CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter contain various literatures of different studies relevant to the study. It

includes both conceptual and research literature from the internet in foreign and local

studies.

Banana

Banana is a tropical climacteric fruit and universally comprises a number of

species in the genus Musa of the family Musaceae. It is one of the most leading fruits in

the world and the fifth most important crop produced globally (Aurore et al. 2009).

Banana is an edible fruit botanically a berry produced by several kinds of large

herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. According to the latest FAO statistics

2019, Philippines is the largest producer of banana in Asia. Banana is among the world’s

major food crops, after rice, wheat and maize. Banana fruit consists of two parts: peel and

pulp. Peel, which is the main by-product of banana, is about 40% of total weight of the

fruit. Until recently, banana peel (Bpe) had no useful applications and was dumped as

waste, contributing massive amounts of organic materials to be managed. Musa, since

researchers have begun to focus on studying the composition of BPe, several possible

applications have emerged (Agama-Acevedo et al. 2016, Potential of plantain peels flour

as a source of dietary fiber and antioxidant compound).

In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, in contrast

to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is usually

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elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch a rind which may be green, yellow,

red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the

plant, consists high sources of starch, which is about 18.5% . As banana peels ripen, the

glucose level increases. Banana is one of the most nutritious fruits, being a good source

of potassium, vitamins, (such as A, B6, C and D), and minerals. It also helps in losing

weight as it is easily digested, and aids in the body’s retention of calcium, nitrogen, and

phosphorus, all of which worked to build healthy and regenerated tissues (Sampath

Kumar, et al, 2012, Traditional and Medicinal Uses of Banana). According to Bezzera

et.al (2013) the results showed that unpeeled green banana flour obtained by spouted bed

drying can be a valuable tool to add nutritional value to products in order to increase their

non-digestible fraction (Bezzera et al. (2013).

All parts of the banana plant have medicinal applications (Amit and Shailandra,

2006) the flowers in bronchitis and dysentery and on ulcers; cooked flowers are given to

diabetics; the astringent plant sap in cases of hysteria, epilepsy, leprosy, fevers,

hemorrhages, acute dysentery and diarrhea, and it is applied on hemorrhoids, insect and

other stings and bites; young leaves are placed as poultices on burns and other skin

afflictions; the astringent ashes of the unripe peel and of the leaves are taken in dysentery

and diarrhea and used for treating malignant ulcers (Girish and Satish, 2008),

Antibacterial activity of important medicinal plants on human pathogenic bacteria); the

roots are administered in digestive disorders, dysentery and other ailments; banana seed

mucilage is given in cases of diarrhea in India (Bhat et al., (2010) Statistical optimization

and neural modeling of amylase production from banana peel using Bacillus subtilis).
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Antifungal and antibiotic principles are found in the peel and pulp of fully ripe bananas

(Brooks, 2008). The antibiotic acts against Mycobacteria (Omojasola and Jilani, (2009)

Antibacterial and phytochemical analysis of Banana fruit peel). A fungicide in the peel

and pulp of green fruits is active against a fungus disease of tomato plants (Ponnuswamy

et al., 2011). Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin are also present in the ripe peel

and pulp (Ratule et al., 2007). The first two elevate blood pressure; serotonin inhibits

gastric secretion and stimulates the smooth muscle of the intestines (Anhwang et al.,

2009). Some of the specific diseases known to be cured by banana are Anemia: High in

iron, bananas are believed to stimulate the production of hemoglobin in the blood and so

helps in cases of anemia (Amit and Shailandra, 2006). Blood Pressure: Banana is

extremely high in potassium yet low in salt, making it the perfect food for helping to beat

blood pressure (Debabandya et al., 2010). Depression: This is because bananas contain

tryptophan, a type of protein that the body converts into serotonin known to make you

relax, improve your mood and generally make you feel happier (Girish and Satish, 2008).

Heartburn: Bananas have a natural antacid Antibacterial and phytochemical analysis….

19 effect in the body so if you suffer from heartburn, try eating a banana for soothing

relief (Mokbel et al., 2005). Morning Sickness: Snacking on bananas between meals

helps to keep blood sugar levels up and avoid morning sickness (Amit and Shailandra,

2006). Mosquito bites: Before reaching for the insect bite cream, try rubbing the affected

area with the inside of a banana skin. Many people find it amazingly successful at

reducing swelling and irritation (Odebiyi and Sofowora, 1978). Nerves: Bananas are high

in B vitamins that help calm the nervous system (Singh and Bhat, 2003). Smoking:
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Bananas can also help people trying to give up smoking, as the high levels of Vitamin C,

A1, B6, B12 they contain, as well as the potassium and magnesium found in them, help

the body recover from the effects of nicotine withdrawal (Mokbel et al., 2005). Stress:

Potassium is a vital mineral, which helps normalize the heartbeat, sends oxygen to the

brain and regulates the body’s water-balance (Girish and Satish, 2008).

According to the study of Aguilar et al (2016), saba is one of the varieties of

banana in the Philippines that is commonly used by people in making desserts, such as

banana cakes, banana chips, banana cues, and turon. Due to its demand, their production

accumulates a bulk of waste including banana peel which can pose an environmental

problem. The researchers decided to utilize banana peel and turn it into another product

where it may present various uses and benefits.

Aside using in food products and medicine, banana can be used in fiber industry.

According to (Mukhopadhay et al., 2008) all varieties of banana can be used for the fibre

extraction purpose.

Banana Peel

Banana peel as a raw material is said to be a good source of potassium and fiber

containing more soluble and insoluble fiber than its flesh. The intake of dietary fiber can

reduce and prevent certain diseases, promote digestion and bowel movements, and reduce

blood cholesterol levels. It is also known to promote wound healing mainly from burns

and to help overcome or prevent substantial number of illnesses, such as depression

(Pereira, et al, 2014).

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Dietary fiber is best known for its ability to prevent or relieve constipation. It

provides other health benefits such as helping maintain a healthy weight and lowering the

risk of diabetes and heart disease (Mayo Clinic, 2014). It also reduces the risk for

developing coronary heart disease, stroke, hyper tension, obesity, and certain gastro

intestinal disorders with recommended dietary fiber intake for adults of 22-25 grams per

day. The high amount of dietary fiber in the peel possess a possibility to utilize it as a

functional ingredient in starch – rich products such as pasta (Saifullah, et al, 2009).

Mudgil and Barak in 2013 stated that dietary fiber can be used in processed for products

not only to improve dietary fiber content itself but also to improve its viscosity, texture,

sensory characteristics, and shelf life and protein (Singh et al. 2016). Banana peel is a

rich source of minerals and bioactive compounds (Kusuma et al. 2018). Several studies

reported the use of banana peel flour (BPeF) as a functional food source (Agama-

Acevedo et al. 2016; Ramli et al. 2009; Ramli et al. 2010; Turker et al. 2016). According

to some reports, both pulp and peel have high antioxidant activity (Agama-Acevedo et al.

2016; Gonzalez-Montelongo et al. 2010). As lipid oxidation in food components is one of

the unwanted reactions causing rancidity, food producers rely on synthetic antioxidants to

minimize lipid deterioration. Potential health risks, however, is a limiting factor of using

these preservatives extensively in food products, especially staple ones (Pathak et al.

2017). Given that BPe extract has been found to be non-toxic to human cells, more

information has become available on using it as an inexpensive fruit by-product source of

antioxidants (Segundo et al. 2017b). The amount of ash, protein, crude fibre and

digestible starch of BPeF was reported to be significantly higher than that of pulp, which
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makes the BPeF more effective as a functional additive (Nasrin et al. 2015). For instance,

the higher quantity of ash can be valuable in treating deficiencies of minerals caused by

celiac disease (Presutti et al. 2007). Additionally, several studies have shown the

application of BPe as a low-cost precursor for producing materials such as anionic dye

and heavy metal adsorbents (Mahindrakar and Rathod 2018; Munagapati et al. 2018;

Oyewo et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2018; Vilardi et al. 2018), recovering phenolic

compounds (Vu et al. 2018), producing cellulose nanofibers (Costa et al. 2018; Harini et

al. 2018; Tibolla et al. 2018), as well as bioethanol (Berawi and Bimandama 2018;

Prakash et al. 2018) and pectin extract (Khamsucharit et al. 2018). In the following

sections, some of the exclusive added value components in banana are introduced. Most

researchers applied oven drying for banana fruit (Gomes et al. 2016; Kurhade et al. 2016;

Nasrin et al. 2015; Segundo et al. 2017.

In the study Agama-Acevedo, et al (2009), it was stated that consumers are

unlikely to eat insufficient amount of vegetables and other fiber-rich foods directly. The

supplementation of banana peel cereal can play important role in addressing this problem

and achieving health benefits.

Oyster Mushroom

Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotos ostreatus) is a food fungus from the Basidiomycota

group and belongs to homobasidiomycetes class with the general characteristics of the

fruit body is white to broken white and the hood is semicircular shaped oyster shell with

the middle slightly concave. (Meddiati Fajri Putri, 2018). Mushrooms have a high

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nutritional value, being fairly well off in protein, having the appropriate amount of

essential amino acids and fiber but with low fat content. Considerable amounts of

vitamins (C, D, E, B1, B2, and B12) are provided by edible mushrooms (Mattila et al.,

2001). The edible mushroom can be the best food for diabetic patients and for those who

desire to get rid of excess fat since it contains small quantities of carbohydrate and fat

(Deepalakshmi and Mirunalini, 2014). In the developing countries, oyster mushrooms

considerably contribute in overcoming protein deficiency. Also, they are rich in calcium,

iron, potassium, copper, zinc, and manganese (Owaid, 2013). Particularly, to produce

mushroom capsule and extract special strains of dried mushrooms are used. The

mushroom is a rich food and in addition to being a satisfying meal, it is unrivaled for

flavor (Alam and Raza, 2001). Dietary mushrooms offer a broad range of curative

properties. Oyster mushroom has important therapeutic properties including

antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer activities, blood lipid lowering effects and

immunity. Mushrooms have also been considered helpful against insomnia, cancer,

asthma, diabetes, cholesterol reduction, allergies and stress (Wang et al., 2000).

Edible mushrooms have been consumed as food and medicine for many years

(Wan Rosil et al., 2011; Akbarirad et al., 2013). They constitute a significant food item

regarding health, human nutrition and disease prevention (Chang and Miles, 2004). It is

generally said that “foods and medicines have a common origin" (Kaul, 2001).

Mushrooms are versatile food items which may be consumed fresh or cooked wholly.

Mushrooms have been included in a normal human, diet for so long but currently,

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amounts consumed have increased to a great extent involving a larger number of species.

Nowadays, mushrooms are eaten for their distinctive flavor, texture as well as for the

health benefits which they provide (Chang and Miles, 2004). In addition, many research

findings have revealed that oyster mushrooms can prevent and reduce several serious

diseases, including high blood pressure and cholesterol (Agrawal et al., 2010), breast

cancer, and prostate cancer (Jedinak and Sliva, 2008). One of the functional compounds

that commonly occurs in mushrooms, β-glucan, is associated with lowering blood

cholesterol levels and the glycemic response in vivo; however, scant information is

available about the levels that exist in edible mushrooms (Bobek et al., 2001). The dried

oyster mushroom is high in total dietary fibre (33.00-56.99%) and β-glucan (3.32-

25.83%) content (Aishah, 2013; Ng et al., 2017). This cereal product has low protein

content and as such is not a balanced diet because of its low lysine and other essential

amino acids (AGU et al., 2010). This composite flour technique is actually the process of

incorporating other cereals or legumes into wheat flour. As such, locally accessible raw

material is therefore used for the preparation of better quality local agricultural food

products in an economical way (SHAHZADI, 2004).

Cereals

Cereals consumed by billions of people, cereal grains are the main staple food in

many diets, providing a large percentage of daily energy intake. In the context of a

balanced diet, cereals—especially when consumed as a whole—represent a healthy

source of multiple nutrients, dietary fibers, and bioactive peptides with anticancer,

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antioxidant, and antithrombotic effects. Based on the increase in worldwide mortality

attributable to diet-related chronic diseases, in recent years, there has been a growing

interest in identifying cereals with a greater health potential. In particular, ancient grains

(defined as those grains that have remained unchanged over the last hundred years) have

gained interest since several studies have suggested that they are higher or characteristic

in some components such as minerals and polyphenols. In light of this, efforts are being

made to induce people to replace refined cereals with whole and ancient grains. In

addition, researchers are trying to improve the nutritional proprieties of the most widely

used cereal products such as bread or tortillas through the incorporation of legumes and

rye flour, flaxseeds, and other ingredients. Cereals the need for high protein and high

fiber food with functional constituents is gaining popularity worldwide due to increasing

health risks, as these help in tackling challenges of hunger, starvation and other persistent

diseases (Mahajani, 2020). Cereal grains, pulses & oil seed like Oat, rice barley,

sorghum, chickpea, groundnut, sesame seed, flaxseed, and amaranth are thought of to be

one of the foremost vital sources of macromolecule, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals

and fiber for individuals all over the globe. Moreover, they are used as sources of

indigestible carbohydrates that besides promoting many helpful physiological effects may

by selection stimulate the expansion of lactobacilli and bifidobacterial gift within the

colon, thereby acting as prebiotics (Kellow, et al.,2014). Cereals contain soluble fiber

(such as 6-glucan and arabinoxylan), oligosaccharides (such as galacto and fructo-

oligosaccharides) and resistant starch, and so are suggested to fulfill the prebiotic

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construct (Slavin, 2013; Andersson et al., 2014). All the nutritious food products are

generally prepared using cereal grains, pulses and oil seeds.

The major features of these substances are texture, structure, mouth feel, bulk, and

plenty of other characteristics favored for unique finished food products, more people are

willing to consume various whole grain foods, particularly foods such as whole grain

bread and granola bars over other food items. (Combest and Warren, 2018). They not

only provide nutrition, but also confer health promoting effects in food, such as anti-

carcinogenic, anti-microbial, and antioxidant properties (Costabile et al., 2008; Adebo

and Gabriela, 2020). To develop products from all these grains preprocessing is required

like roasting, popping, puffing, rolling and flaking. For better preprocessing like roasting,

popping, puffing, rolling and flaking, better physical and functional properties are

required (Mahajani, 2020).

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