, rule breaking, rags‐to‐riches successes, reductions in the workforce, relocation of
employees, reactions to past mistakes, and organizational coping.
4. They anchor the present in the past and provide explanations and legitimacy for current
practices:
• For the most part, these stories develop spontaneously.
• Some organizations actually try to manage this element of culture learning.
B. Rituals
1. Rituals are repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the
organization, what goals are most important, which people are important, and which are
expendable.
2. College faculty members undergo a lengthy ritual in their quest for permanent
employment—tenure. The astute faculty member will assess early on in the probationary
period what attitudes and behaviors his or her colleagues want and will then proceed to give
them what they want.
3. One of the best‐known corporate rituals is Wal‐Mart’s company chant. W‐A‐L squiggle M‐A‐
R‐T! was Sam Walton’s way to motivate his workforce.
C. Material Symbols
1. The headquarters of Alcoa does not look like your typical head office operation:
• There are few individual offices.
• The informal corporate headquarters conveys to employees that Alcoa values openness,
equality, creativity, and flexibility.
2. Some corporations provide their top executives with a variety of expensive perks. Others
provide fewer and less elaborate perks.
3. The layout of corporate headquarters, the types of automobiles top executives that are
given, and the presence or absence of corporate aircraft are a few examples of material
symbols.
4. These material symbols convey to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism
desired by top management, and the kinds of behavior that are appropriate.
D. Language
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1. Many organizations and units use language as a way to identify members of a culture or
subculture. By learning this language, members attest to their acceptance of the culture and
help to preserve it.
2. Organizations, over time, often develop unique terms to describe equipment, offices, key
personnel, suppliers, customers, or products that relate to its business.
3. New employees are frequently overwhelmed with acronyms and jargon that, after six
months on the job, have become fully part of their language.
4. Once assimilated, this terminology acts as a common denominator that unites members of a
given culture or subculture.
CREATING AN ETHICAL ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
1. The content and strength of a culture influences an organization’s ethical climate and the
ethical behavior of its members.
2. An organizational culture most likely to shape high ethical standards is one that’s high in risk
tolerance, low to moderate in aggressiveness, and focuses on means as well as outcomes.
3. If the culture is strong and supports high ethical standards, it should have a very powerful
and positive influence on employee behavior.
4. What can management do to create a more ethical culture?
5. Be a visible role model. Employees will look to top‐management behavior as a benchmark for
defining appropriate behavior.
6. Communicate ethical expectations. Ethical ambiguities can be minimized by creating and
disseminating an organizational code of ethics.
7. Provide ethical training. Use training sessions to reinforce the organization’s standards of
conduct; to clarify what practices are and are not permissible; and to address possible
ethical dilemmas.
8. Visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones. Performance appraisals of managers
should include a point‐by‐point evaluation of how his or her decisions measure against the
organization’s code of ethics.
9. Provide protective mechanisms. The organization needs to provide formal mechanisms so
that employees can discuss ethical dilemmas and report unethical behavior without fear of
reprimand. This might include creation of ethical counselors, ombudsmen, or ethical officers.
CREATING A CUSTOMER‐RESPONSIVE CULTURE
Most organizations are attempting to create a customer‐responsive culture because they
recognize that this is the path to customer loyalty and long‐term profitability.
A. Key Variables Shaping Customer‐Responsive Cultures
1. A review of the evidence finds that half‐a‐dozen variables are routinely evident in customer‐
responsive cultures.
2. First is the type of employees themselves. Successful, service‐oriented organizations hire
employees who are outgoing and friendly.
3. Second is low formalization. Service employees need to have the freedom to meet changing
customer service requirements. Rigid rules, procedures, and regulations make this difficult.
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4. Third is an extension of low formalization—it is the widespread use of empowerment.
Empowered employees have the decision discretion to do what is necessary to please the
customer.
5. Fourth is good listening skills. Employees in customer‐responsive cultures have the ability to
listen to and understand messages sent by the customer.
6. Fifth is role clarity. Service employees act as “boundary spanners” between the organization
and its customers. They have to acquiesce to the demands of both their employer and the
customer.
7. Finally, customer‐responsive cultures have employees who exhibit organizational citizenship
behavior. They are conscientious in their desire to please the customer.
B. Managerial Action
1. There are a number of actions that management can take if it wants to make its culture
more customer‐responsive.
2. Selection
• The place to start in building a customer‐responsive culture is hiring service‐contact
people with the personality and attitudes consistent with a high service orientation.
• Studies show that friendliness, enthusiasm, and attentiveness in service employees
positively affect customers’ perceptions of service quality. Managers should look for
these qualities in applicants.
3. Training and Socialization
• Management is often faced with the challenge of making its current employees more
customer‐focused. In such cases, the emphasis will be on training rather than hiring.
• The content of these training programs will vary widely but should focus on improving
product knowledge, active listening, showing patience, and displaying emotions.
• All new service‐contact people should be socialized into the organization’s goals and
values.
• Regular training updates in which the organization’s customer focused values are
restated and reinforced is an important strategy.
4. Structural Design
• Organization structures need to give employees more control. This can be achieved by
reducing rules and regulations. Employees are better able to satisfy customers when
they have some control over the service encounter.
5. Empowerment
• Empowering employees with the discretion to make day‐to‐day decisions about job‐
related activities
6. Leadership
• Effective leaders in customer‐responsive cultures deliver by conveying a customer‐
focused vision and demonstrate by their continual behavior that they are committed to
customers.
7. Performance Evaluation
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• Evidence suggests that behavior‐based performance evaluations are consistent with
improved customer service.
• Behavior‐based evaluations appraise employees on the basis of how they behave or
act—on criteria such as effort, commitment, teamwork, friendliness, and the ability to
solve customer problems—rather than on the measurable outcomes they achieve.
• Behavior based evaluations give employees the incentive to engage in behaviors that are
conducive to improved service quality and gives employees more control over the
conditions that affect their performance evaluations.
8. Reward Systems
• If management wants employees to give good service, it has to reward good service. It
should include ongoing recognition and it needs to make pay and promotions contingent
on outstanding customer service.
SPIRITUALITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
A. What is Spirituality?
1. Workplace spirituality is not about organized religious practices. It is not about God or
theology.
2. Workplace spirituality recognizes that people have an inner life that nourishes and is
nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community.
B. Why Spirituality Now?
1. Historical models of management and organizational behavior had no room for spirituality.
The myth of rationality assumed that the well‐run organization eliminated feelings.
2. An awareness of spirituality can help you to better understand employee behavior.
C. Characteristics of a Spiritual Organization
1. Spiritual organizations are concerned with helping people develop and reach their full
potential.
2. Organizations that are concerned with spirituality are more likely to directly address
problems created by work/life conflicts.
3. What differentiates spiritual organizations from their non‐spiritual counterparts?
4. Strong Sense of Purpose
• Spiritual organizations build their cultures around a meaningful purpose. For example,
Ben & Jerry’s Homemade has closely intermeshed socially responsible behavior into its
producing and selling of ice cream.
5. Focus on Individual Development
• Spiritual organizations recognize the worth and value of people. They are not just
providing jobs. They seek to create cultures in which employees can continually learn
and grow.
• Recognizing the importance of people, they also try to provide employment security.
6. Trust and Openness
• Spiritual organizations are characterized by mutual trust, honesty, and openness.
Managers aren’t afraid to admit mistakes.
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• They tend to be extremely up front with their employees, customers, and suppliers.
7. Employee Empowerment
• Managers in spiritually based organizations are comfortable delegating authority to
individual employees and teams. They trust their employees to make thoughtful and
conscientious decisions.
8. Toleration of Employee Expression
• They allow people to be themselves—to express their moods and feelings without guilt
or fear of reprimand.
D. Criticisms of Spirituality
1. Critics of the spirituality movement in organizations have focused on two issues:
• First is the question of legitimacy. Specifically, do organizations have the right to impose
spiritual values on their employees?
• Second is the question of economics. Are spirituality and profits compatible?
2. This criticism is undoubtedly valid when spirituality is defined as bringing religion and God
into the workplace. However, the goal is limited to helping employees find meaning in their
work lives and to use the workplace as a source of community.
3. The issue of whether spirituality and profits are compatible objectives is certainly relevant
for managers and investors in business. A recent research study by a major consulting firm
found that companies that introduced spiritually based techniques improved productivity
and significantly reduced turnover.
4. Another study found that organizations that provide their employees with opportunities for
spiritual development outperformed those that did not.
5. Other studies also report that spirituality in organizations was positively related to creativity,
employee satisfaction, team performance, and organizational commitment.
Chapter 18
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND STRESS MANAGEMENT
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Describe forces that act as stimulants to change.
2. Summarize sources of individual and organizational resistance to change.
3. Describe Lewin’s three‐step change model.
4. Explain the values underlying most OD efforts
5. Identify properties of innovative organizations.
6. List characteristics of a learning organization.
7. Define knowledge management and explain its importance.
8. Describe potential sources of stress.
9. Explain individual difference variables that moderate the stress‐outcome relationship.
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Chapter Overview
The need for change has been implied throughout this text. “A casual reflection on
change should indicate that it encompasses almost all our concepts in the organizational
behavior literature. Think about leadership, motivation, organizational environment, and roles.
It is impossible to think about these and other concepts without inquiring about change.”
If environments were perfectly static, if employees’ skills and abilities were always up to
date and incapable of deteriorating, and if tomorrow were always exactly the same as today,
organizational change would have little or no relevance to managers. The real world, however, is
turbulent, requiring organizations and their members to undergo dynamic change if they are to
perform at competitive levels.
Managers are the primary change agents in most organizations. By the decisions they
make and their role‐modeling behaviors, they shape the organization’s change culture. For
instance, management decisions related to structural design, cultural factors, and human
resource policies largely determine the level of innovation within the organization. Similarly,
management decisions, policies, and practices will determine the degree to which the
organization learns and adapts to changing environmental factors.
We found that the existence of work stress, in and of itself, need not imply lower
performance. The evidence indicates that stress can be either a positive or negative influence on
employee performance. For many people, low to moderate amounts of stress enable them to
perform their jobs better by increasing their work intensity, alertness, and ability to react.
However, a high level of stress, or even a moderate amount sustained over a long period of
time, eventually takes its toll and performance declines. The impact of stress on satisfaction is
far more straightforward. Job‐related tension tends to decrease general job satisfaction. Even
though low to moderate levels of stress may improve job performance, employees find stress
dissatisfying.
FORCES FOR CHANGE
1. Organizations face a dynamic and changing environment. This requires adaptation. Exhibit
19‐1 summarizes six specific forces that are acting as stimulants for change.
2. The changing nature of the workforce:
• A multicultural environment.
• Human resource policies and practices changed to attract and keep this more diverse
workforce.
• Large expenditure on training to upgrade reading, math, computer, and other skills of
employees
3. Technology is changing jobs and organizations:
• Sophisticated information technology is also making organizations more responsive. As
organizations have had to become more adaptable, so too have their employees.
• We live in an “age of discontinuity.” Beginning in the early 1970s with the overnight
quadrupling of world oil prices, economic shocks have continued to impose changes on
organizations.
4. Competition is changing:
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• The global economy means global competitors.
• Established organizations need to defend themselves against both traditional
competitors and small, entrepreneurial firms with innovative offerings.
• Successful organizations will be the ones that can change in response to the competition.
5. Social trends during the past generation suggest changes that organizations have to adjust
for:
• The expansion of the Internet, Baby Boomers retiring, and people moving from the
suburbs back to cities
• A global context for OB is required. No one could have imagined how world politics
would change in recent years.
th
• September 11 has caused changes organizations have made in terms of practices
concerning security, back‐up systems, employee stereotyping, etc.
MANAGING PLANNED CHANGE
1. Some organizations treat all change as an accidental occurrence, however, change as an
intentional, goal‐oriented activity is planned change.
2. There are two goals of planned change:
• Improve the ability of the organization to adapt to changes in its environment.
• Change employee behavior.
3. Examples of planned‐change activities are needed to stimulate innovation, empower
employees, and introduce work teams.
4. An organization’s success or failure is essentially due to the things that employees do or fail
to do, so planned change is also concerned with changing the behavior of individuals and
groups within the organization.
5. Who in organisations are responsible for managing change activities?
• Change agents can be managers, employees of the organization, or outside consultants.
• Typically, we look to senior executives as agents of change.
6. For major change efforts, top managers are increasingly turning to temporary outside
consultants with specialized knowledge in the theory and methods of change.
• Consultant change agents can offer a more objective perspective than insiders can.
• They are disadvantaged in that they often have an inadequate understanding of the
organization’s history, culture, operating procedures, and personnel.
• Outside consultants are also more willing to initiate second‐order changes.
• Internal change agents are often more cautious for fear of offending friends and
associates.
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
1. One of the most well‐documented findings is that organizations and their members resist
change.
• It provides a degree of stability and predictability to behavior.
• There is a definite downside to resistance to change. It hinders adaptation and progress.
2. Resistance to change does not necessarily surface in standardized ways.
• Resistance can be overt, implicit, immediate, or deferred.
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• It is easiest for management to deal with resistance when it is overt and immediate.
3. Implicit resistance efforts are more subtle—loss of loyalty to the organization, loss of
motivation to work, increased errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism due to “sickness”—
and hence more difficult to recognize.
4. Similarly, deferred actions cloud the link between the source of the resistance and the
reaction to it.
• A change may produce what appears to be only a minimal reaction at the time it is
initiated, but then resistance surfaces weeks, months, or even years later.
a. Reactions to change can build up and then explode seemingly totally out of
proportion.
b. The resistance was deferred and stockpiled, and what surfaces is a cumulative
response.
A. Individual Resistance
Five reasons why individuals may resist change are (See Exhibit 19‐2):
1. Habit: Life is complex, to cope with having to make hundreds of decisions everyday, we all
rely on habits or programmed responses.
2. Security: People with a high need for security are likely to resist change because it threatens
their feelings of safety.
3. Economic factors: Another source of individual resistance is concern that changes will lower
one’s income.
4. Fear of the unknown: Changes substitute ambiguity and uncertainty for the known.
5. Selective information processing: Individuals shape their world through their perceptions.
Once they have created this world, it resists change.
B. Organizational Resistance
Organizations, by their very nature, are conservative. They actively resist change. There are six
major sources of organizational resistance: (See Exhibit 19‐4.)
1. Structural inertia: Organizations have built‐in mechanisms to produce stability; this
structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability.
2. Limited focus of change: Organizations are made up of a number of interdependent
subsystems. Changing one affects the others.
3. Group inertia: Group norms may act as a constraint.
4. Threat to expertise: Changes in organizational patterns may threaten the expertise of
specialized groups.
5. Threat to established power relationships: Redistribution of decision‐making authority can
threaten long‐established power relationships.
6. Threat to established resource allocations: Groups in the organization that control sizable
resources often see change as a threat. They tend to be content with the way things are.
C. Overcoming Resistance to Change
1. Six tactics used by change agents in dealing with resistance to change:
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2. Education and communication:
• Resistance can be reduced through communicating to help employees see the logic of a
change. The assumption is that the source of resistance lies in misinformation or poor
communication.
• It works provided that the source of resistance is inadequate communication and that
management‐employee relations are characterized by mutual trust and credibility.
3. Participation:
• It is difficult for individuals to resist a change decision in which they participated.
• Prior to making a change, those opposed can be brought into the decision process,
assuming they have the expertise to make a meaningful contribution.
• The negatives—potential for a poor solution and great time consumption.
4. Facilitation and support:
• Employee counseling and therapy, new‐skills training, or a short paid leave of absence
may facilitate adjustment. The drawbacks—it is time‐consuming, expensive, and its
implementation offers no assurance of success.
5. Negotiation:
• Negotiation as a tactic may be necessary when resistance comes from a powerful source.
• It has potentially high costs, and there is the risk that the change agent is open to the
possibility of being blackmailed by other individuals in positions of power.
6. Manipulation and cooptation:
• Manipulation refers to “covert influence attempts, twisting and distorting facts to make
them appear more attractive, withholding undesirable information, and creating false
rumors to get employees to accept a change.”
• Cooptation is “a form of both manipulation and participation.” It seeks to “buy off” the
leaders of a resistance group by giving them a key role in the change decision.
• Both manipulation and cooptation are relatively inexpensive and easy ways to gain
support. The tactics can backfire if the targets become aware that they are being tricked
or used.
7. Coercion:
• This is “the application of direct threats or force upon the resisters.”
• Examples of coercion are threats of transfer, loss of promotions, negative performance
evaluations, and a poor letter of recommendation.
D. The Politics of Change
1. Change threatens the status quo, making it an inherently political activity.
2. Internal change agents typically are individuals high in the organization who have a lot to
lose from change.
• What if they are no longer the ones the organization values?
• This creates the potential for others in the organization to gain power at their expense.
3. Politics suggests that the impetus for change is more likely to come from outside change
agents.
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4. Managers who have spent their entire careers with a single organization and eventually
achieve a senior position in the hierarchy are often major impediments to change.
• Change itself is a very real threat to their status and position, yet, they may be expected
to implement changes.
• When forced to introduce change, these long‐time power holders tend to implement
first‐order changes. Radical change is too threatening.
5. Power struggles within the organization will determine the speed and quantity of change.
• Long‐time career executives will be sources of resistance.
• Boards of directors that recognize the imperative for the rapid introduction of second‐
order change in their organizations frequently turn to outside candidates for new
leadership.
APPROACHES TO MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
A. Lewin’s Three‐Step Model
1. Kurt Lewin argued that successful change in organizations should follow three steps (See
Exhibit 9‐5):
• Unfreezing the status quo
• Movement to a new state
• Refreezing the new change to make it permanent
2. The status quo can be considered to be an equilibrium state.
3. To move from this equilibrium—to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and
group conformity—unfreezing is necessary.
• The driving forces, which direct behavior away from the status quo, can be increased.
• The restraining forces, which hinder movement from the existing equilibrium, can be
decreased.
• A third alternative is to combine the first two approaches.
4. Once the change has been implemented, the new situation needs to be refrozen so that it
can be sustained over time.
• Unless this last step is taken, there is a very high chance that the change will be short‐
lived and that employees will attempt to revert to the previous equilibrium state.
• The objective of refreezing is to stabilize the new situation by balancing the driving and
restraining forces.
B. Action Research
1. Action research is “a change process based on the systematic collection of data and then
selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate.”
2. The process consists of five steps: diagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, and evaluation.
These steps closely parallel the scientific method.
3. Diagnosis begins by gathering information about problems, concerns, and needed changes
from members of the organization.
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4. Analysis of information is synthesized into primary concerns, problem areas, and possible
actions. Action research includes extensive involvement of the people who will be involved
in the change program.
5. Feedback requires sharing with employees what has been found from steps one and two and
the development of a plan for the change.
6. Action is the step where the change agent and employees set into motion the specific
actions to correct the problems that were identified.
7. Evaluation is the final step to assess the action plan’s effectiveness. Using the initial data
gathered as a benchmark, any subsequent changes can be compared and evaluated.
8. Action research provides at least two specific benefits for an organization.
• First, it is problem‐focused. The change agent objectively looks for problems and the
type of problem determines the type of change of action.
• Second, resistance to change is reduced. Once employees have actively participated in
the feedback stage, the change process typically takes on a momentum of its own.
C. Organizational Development
1. Organizational development (OD) is a term used to encompass a collection of planned‐
change interventions built on humanistic‐democratic values that seek to improve
organizational effectiveness and employee well‐being.
2. The OD paradigm values human and organizational growth, collaborative and participative
processes, and a spirit of inquiry.
3. The underlying values in most OD efforts:
• Respect for people
• Trust and support
• Power equalization
• Confrontation
• Participation
4. OD techniques or interventions for bringing about change:
5. Sensitivity training:
• It can go by a variety of names—laboratory training, groups, or T‐groups (training
groups)—but all refer to a thorough unstructured group interaction.
• Participants discuss themselves and their interactive processes, loosely directed by a
professional behavioral scientist.
• Specific results sought include increased ability to empathize with others, improved
listening skills, greater openness, increased tolerance of individual differences, and
improved conflict resolution skills.
6. Survey feedback:
• One tool for assessing attitudes held by organizational members, identifying
discrepancies among member perceptions, and solving these differences is the survey
feedback approach.
• Everyone can participate, but of key importance is the organizational “family.”
a. A questionnaire is usually completed by all members in the organization or unit.
b. Organization members may be asked to suggest questions or may be interviewed.
c. The questionnaire asks for perceptions and attitudes on a broad range of topics.
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• The data from this questionnaire are tabulated with data pertaining to an individual’s
specific “family” and to the entire organization and distributed to employees.
a. These data then become the springboard for identifying problems and clarifying
issues.
b. Particular attention is given to encouraging discussion and ensuring that discussions
focus on issues and ideas and not on attacking individuals.
• Finally, group discussion in the survey feedback approach should result in members
identifying possible implications of the questionnaire’s findings.
7. Process consultation:
• The purpose of process consultation is for an outside consultant to assist a manager, “to
perceive, understand, and act upon process events” that might include work flow,
informal relationships among unit members, and formal communication channels.
• The consultant works with the client in jointly diagnosing what processes need
improvement.
a. By having the client actively participate in both the diagnosis and the development of
alternatives, there will be greater understanding of the process and the remedy and
less resistance to the action plan chosen.
b. The process consultant need not be an expert in solving the particular problem that is
identified. The consultant’s expertise lies in diagnosis and developing a helping
relationship.
8. Team building:
• It utilizes high‐interaction group activities to increase trust and openness among team
members.
• Team building can be applied within groups or at the inter‐group level.
• Team building is applicable to the case of interdependence. The objective is to improve
coordinative efforts of members, which will result in increasing the team’s performance.
• The activities considered in team building typically include goal setting, development of
interpersonal relations among team members, role analysis, and team process analysis.
• Team building attempts to use high interaction among members to increase trust and
openness.
a. Begin by having members attempt to define the goals and priorities of the team.
b. Following this, members can evaluate the team’s performance—how effective is the
team in structuring priorities and achieving its goals?
c. This should identify potential problem areas.
• Team building can also address itself to clarifying each member’s role on the team.
9. Intergroup development:
• A major area of concern in OD is the dysfunctional conflict that exists between groups. It
seeks to change the attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each
other.
• There are several approaches to intergroup development. A popular method
emphasizes problem solving.
a. Each group meets independently to develop lists of its perception of itself, the other
group, and how it believes the other group perceives it.
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b. The groups then share their lists, after which similarities and differences are
discussed.
c. Differences are clearly articulated, and the groups look for the causes of the
disparities.
• Once the causes of the difficulty have been identified, the groups can move to the
integration phase—working to develop solutions that will improve relations between the
groups.
• Subgroups, with members from each of the conflicting groups, can now be created for
further diagnosis and to begin to formulate possible alternative actions that will improve
relations.
10. Appreciative Inquiry:
• Most OD approaches are problem‐centered. They identify a problem or set of problems,
then look for a solution. Appreciative inquiry seeks to identify the unique qualities and
special strengths of an organization.
11. The AI process essentially consists of four steps:
• Discovery. The idea is to find out what people think are the strengths of the organization.
For instance, employees are asked to recount times they felt the organization worked
best or when they specifically felt most satisfied with their jobs.
• Dreaming. The information from the discovery phase is used to speculate on possible
futures for the organization. For instance, people are asked to envision the organization
in five years and to describe what is different.
• Design. Based on the dream articulation, participants focus on finding a common vision
of how the organization will look and agree on its unique qualities.
• Destiny. In this final step, participants discuss how the organization is going to fulfill its
dream. This typically includes the writing of action plans and development of
implementation strategies.
CONTEMPORARY CHANGE ISSUES FOR TODAY’S MANAGERS
A. Stimulating Innovation
1. How can an organization become more innovative? There is no guaranteed formula; certain
characteristics surface again and again. They are grouped into structural, cultural, and
human resource categories.
2. Change refers to making things different. Innovation is a more specialized kind of change.
• Innovation is a new idea applied to initiating or improving a product, process, or service.
• All innovations involve change, but not all changes necessarily involve new ideas or lead
to significant improvements.
• Innovations in organizations can range from small incremental improvements to
significant change efforts.
3. Sources of innovation:
• Structural variables are the most studied potential source of innovation.
• First, organic structures positively influence innovation because they facilitate flexibility,
adaptation and cross‐fertilization.
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• Second, long tenure in management is associated with innovation. Managerial tenure
apparently provides legitimacy and knowledge of how to accomplish tasks and obtain
desired outcomes.
• Third, innovation is nurtured where there are slack resources.
• Finally, inter‐unit communication is high in innovative organizations. There is a high use
of committee, task forces, cross‐functional teams and other mechanisms that facilitate
interaction.
4. Innovative organizations tend to have similar cultures:
• They encourage experimentation.
• They reward both successes and failures.
• They celebrate mistakes.
• Managers in innovative organizations recognize that failures are a natural by‐product of
venturing into the unknown.
5. Human resources:
• Innovative organizations actively promote the training and development.
They offer high job security so employees do not fear getting fired for making mistakes.
• They encourage individuals to become champions of change.
2. Once a new idea is developed, idea champions actively and enthusiastically promote the
idea, build support, overcome resistance, and ensure that the innovation is implemented.
• Champions have common personality characteristics: extremely high self‐confidence,
persistence, energy, and a tendency to take risks.
• They also display characteristics associated with transformational leadership.
• Idea champions have jobs that provide considerable decision‐making discretion.
B. Creating a Learning Organization
1. What’s a learning organization?
• A learning organization is an organization that has developed the continuous capacity to
adapt and change.
• All organizations learn—whether they consciously choose to or not; it is a fundamental
requirement for their sustained existence.
• Most organizations engage in single‐loop learning. When errors are detected, the
correction process relies on past routines and present policies.
• Learning organizations use double‐loop learning:
a. When an error is detected, it’s corrected in ways that involve the modification of the
organization’s objectives, policies, and standard routines.
b. Like second‐order change, double‐loop learning challenges deep‐rooted assumptions
and norms within an organization.
c. It provides opportunities for radically different solutions to problems and dramatic
jumps in improvement.
• Learning organizations are also characterized by a specific culture that values risk taking,
openness, and growth—it seeks “boundarylessness”.
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2. Managing learning:
• What can managers do to make their firms learning organizations?
a. Establish a strategy.
b. Redesign the organization’s structure.
c. Reshape the organization’s culture.
• Management sets the tone for the organization’s culture both by what it says (strategy)
and what it does (behavior).
B. Knowledge Management
1. Knowledge management is a process of organizing and distributing an organization’s
collective wisdom so the right information gets to the right people at the right time.
2. KM provides an organization with both a competitive edge and improved organizational
performance because it makes its employees smarter.
3. Knowledge management is increasingly important today for at least three reasons.
• Intellectual assets are now as important as physical or financial assets. Organizations that
can quickly and efficiently tap into their employees’ collective experience and wisdom
are more likely to “outsmart” their competition.
• Second, as baby boomers begin to leave the workforce, there’s an increasing awareness
that they represent a wealth of knowledge that will be lost if there are no attempts to
capture it.
• Third, a well‐designed KM system will reduce redundancy and make the organization
more efficient.
4. How does an organization record the knowledge and expertise of its employees and make
that information easily accessible?
• It needs to develop computer databases of pertinent information that employees can
readily access.
• It needs to create a culture that supports and rewards sharing.
• It has to develop mechanisms that allow employees who have developed valuable
expertise and insights to share them with others.
C. Managing Change: It’s Culture Bound!
To illustrate, let’s briefly look at five questions.
1. Do people believe change is possible?
• In cultures where people believe that they can dominate their environment, individuals
will take a proactive view of change—the United States and Canada.
• In many other countries, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, people see themselves as
subjugated to their environment and thus will tend to take a passive approach toward
change.
2. If change is possible, how long will it take to bring it about?
• Societies that focus on the long term (Japan) will demonstrate considerable patience.
• In societies with a short‐term focus (the United States and Canada), people expect quick
results.
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3. Is resistance to change greater in some cultures than in others?
• Resistance to change will be influenced by a society’s reliance on tradition.
• Italians focus on the past, while Americans emphasize the present.
4. Does culture influence how change efforts will be implemented?
• In high‐power‐distance cultures (the Philippines or Venezuela), change efforts will tend
to be autocratically implemented by top management.
• Low‐power‐distance cultures value democratic methods (Denmark and Israel).
5. Finally, do successful idea champions do things differently in different cultures?
• People in collectivist cultures prefer appeals for cross‐functional support for innovation
efforts.
• People in high‐power‐distance cultures prefer champions to work closely with those in
authority.
• The higher the uncertainty avoidance of a society, the more champions should work
within the organization’s rules and procedures to develop the innovation.
6. Effective managers will alter their organization’s championing strategies to reflect cultural
values.
WORK STRESS AND ITS MANAGEMENT
A. What Is Stress?
1. Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity,
constraint, or demand related to what he/she desires and for which the outcome is
perceived to be both uncertain and important.
2. Stress is not necessarily bad in and of itself. Individuals often use stress positively to rise to
the occasion and perform at or near their maximum.
3. Typically, stress is associated with constraints and demands.
• The former prevent you from doing what you desire.
• The latter refers to the loss of something desired.
4. Two conditions are necessary for potential stress to become actual stress.
• There must be uncertainty over the outcome, and the outcome must be important.
• Only when there is doubt or uncertainty regarding whether the opportunity will be
seized, the constraint removed, or the loss avoided that there is stress.
• Importance is also critical. If the outcomes are unimportant to the individual—there is
no stress.
B. Understanding Stress and Its Consequences
1. The model in Exhibit 19‐10 identifies three sets of factors—environmental, organizational,
and individual—that act as potential sources of stress.
2. The symptoms of stress can surface as physiological, psychological, and behavioral
outcomes.
C. Potential Sources of Stress
1. Environmental factors:
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• Environmental uncertainty influences stress levels among employees in an organization.
• Changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties.
• Political uncertainties can be stress inducing.
• Technological uncertainty can cause stress because new innovations can make an
employee’s skills and experience obsolete in a very short period of time.
2. Organizational factors:
• Pressures to avoid errors or complete tasks in a limited time period, work overload, a
demanding and insensitive boss, and unpleasant coworkers are a few examples.
• Task demands are factors related to a person’s job. They include the design of the
individual’s job (autonomy, task variety, degree of automation), working conditions, and
the physical work layout.
• Role demands relate to pressures that are a function of the role an individual plays in an
organization.
a. Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy.
b. Role overload is experienced when the employee is expected to do more than time
permits.
c. Role ambiguity is created when role expectations are not clearly understood.
• Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees.
• Organizational structure defines the level of differentiation in the organization, the
degree of rules and regulations, and where decisions are made. Excessive rules and lack
of participation in decisions might be potential sources of stress.
• Organizational leadership represents the managerial style of the organization’s senior
executives.
a. Organizations go through a cycle.
b. They’re established, they grow, become mature, and eventually decline.
c. An organization’s life stage—that is, where it is in this four‐stage cycle—creates
different problems and pressures for employees.
d. The establishment and decline stages are particularly stressful.
e. Stress tends to be least in maturity where uncertainties are at their lowest ebb.
3. Individual factors:
• These are factors in the employee’s personal life. Primarily, these factors are family
issues, personal economic problems, and inherent personality characteristics.
• National surveys consistently show that people hold family and personal relationships
dear.
• Economic problems created by individuals overextending their financial resources.
• A significant individual factor influencing stress is a person’s basic dispositional nature.
4. Stressors are additive‐‐stress builds up.
D. Individual Differences
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1. Five individual difference variables moderate the relationship between potential stressors
and experienced stress:
a. perception
b. job experience
c. locus of control
d. self‐efficacy
e. hostility.
2. Perception: Moderates the relationship between a potential stress condition and an
employee’s reaction to it. Stress potential doesn’t lie in objective conditions; it lies in an
employee’s interpretation of those conditions.
3. Job experience: The evidence indicates that experience on the job tends to be negatively
related to work stress.
a. First is the idea of selective withdrawal. Voluntary turnover is more probable among
people who experience more stress.
b. Second, people eventually develop coping mechanisms to deal with stress.
c. Collegial relationships with coworkers or supervisors can buffer the impact of stress.
4. Locus of control:
• Those with an internal locus of control believe they control their own destiny.
a. Internals perceive their jobs to be less stressful than do externals.
b. Internals are likely to believe that they can have a significant effect on the results.
• Those with an external locus believe their lives are controlled by outside forces.
a. Externals are more likely to be passive and feel helpless.
5. Self‐efficacy: The confidence in one’s own abilities appears to decrease stress
6. Hostility: People who are quick to anger, maintain a persistently hostile outlook, and project
a cynical mistrust of others are more likely to experience stress in situations.
E. Consequences of Stress
1. Stress shows itself in a number of ways—physiological, psychological, and behavioral
symptoms.
2. Physiological symptoms:
• Most of the early concern with stress was directed at physiological symptoms due to the
fact that specialists in the health and medical sciences researched the topic.
Physiological symptoms have the least direct relevance to students of OB.
3. Psychological symptoms:
• Job‐related stress can cause job‐related dissatisfaction.
• Job dissatisfaction is “the simplest and most obvious psychological effect” of stress.
• Multiple and conflicting demands—lack of clarity as to the incumbent’s duties, authority,
and responsibilities—increase stress and dissatisfaction.
• The less control people have over the pace of their work, the greater the stress and
dissatisfaction.
4. Behavioral symptoms:
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• Behaviorally related stress symptoms include changes in productivity, absence, and
turnover, as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of
alcohol, rapid speech, fidgeting, and sleep disorders.
• The stress‐performance relationship is shown in Exhibit 19‐11.
a. The logic underlying the inverted U is that low to moderate levels of stress stimulate
the body and increase its ability to react.
b. Individuals then often perform their tasks better, more intensely, or more rapidly.
c. But too much stress places unattainable demands or constraints on a person, which
result in lower performance.
d. Even moderate levels of stress can have a negative influence on performance over
the long term as the continued intensity of the stress wears down the individual and
saps his/her energy resources.
• In spite of the popularity and intuitive appeal of the inverted‐U model, it doesn’t get a lot
of empirical support.
F. Managing Stress
1. High or low levels of stress sustained over long periods of time, can lead to reduced
employee performance and, thus, require action by management.
2. Individual approaches:
• Effective individual strategies include implementing time management techniques,
increasing physical exercise, relaxation training, and expanding the social support
network.
• Practicing time management principles such as:
a. making daily lists of activities to be accomplished.
b. prioritizing activities by importance and urgency.
c. scheduling activities according to the priorities set.
d. knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding parts of your job during
the high part of your cycle when you are most alert and productive.
• Noncompetitive physical exercise has long been recommended as a way to deal with
excessive stress levels.
• Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through relaxation techniques such
as meditation, hypnosis, and biofeedback.
• Having friends, family, or work colleagues to talk to provides an outlet for excessive
stress.
3. Organizational approaches
• Strategies that management might want to consider include:
a. improved personnel selection and job placement
b. use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs
c. training
d. increased employee involvement
e. improved organizational communication
f. establishment of corporate wellness programs.
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Theory Z
Ouchi's Theory Z makes certain assumptions about workers. These include the assumption that
workers tend to want to build cooperative and intimate working relationships with those that
they work for and with, as well as the people that work for them. Also, Theory Z workers have a
high need to be supported by the company, and highly value a working environment in which
such things as family, cultures and traditions, and social institutions are regarded as equally
important as the work itself. These types of workers have a very well developed sense of order,
discipline, moral obligation to work hard, and a sense of cohesion with their fellow workers.
Finally, Theory Z workers, it is assumed, can be trusted to do their jobs to their utmost ability, so
long as management can be trusted to support them and look out for their well being.
One of the most important tenets of this theory is that management must have a high degree of
confidence in its workers in order for this type of participative management to work. For this to
work, employees must be very knowledgeable about the various issues of the company, as well
as possessing the competence to make informed decisions.
Theory Z stresses the need for enabling workers to become generalists, rather than specialists,
and to increase their knowledge of the company and its processes through job rotations and
continual training. In fact, promotions tend to be slower in this type of setting, as workers are
given a much longer opportunity to receive training, and more time to learn the intricacies of
the company's operations. The desire, under this theory, is to develop a work force that has
more of a loyalty towards staying with the company for an entire career, and be more
permanent than in other types of settings. It is expected that once an employee does rise to a
position of high level management, they will know a great deal more about the company and
how it operates, and will be able to use Theory Z management theories effectively on the newer
employees.
While several similarities and differences surround the ideas of McGregor and Ouchi, the most
obvious comparison is that they both deal with perceptions and assumptions about people.
These perceptions tend to take the form of how management views employees, while Ouchi's
Theory Z takes this notion of perceptions a bit farther and talks about how the workers might
perceive management. The table below illustrates this distinction.
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
128 SPCAM(MBA)
Joharii window
MANA
AGEMENT C
CONCEPTS
This model
m is higghly useful in
i analysingg the causess for interpeersonal conflict. The window
w is
shown n with fou ur quadrantts represen nting four distinct aspects of every
e perso
onality.
Joharii Wind dow summarises of four cells th
hey arre:
1. Opeen Self:‐ Alsso called public area, th
his cell reprresents an id
deal situatio
on. Here thee person
knowss about himsself and others. There w would be opeenness and ccompatibilityy and little rreason to
be deefensive. Mu utual underrstanding an nd friendship between people are the highesst in this
space. Naturally there is little scope or no scope fo or any conflict.
2. Hidden Self:‐ Also
A known as a the privaate or secrett area, this cell denotess that the person
underrstands abou ut himself but
b does not know abo out other peerson. The result
r being that the
person remains h hidden from others becaause of the fear of how w others might react. The person
may keep
k his/her true feelinngs, attitudees or secrett and will not open upp to others. There is
potenntial interperso onal conflict in thiss q
quadrant.
nd Self:‐ Alte
3. Blin ernatively kn nown as blind area, this ccell represen
nts a situatioon where the person
knowss about others but doees not know w about himself/herself.. As in the hidden self, there is
poten ntial for confflict in this ceell too.
4. Undiscovered Self:‐ This is i potentiallly the mostt explosive situation.
s Th
he person does
d not
eitherr about himsself or aboutt others. Theere is a misu understanding, which leeads to interrpersonal
conflicct. Alternativvely this areea is known aas the dark aarea.
129
The best
b way to reduce the sizes of hid
dden self, blind
b self, an
nd undiscovvered self is to have
betterr communicaation betweeen the perso on and others.
Transaactional anaalysis
Eric Beerne's Transsactional Anaalysis ‐ TA th
heory develoopment and explanation n
the phhilosophy that:
people can change ; we all haave a right to o be in the w
world and bee accepted
transaactional anaalysis ‐ ego states
Parennt ego state
• This is a se et of feelings, thinking aand behaviorr that we haave copied frrom our parrents and
significantt others.
• As we gro ow up we taake in ideas, beliefs, feeelings and behaviors
b from our parents and
caretakerss.
• If we live in an extended family th hen there aree more peop ple to learn aand take in ffrom.
• When we do this, it iss called introjecting and d it is just ass if we take in the who ole of the
care giver..
• For example, we maay notice th hat we are saying thin ngs just as our father, mother,
grandmoth her may havve done, eveen though, co onsciously, w we don't want to.
• We do thiis as we havve lived withh this persoon so long th
hat we autoomatically reeproduce
certain things that were said to uss, or treat otthers as we m might have b been treated d.
Adult ego state
• The Adult ego state is about direct responses to the here and now.
• We deal w with things that are goin ng on today in ways thaat are not un nhealthily in
nfluenced
by our passt.
• The Adultt ego state is about being
b sponttaneous and d aware wiith the capacity for
intimacy.
130
• When in our Adult we are able to see people as they are, rather than what we project
onto them.
• We ask for information rather than stay scared and rather than make assumptions.
• Taking the best from the past and using it appropriately in the present is an integration
of the positive aspects of both our Parent and Child ego states.
• So this can be called the Integrating Adult. Integrating means that we are constantly
updating ourselves through our every day experiences and using this to inform us.
• In this structural model, the Integrating Adult ego state circle is placed in the middle to
show how it needs to orchestrate between the Parent and the Child ego states.
• For example, the internal Parent ego state may beat up on the internal Child, saying
"You are no good, look at what you did wrong again, you are useless".
• The Child may then respond with "I am no good, look how useless I am, I never get
anything right".
• Many people hardly hear this kind of internal dialogue as it goes on so much they might
just believe life is this way.
• An effective Integrating Adult ego state can intervene between the Parent and Child ego
states.
• This might be done by stating that this kind of parenting is not helpful and asking if it is
prepared to learn another way.
• Alternatively, the Integrating Adult ego state can just stop any negative dialogue and
decide to develop another positive Parent ego state perhaps taken in from other people
they have met over the years
Child ego state
• The Child ego state is a set of behaviours, thoughts and feelings which are replayed from
our own childhood.
• Perhaps the boss calls us into his or her office, we may immediately get a churning in our
stomach and wonder what we have done wrong.
• If this were explored we might remember the time the head teacher called us in to tell
us off.
• Of course, not everything in the Child ego state is negative.
• We might go into someone's house and smell a lovely smell and remember our
grandmother's house when we were little, and all the same warm feelings we had at six
year's of age may come flooding back.
• Both the Parent and Child ego states are constantly being updated.
• For example, we may meet someone who gives us the permission we needed as a child,
and did not get, to be fun and joyous.
• We may well use that person in our imagination when we are stressed to counteract our
old ways of thinking that we must work longer and longer hours to keep up with
everything.
• We might ask ourselves "I wonder what X would say now".
• Then on hearing the new permissions to relax and take some time out, do just that and
then return to the work renewed and ready for the challenge
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• Subsequently, rather than beating up on ourselves for what we did or did not do, what
tends to happen is we automatically start to give ourselves new permissions and take
care of ourselves.
• Alternatively, we might have had a traumatic experience yesterday which goes into the
Child ego state as an archaic memory that hampers our growth.
• Positive experiences will also go into the Child ego state as archaic memories.
• The positive experiences can then be drawn on to remind us that positive things do
happen.
• The process of analyzing personality in terms of ego states is called structural analysis.
• It is important to remember that ego states do not have an existence of their own, they
are concepts to enable understanding.
Therefore it is important to say "I want some fun" rather than "My Child wants some fun". We
may be in our Child ego state when we say this, but saying "I" reminds us to take responsibility
for our actions.
Contamination of the Adult ego state
• The word contamination for many conjures up the idea of disease. For instance, we tend
to use the word for when bacteria has gone into milk.
• Well, this is similar to the case with the contaminated Integrating Adult ego state.
• This occurs when we talk as if something is a fact or a reality when really this is a belief.
Racism is an example of this.
• The Integrating Adult ego state is contaminated in this case by the Parent ego state.
• If we are white we might have lived with parents or significant others who said such
things as "Black people take our jobs".
• Growing up it is likely, that having no real experience to go by, we believed this.
• We might also have been told that Black people are aggressive.
• In our Child ego state may well lodge some scared feelings about Black people and in this
ego state we may start to believe "All Black people are scary".
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Parenting mode
ineffective modes
• Negative Controlling Parent ‐ communicates a "You're not OK" message, and is punitive.
• Negative Nurturing Parent ‐ communicates a "You're not OK" message. When in this
mode the person will often do things for others which they are capable of doing for
themselves. When in this mode the person is engulfing and overprotective.
• Negative Adapted Child ‐ expresses an "I'm not OK" message. When in this mode the
person over‐adapts to others and tends to experience such emotions as depression,
unrealistic fear and anxiety.
• Negative Free Child ‐ in this mode the person runs wild with no restrictions or
boundaries. In this mode they express a "You're not OK" message
effective modes
• Positive Nurturing Parent ‐ communicates the message "You're OK". When in this mode
the person is caring and affirming.
• Positive Controlling Parent ‐ communicates the message "You're OK". This is the
boundary setting mode, offering constructive criticism, whilst being caring but firm.
• Positive Adapted Child ‐ communicates an "I'm OK" message. From this mode we learn
the rules to help us live with others.
• Positive Free Child ‐ communicates an "I'm OK" message. This is the creative, fun loving,
curious and energetic mode.
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transactional analysis ‐ diagnosis
• It is helpful to be able to assess or diagnose which ego state in the structural model, or
which mode in the descriptive model, somebody is in.
• In this way we can respond appropriately as well as ensure which mode we are
addressing.
• However, when we work with other staff or are relating with young people, we are
responding on the behavioral level.
• It is not always possible, or appropriate, to be undertaking more in‐depth types of
diagnosis. I have outlined them here though so that an understanding of the complexity
of the process can be achieved.
behavioural diagnosis
• Words, tone, tempo of speech, expressions, postures, gestures, breathing, and muscle
tone provide clues for diagnosing ego states.
• Parent mode words typically contain value judgments,
• Adult words are clear and definable, and
• Free Child mode words are direct and spontaneous.
• For example, a person in Adapted Child mode may cry silently, whereas when in Free
Child mode we are likely to make a lots of noise.
• "You" or "one" usually come from Parent. This can switch even mid‐sentence. If we are
leaning forward it is likely we are in the posture of the Parent mode, whereas if we are in
Adult mode we tend to be erect.
• These are indicators not guarantees. Assessment needs to be supported by other
methods of diagnosis.
social diagnosis
Observation of the kinds of transactions a person is having with others. For example, if eliciting a
response from someone's caretaking Parent it is likely that the stimulus is coming from Child,
though not necessarily the Adapted Child mode. Our own responses to someone will often be a
way of assessing which ego state or mode they are coming from.
historical diagnosis
The person's past also provides important information. If, as a child we had feelings similar to
those we are experiencing now, it is likely we are in Child ego state. If our mother or father
behaved or talked in the same way that we are behaving or talking now then we are probably in
a Parent ego state.
phenomenological diagnosis
This occurs when we re‐experience the past instead of just remembering it. This means that
diagnosis is undertaken by self‐examination. This is sometimes accurate and sometimes very
inaccurate as the Child ego state may be afraid to allow our Adult to know what is going on.
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transactional analysis ‐ strokes
• In Transactional Analysis we call compliments and general ways of giving recognition
strokes.
• This name came from research which indicated that babies require touching in order to
survive and grow.
• It apparently makes no difference whether the touching induces pain or pleasure ‐ it is
still important.
• On the whole we prefer to receive negative strokes than no strokes at all, at least that
way we know we exist and others know we exist.
• We all have particular strokes we will accept and those we will reject.
• For example, if we have always been told we are clever, and our brother is creative, then
we are likely to accept strokes for being clever, but not for being creative. From this
frame of reference only one person in the family can be the creative one and so on.
• Stroking can be physical, verbal or nonverbal. It is likely that the great variety of stroke
needs and styles present in the world results from differences in wealth, cultural mores,
and methods of parenting.
the stroke economy
• Claude Steiner suggests that, as children, we are all indoctrinated by our parents with
five restrictive rules about stroking.
• don't give strokes when we have them to give
• don't ask for strokes when we need them
• don't accept strokes if we want them
• don't reject strokes when we don't want them
• don't give ourselves strokes
• Together these five rules are the basis of what Steiner calls the stroke economy. By
training children to obey these rules, says Steiner, parents ensure that ".. a situation in
which strokes could be available in a limitless supply is transformed into a situation in
which the supply is low and the price parents can extract for them is high."
change
• We therefore need to change the restrictive rules to unrestrictive ones:
• give strokes when we have them to give
• ask for strokes when we want them
• accept strokes if we want them
• reject manipulative strokes
• give ourselves positive strokes
• Strokes can be positive or negative:
• A) "I like you"
• B) "I don't like you"
Strokes can be unconditional or conditional. An unconditional stroke is a stroke for being
whereas a conditional stroke is a stroke for doing. For instance:
135
"I like you" ‐ unconditional
"I like you when you smile" ‐ conditional
As negative strokes these might be:
"I don't like you" ‐ negative unconditional
"I don't like you when you're sarcastic" ‐ negative conditional
People often have a stroke filter. They only let in strokes which they think they are allowed to let
in.
For instance they allow themselves to receive strokes for being clever and keep out strokes for
being good looking.
• One way to think about this to consider being out in the rain. The rain is the strokes that
are available to us, both positive and negative. There is a hole in the umbrella and some
of the strokes go through and we save them in a bucket to enjoy in lean times.
• Conversely we might use them negatively to reinforce the negative strokes we give to
ourselves. Of course, some just bounce off the umbrella and we might not accept the
good strokes that are coming our way. Some might come in but fall straight onto the
floor.
transactional analysis ‐ life positions
Life positions are basic beliefs about self and others, which are used to justify decisions and
behaviour.
When we are conceived we are hopefully at peace, waiting to emerge into the world once we
have grown sufficiently to be able to survive in the outside of the womb. If nothing untoward
happens we will emerge contented and relaxed. In this case we are likely to perceive the world
from the perspective of I am OK and You are OK.
However, perhaps our mother had some traumatic experiences, or the birth was difficult or
even life threatening. This experience is likely to have an effect on the way we experience the
world, even at the somatic level. In which case we might emerge sensing that life is scary and
might, for example, go into "I am not OK and You are not OK either".
• Let's take it that the pregnancy went fine, and the birth was easy enough. What then?
Well life experiences might reinforce our initial somatic level life position, or contradict
it.
• If we were treated punitively, talked down to, and not held, we may begin to believe "I
am not OK and You are OK". This might be the only sense we can make of our
experiences.
• Let's take another situation. Perhaps we were picked on and bullied as a child. We learnt
that the way to get by was to bully others and that way we felt stronger and in control.
Our behaviour then comes into the I am OK and You are not OK quadrant.
136
Of course this may cover up our belief that we are really not OK, but nobody sees that. They just
see our behaviour, and in fact we may have forgotten all about our negative feelings about
ourselves as we have tried so hard to deny the pain of believing we are not OK.
• These life positions are perceptions of the world. The reality is I just am and you just are,
therefore how I view myself and others are just that "views" not fact.
• However, we tend to act as if they are a fact. Just like when somebody says "I can't do
this, I'm useless".
• Rather than "I don't know how to do this. Will you show me?"
• The latter is staying with the fact that they do not yet know how to do it, whilst the
former links being useless with not being able to do something.
• There are a number of ways of diagramming the life positions.
• Franklin Ernstdrew the life positions in quadrants, which he called the OK Corral (1971).
• The colours used are red and green to show the effective and ineffective quadrants for
communication and healthy relationships.
• By shading in the quadrants according to the amount of time we think we spend in each
we can get an idea of the amount of time we spend in each.
• Ernst used the term 'Corralogram' for this method of self‐assessment using the OK Corral
matrix.
Life Positions
• Berne talked about the life positions as existential positions, one of which we are more
likely to go to under stress.
137
• This is significantly different to the concept Ernst uses, i.e. that we move around them all
during the day.
• Whilst there is some truth in this we could agree with Berne that there will be one major
position we go into under stress, with perhaps another position underneath this one.
• These positions can change as we develop and grow. The difference between Berne and
Ernst is important.
Chris Davidson (1999) writes about the three dimensional model of Okay ness. All of the
previous diagrams talk as if there were only one other person in the equation, when in reality
there are often more.
For example, the behaviour of young people in gangs may say that they believe they are okay
and perhaps other gangs in their neighborhood are okay, but an individual or gang from another
neighborhood are not okay.
We often do this at work as well. We find other people who we like and then we gossip and put
other people down. We are therefore saying that we believe we are okay but those others are
awful (underneath this there may be a belief that we are not okay either but we feel better by
putting someone else down).
In this way the two dimensional model of okay ness i.e. that there are only two people involved,
becomes three dimensional model where there can be three or more involved.
There is also the way in which we view life itself. If we consider that there is something wrong
with us, and that others are not to be trusted and are not OK either, then the world would be a
scary place and we are likely to experience life as tough and believe we will only be all right if we
keep alert and on the look out for danger and difficulties.
blame model
The Transactional Analysis 'Okay Corral' can be linked to 'blame', for which Jim Davis TSTA
developed this simple and helpful model. Commonly when emotions are triggered people adopt
one of three attitudes relating to blame, which each correlate to a position on the Okay Corral:
I'm to blame (You are okay and I'm not okay ‐ 'helpless')
You are to blame (I'm okay and you are not okay ‐ 'angry')
We are both to blame (I'm not okay and you are not okay ‐ 'hopeless')
None of these is a healthy position.
Instead the healthy position is, and the mindset should be: "It's no‐one's fault, blame isn't the
issue ‐ what matters is how we go forward and sort things out." (I'm okay and you are okay ‐
'happy')
(With acknowledgements to Jim Davis TSTA)
transactional analysis ‐ the script
• The script is a life plan, made when we are growing up. It is like having the script of a play
in front of us ‐ we read the lines and decide what will happen in each act and how the
play will end.
138
• The script is developed from our early decisions based upon our life experience. We may
not realize that we have set ourselves a plan but we can often find this out if we ask
ourselves what our favorite childhood story was, who was our favorite character in the
story and who do we identify with. Then consider the beginning, middle and end of the
story. How is this story reflected in our life today?
• Another way of getting to what script is may be to think about what we believe will
happen when we are in old age. Do we believe we will be alive at 80 or 90 years old, be
healthy, happy, and contented? What do we think will be on the headstone for our
grave? What would we like to be on it?
transactional analysis ‐ games
Games vary in the length of time that passes while they are being played. Some can take
seconds or minutes while others take weeks months or even years. People play games for these
reasons:
to structure time
to acquire strokes
to maintain the substitute feeling and the system of thinking, beliefs and actions that go with it
to confirm parental injunctions and further the life script
to maintain the person's life position by "proving" that self/others are not OK
to provide a high level of stroke exchange while blocking intimacy and maintaining distance
to make people predictable.
ways to deal with games
There are various ways to stop a game, including the use of different options than the one
automatically used. We can:
• cross the transaction by responding from a different ego state than the one the stimulus
is designed to hook.
• pick up the ulterior rather than the social message e.g. when a person says "I can't do
this, I'm useless". Rather than saying "let me do this for you" instead say "It sounds like
you have a problem. What do you want me to do about it?" (said from the Adult ego
state)
• the opening message to the game always entails a discount. There are further discounts
at each stage of the game. By detecting discounts we can identify game invitations and
defuse them with options.
• (A discount is when we minimize, maximize or ignore some aspect of a problem which
would assist us in resolving it. Such as saying in a whiny voice "This is too difficult for me
to do", so we automatically help them).
139
Replace the game strokes.
Loss of strokes to the Child ego state means a threat to survival. We get a great many strokes
from games, even if they are negative. However, if we don't obtain sufficient positive strokes, or
give ourselves positive strokes, we will go for quantity rather than quality of strokes and play
games to get them. This loss of strokes is also a loss of excitement that the game has generated.
Another way to think about this is to consider the game role we or the other person is likely to
take. One way to discover this is to ask the following questions:
1. What keeps happening over and over again
2. How does it start?
3. What happens next?
4. And then what happens?
5. How does it end?
6. How do feel after it ends? (John James, 1973)
We can then consider the reason we might have taken up a particular role, where we might
switch to, and then consider how to do things differently.
We need to consider what our own responsibility is in this ‐ if the situation is too violent for us
to get involved what options to we have?
We could call for help, get others to come with us to intervene and so on. We need to choose
the appropriate assistance and take the action required
PREPARED BY:-
DIVYANG K. VYAS
140 SPCAM(MBA)