1.Explain the requirements for mobile communication system.

Requirements for Mobile Communication

• Requirements for Mobile Communication

• Terminal Mobility

• Wireless Connectivity

• Personal Mobility

• Value Addition

• Fast and Efficient Call Processing

To accommodate a large number of users over a large geographic area, the cellular telephone system uses a large
number of low-power wireless transmitters to create cells.

Variable power levels allow cells to be sized according to subscriber density and demand within a particular region.

As mobile users travel from cell to cell, their conversations are handed off between cells.

Channels (frequencies) used in one cell can be reused in another cell some distance away, which allows communication
by a large number stations using a limited number of radio frequencies.

To summarize, the basic concept of reuse allows a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of
users.

2.What is handoff and explain its types?

• Handoff: At any instant, each mobile station is logically in a cell and under the control of the cell’s base
station.
• When a mobile station moves out of a cell, the base station notices the MS’s signal fading away and requests
all the neighbouring BS s to report the strength they are receiving.
• The BS then transfers ownership to the cell getting the strongest signal and the MSC changes the channel
carrying the call. The process is called handoff.
• There are two types of handoff;
• Hard Handoff
• Soft Handoff.
• In a hard handoff, a MS communicates with one BS. As a MS moves from cell A to cell B, the
communication between the MS and base station of cell A is first broken before communication is started
between the MS and the base station of B. As a consequence, the transition is not smooth.
• For smooth transition from one cell (say A) to another (say B), an MS continues to talk to both A and B. As
the MS moves from cell A to cell B, at some point the communication is broken with the old base station of
cell A. This is known as soft handoff
3.Explain the concept of frequency reuse in cellular system.
 • Cellular telephone systems rely on an intelligent allocation and reuse of channels.
• Each base station is given a group of radio channels to be used within a cell.
• Base stations in neighbouring cells are assigned completely different set of channel frequencies.
• By limiting the coverage areas, called footprints, within cell boundaries, the same set of channels may be
used to cover different cells separated from one another by a distance large enough to keep interference
level within tolerable limits.
• Cells with the same letter use the same set of frequencies, called reusing cells or co-channels
• N cells which collectively use the available frequencies (S = k.N) is known as cluster.
• If a cluster is replicated M times within a system, then total number duplex channels (capacity) is C
Reuse factor: Fraction of total available channels assigned to each cell within a cluster is 1/N.
As the demand increases in a particular region, the number of stations can be increased by replacing a cell
with a cluster
Here cell C has been replaced with a cluster. However, this will be possible only by decreasing the
transmitting power of the base stations to avoid interference.

4.Explain the requirements for mobile communication system.

• Multiple access techniques are used to allow a large number of mobile users to share the allocated spectrum
in the most efficient manner.
• As the spectrum is limited, so the sharing is required to increase the capacity of cell or over a geographical
area by allowing the available bandwidth to be used at the same time by different users.
• And this must be done in a way such that the quality of service doesn’t degrade within the existing users.
• Multiple access protocols are a set of protocols operating in the Medium Access Control sublayer (MAC
sublayer) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
• These protocols allow a number of nodes or users to access a shared network channel.
• Several data streams originating from several nodes are transferred through the multi-point transmission
channel.
• The objectives of multiple access protocols are optimization of transmission time, minimization of collisions
and avoidance of crosstalks.

5.With the aid of neat diagrams explain the concept of Time Division Multiple Access.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) :
TDMA is channelization protocol in which bandwidth of channel is divided into various stations on time basis.
There is time slot given to each station, station can transmit data during that time slot only
 Each station must aware of its beginning of time slot and location of the time slot. TDMA requires synchronization
between different stations. It is type of access method in data link layer. At each station data link layer tells
station to use allocated time slot.

most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a station.
However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used for the multiple
access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The mobile system that uses
this technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.

6.With the aid of neat diagrams explain the concept of Frequency Division Multiple Access.
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) :
FDMA is the channelization protocol in which bandwidth is divided into various frequency bands. Each
station is allocated with band to send data and that band is reserved for particular station for all the time
which is as follows:

• The frequency bands of different stations are separated by small band of unused frequency and that
unused frequency bands are called as guard bands that prevent interference of stations.

• This was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems in which each individual user is
assigned a pair of frequencies while making or receiving a call.

• One frequency is used for downlink and one pair for uplink. This is called frequency division duplexing
(FDD).

• That allocated frequency pair is not used in the same cell or adjacent cells during the call so as to
reduce the co channel interference.
 • Even though the user may not be talking, the spectrum cannot be reassigned as long as a call is in place.

12 MARKS
Explain with neat diagrams the concept of cellular topology and its hierarchy
Cellular topology
The cellular topology is applicable only in case of wireless media that does not require cable
connection.
In wireless media, each point transmits in a certain geographical area called a cell.
Each cell represents a portion of the total network area.
Devices that are in the cell communicate through a central hub. Hubs in different cells are
interconnected. They route data across the network and provide a complete network
infrastructure.
The data is transmitted in the cellular digital packet data (CDPD) format.

Shape of Cells
The coverage area of cellular networks are divided into cells, each cell having its own antenna
for transmitting the signals. Each cell has its own frequencies. Data communication in cellular
networks is served by its base station transmitter, receiver and its control unit.
The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon −
Square
A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d

 Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant

 Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon
A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations. It offers the
following advantages −

 Provides equidistant antennas

 Distance from center to vertex equals length of side

Frequency Reuse
Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a given area, that
are separated by considerable distance, with minimal interference, to establish communication.
Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −

 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency

 Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
 Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
 10 to 50 frequencies per cell
For example, when N cells are using the same number of frequencies and K be the total number
of frequencies used in systems. Then each cell frequency is calculated by using the
formulae K/N.
• Extend the coverage to the areas that are difficult to cover by a large cell.
• Increase the cell capacity of the network for areas that have a higher density of
users.
• To accommodate an application that needs certain coverage
• Femto cells- smallest unit- connecting devices-few meters
• Pico cells- cell inside a building- 10s of meters
• Micro cells - 100s of m, streets, antenna lower than roof top
• Macro cells - metropolitan areas- several km, antenna roof top
• Mega cells - nation wide,100s of km, satellite
 UNIT-3
1.Write short note Short Message Service (SMS)
• The short message service (SMS) is the ability to send or receive a text message to
or from mobile phones.
• It is widely used in the GSM system outside North America (e.g., Europe, Asia,
Australia, the Middle East, and Africa) and some parts of North America.
• The GSM system supports SMS messages using unused bandwidth and has several
unique features.
• SMS features confirmation of message delivery. This means the sender of the short
message can receive a return message back, notifying the sender whether the SMS
has been delivered or not.
• SMS can be sent and received simultaneously with GSM voice, data, and fax calls.
• This is possible because voice, data, and fax calls utilize dedicated channels for the
duration of the call, while
• short messages travel over the control channels.
• As such, the message can be stored if the recipient is not available.
• SMS is basically a store and forward service.
• In other words, SMS text is not sent directly from a sender to the receiver but is
always processed via a SMS center instead.
2.Explain the applications of satellite systems.

Applications
Traditionally, satellites have been used in the following areas:
● Weather forecasting: Several satellites deliver pictures of the earth using, e.g., infra
red or visible light. Without the help of satellites, the forecasting of hurricanes would
be impossible.
● Radio and TV broadcast satellites: Hundreds of radio and TV programs are
available via satellite. This technology competes with cable in many places,
as it is cheaper to install and, in most cases, no extra fees have to be paid for
this service. Today’s satellite dishes have diameters of 30–40 cm in central
Europe, (the diameters in northern countries are slightly larger).
● Military satellites: One of the earliest applications of satellites was their use for
carrying out espionage. Many communication links are managed via satellite because
they are much safer from attack by enemies.
• Satellites for navigation: Even though it was only used for military purposes in the
beginning, the global positioning system (GPS) is nowadays well-known and
available for everyone.
• The system allows for precise localization worldwide, and with some additional
techniques, the precision is in the range of some metres.
• Almost all ships and aircraft rely on GPS as an addition to traditional navigation
systems. Many trucks and cars come with installed GPS receivers. This system is
also used, e.g., for fleet management of trucks or for vehicle localization in case of
theft.

3.Explain the limitations and beneficiaries of Global Positioning System(GPS)

Limitations:
• There are several factors that introduce error into GPS position calculations and
prevent from achieving the best possible accuracy. A major source of error arises
from the fact that the speed of the radio signals is constant only in a vacuum, which
means that distance measurements may vary as the values of the signal speed vary
in the atmosphere
• Another source of error is the multiple paths that signals take between the satellite
and the MS ground receivers. The effects of multipath fading and shadowing are
significant due to the absence of a direct LOS path.
• Another factor affecting the precision is satellite geometry (i.e., locations of the
satellites relative to each other).
• If a GPS receiver is locked with four satellites and all four of these satellites are in
the sky to the north and west of the receiver, satellite geometry is relatively poor.
This is because all the distance measurements are from the same general direction.
This implies that triangulation is poor and the common area where these distance
measurements intersect is fairly wide

Beneficials:
 4.Write short notes on LEO and GEO satellites

GEO
• If a satellite should appear fixed in the sky, it requires a period of 24 hours.
• Using the equation for the distance between earth and satellite
• r=
• and the period of 24 hours f = 1/24h, the resulting distance is 35,786 km. The orbit must have an
inclination of 0 degrees.
● Advantages: Three GEO satellites are enough for a complete coverage of
almost any spot on earth. Senders and receivers can use fixed antenna positions, no adjusting is
needed. GEOs are ideal for TV and radio broadcasting.
Lifetime expectations for GEOs are rather high, at about 15 years. GEOs typically do not need a
handover due to the large footprint. GEOs do not exhibit any Doppler shift because the relative
movement is zero.

LEO
• As LEOs circulate on a lower orbit, it is obvious that they exhibit a much shorter period (the
typical duration of LEO periods are 95 to 120 minutes).
• LEO systems try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide a high quality
communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for around ten minutes.
• A further classification of LEOs into little LEOs with low bandwidth services (some 100 bit/s),
big LEOs (some 1,000 bit/s) and broadband LEOs with plans reaching into the Mbit/s range
• Advantages:
• Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of
• about 2,400 bit/s can be enough for voice communication. LEOs even provide this bandwidth for
mobile terminals with omni-directional antennas using low transmit power in the range of 1W.
The delay for packets delivered via a LEO is relatively low (approx 10 ms).
• The delay is comparable to long-distance wired connections (about 5–10 ms). Smaller footprints
of LEOs allow for better frequency reuse, similar to the concepts used for cellular networks).
• LEOs can provide a much higher elevation in polar regions and so better global coverage.

12 MARKS
1.With the aid of neat diagram, explain the architecture of GSM.

• MS (Mobile Station) = ME (Mobile Equipment ) +SIM (Subscriber Identity Module)

• BSS (Base Station Subsystem) = BTS (Base Transceiver Station) + BSC (Base Station Controller)
• NSS (Network Switching Subsystem)
MSC (Mobile Switching Center): telephony switching function and authentication of user

Mobile station
• Communicates the information with the user and modifies it to the transmission protocols of the
air interface to communicate with the BSS
• MS (Mobile Station) = ME (Mobile Equipment ) + (Subscriber Identity Module)
• ME-hardware piece contains all the components needed for the implementation of the protocols
to interface with the user and the air interface to the BSS
• SIM-smart card issued at the subscription time identifying the specification of the user, address
and type of service
 Base Station Subsystem
• BSS (Base Station Subsystem) = BTS (Base Transceiver Station) + BSC (Base Station Controller)
• BSS- communicates with the user through the wireless interface and with the wired infrastructure
through wired protocols
• It translates between the wireless and wired medium as needs of both medium are different
• Base Transceiver Station-counter part of MS
• Contains transmitter,receiver,signaling equipment and is located at the antenna
• Base Station Controller-switch inside BSS and does frequency administration and hand over
among the BTS inside a BSS

Network Switching Subsystem

• Responsible for network operation
• Communication with other wired and wireless networks
• Support registration and maintenance of connection with the MSs

• A block diagram representation of the GSM infrastructure is given in Figure with various
interfaces.
• The radio link interface through the air is between the MS and the base transceiver station (BTS).
• A MS interfaces only with the BTS. Many BTSs are controlled by a BS controller (BSC), which
in turn has an interface to a MSC.
• Base station controller (BSC): The main function of the BSC is to look over a certain number of
BTSs to ensure proper operation.
• It takes care of handoff from one BTS to the other, maintains appropriate power levels of the
signal, and administers frequency among BTSs.
• Mobile switching center (MSC): The MSC basically performs the switching functions of the
system by controlling calls to and from other telephone and data systems.
• It also does functions such as network interfacing and common channel signaling.
• If the MSC has an interface to the PSTN, then it is called a gateway MSC.
• GSM uses two important databases called HLR and VLR, to keep track of the current location of a
MS.
• Authentication center (AUC): AUC unit provides authentication and encryption parameters that
verify the user’s identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call.
• The AUC protects network operators from different types of frauds and spoofing found in today’s
cellular world.
• Equipment identity register (EIR): EIR is a database that contains information about the
identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls from being stolen and prevents unauthorized or
defective MSs.
• Both AUC and EIR can be implemented as individual stand-alone nodes or as a combined
AUC/EIR node.