APPENDIX A

Space-Phasor Representation
of Symmetrical Three-Phase Electric
Machines

A.1 INTRODUCTION

This appendix presents a space-phasor domain dynamic model for a symmetrical

three-phase electric machine. The developments mainly concern the (squirrel-cage)
asynchronous machine, the doubly-fed asynchronous machine1 , and the nonsalient-
pole permanent-magnet synchronous machine (PMSM).

A.2 STRUCTURE OF SYMMETRICAL THREE-PHASE MACHINE

Figure A.1 illustrates a simplified electrical structure of a symmetrical three-phase

machine. The rotor and the stator each has three star-connected windings. The stator
windings are interfaced with either a three-phase voltage source or a three-phase
current source. However, the rotor windings can be either short circuited or excited
by a three-phase voltage/current source. In the former case, the machine is called the
asynchronous machine (or the squirrel-cage asynchronous machine), whereas in the
latter case, the machine is the doubly-fed asynchronous machine. For each phase,
the positive current enters the corresponding winding (motoring convention). For
each winding set, we assume that the voltages (currents) of phases b and c lag the
voltage (current) of phase a, respectively, by −120◦ and −240◦ .
With reference to Figure A.1, the mechanical angular position is defined with
respect to the magnetic axis of the stator phase a winding. Thus, the windings of
phases b and c are, respectively, located at positions 120◦ and 240◦ . We then define the
rotor angle, θr , as the angle between the magnetic axes of the rotor and stator phase a

1 Inthe technical literature, the term induction machine is more common than the term asynchronous
machine. However, the term asynchronous machine is more precise, as the induction phenomenon is not
exclusive to the asynchronous machine.

Voltage-Sourced Converters in Power Systems, by Amirnaser Yazdani and Reza Iravani

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

413
414 APPENDIX A: SPACE-PHASOR REPRESENTATION

bs

br
Vsb

ar
V ra
θr
V rb
as

Vsa
Rotor Vsc V rc

Stator

Air gap
cs
cr
FIGURE A.1 Cross section of a symmetrical three-phase electric machine.

windings. Thus, as Figure A.1 illustrates, the rotor phase a, phase b, and phase c
windings are, respectively, located at θr , θr + 120◦ , and θr + 240◦ .

A.3 MACHINE ELECTRICAL MODEL

The machine electrical model is developed based on the concept of mutually coupled
inductors. For the sake of clarity, we introduce the stator and rotor variables with
subscripts s and r, respectively. The following assumptions are also made:

r Neither the rotor nor the stator has saliency, and thus the air gap is uniform.
r The flux density is radial in the machine air gap.
r The flux density due to each winding in the air gap, when no other wind-
ing carries a current, is a sinusoidal function of the mechanical angular
position.
r The three stator windings are identical, each with an ohmic resistance of Rs .
Similarly, the three rotor windings are identical, each with an ohmic resistance
of Rr .
r Both the stator and the rotor have infinite permeabilities.
r Magnetic saturation is not considered.
 MACHINE ELECTRICAL MODEL 415

A.3.1 Terminal Voltage/Current Equations

Faraday’s law requires that

dλsa
= Vsa − Rs isa ,
dt
dλsb
= Vsb − Rs isb ,
dt
dλsc
= Vsc − Rs isc , (A.1)
dt
and
dλra
= Vra − Rr ira ,
dt
dλrb
= Vrb − Rr irb ,
dt
dλrc
= Vrc − Rr irc , (A.2)
dt
where λsabc and λrabc are the flux linkages of the stator and rotor windings, respec-
tively. Based on the developments of Chapter 4, (A.1) and (A.2) are equivalent to the
following space-phasor equations:
−
→
d λs −
→ −
→
= Vs − R s i s , (A.3)
dt

−
→
d λr −
→ −
→
= Vr − Rr ir . (A.4)
dt
−
→ −
→
Equations (A.3) and (A.4) are coupled through λs and λr . In the subsequent sections,
−
→ −
→
λs and λr are expressed in terms of the machine current.

A.3.2 Stator Flux Space Phasor

The flux linked by each stator winding is a linear function of the stator and rotor
currents. For example, the flux linkage of the stator phase a winding is expressed as

λsa = Lss isa + Mss isb + Mss isc (A.5)

+ M1 (θr )ira + M2 (θr )irb + M3 (θr )irc ,

where Lss is the self-inductance of the stator phase a winding and Mss is the mutual
inductance between the stator phase a winding and the stator windings for phases b
416 APPENDIX A: SPACE-PHASOR REPRESENTATION

and c. M1 , M2 , and M3 are mutual inductances between the stator phase a winding
and the rotor windings for phases a, b, and c, respectively. Due to the uniformity of
the air gap and the symmetry of the magnetic structure, Lss and Mss are not functions
of the rotor position, θr . However, depending on the rotor position, the rotor windings
can be aligned differently with respect to the stator phase a winding. Consequently,
M1 , M2 , and M3 are functions of θr .
When θr is equal to either zero or π, the axes of the stator and rotor phase a windings
are aligned. When θr = 0, M1 (θr ) assumes its maximum (positive) value, and when
θr = π, M1 (θr ) assumes its minimum (maximum negative) value. Moreover, since
the flux distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal, M1 is a sinusoidal function of θr .
Thus,

M1 (θr ) = Msr cos θr , (A.6)

where Msr is the maximum mutual inductance between a stator winding and a rotor
winding [53]. It can be deduced that when θr = −2π/3, the axes of the rotor phase b
and stator phase a windings coincide, and thus the mutual inductance between the
two windings is maximized. Similarly, when θr = 2π/3, the axis of the rotor phase-c
winding coincides with that of the stator phase a winding, and thus the mutual induc-
tance between the two windings is maximized. Thus, we deduce
 
2π
M2 (θr ) = Msr cos θr + , (A.7)
3
 
2π
M3 (θr ) = Msr cos θr − . (A.8)
3

Substituting for M1 , M2 , and M3 in (A.5), respectively, from (A.6) to (A.8), we obtain

λsa = Lss isa + Mss isb + Mss isc

   
2π 2π
+Msr cos (θr ) ira + Msr cos θr + irb + Msr cos θr − irc . (A.9)
3 3

Based on the procedure that was followed to derive (A.9), similar expressions can be
derived for λsb and λsc . Thus,

λsb = Mss isa + Lss isb + Mss isc

   
2π 2π
+Msr cos θr − ira + Msr cos (θr ) irb + Msr cos θr + irc , (A.10)
3 3

λsc = Mss isa + Mss isb + Lss isc

   
2π 2π
+Msr cos θr + ira + Msr cos θr − irb + Msr cos (θr ) irc . (A.11)
3 3
 MACHINE ELECTRICAL MODEL 417

Multiplying both sides of (A.9), (A.10), and (A.11), respectively, by (2/3)ej0 ,

(2/3)ej2π/3 , and (2/3)ej4π/3 , adding the resultants, and employing the definition of
the space phasor based on (4.2), we deduce
−
→ −
→ −
→
λs = Ls is + Lm ejθr ir , (A.12)

where
Ls = Lss − Mss ,
 
2
Lm = Msr . (A.13)
3

A.3.3 Rotor Flux Space Phasor

Similarly, the flux linked by the rotor windings can be formulated as

λra = Lrr ira + Mrr irb + Mrr irc

   
2π 2π
+Msr cos (θr ) isa + Msr cos θr − isb + Msr cos θr + isc , (A.14)
3 3

λrb = Mrr ira + Lrr irb + Mrr irc

   
2π 2π
+Msr cos θr + isa + Msr cos (θr ) isb + Msr cos θr − isc , (A.15)
3 3

λsc = Mrr ira + Mrr irb + Lrr irc

   
2π 2π
+Msr cos θr − isa + Msr cos θr + isb + Msr cos (θr ) isc , (A.16)
3 3

where Lrr and Mrr are the self- and mutual inductances, respectively. Due to the
symmetry of the magnetic structure, Lrr and Mrr are constant parameters. However,
the mutual inductance between a rotor winding and a stator winding is a function of
the rotor angle θr , as discussed in Section A.3.2. Multiplying both sides of (A.14),
(A.15), and (A.16), respectively, by (2/3)ej0 , (2/3)ej2π/3 , and (2/3)ej4π/3 , adding
the resultants, and employing the definition of the space phasor based on (4.2), we
deduce
−
→ −
→ −
→
λr = Lr ir + Lm e−jθr is , (A.17)

where
Lr = Lrr − Mrr , (A.18)

and Lm is defined by (A.13).

418 APPENDIX A: SPACE-PHASOR REPRESENTATION

A.3.4 Machine Electrical Torque

An expression for the machine electrical torque can be derived based on the principle
of power balance [43, 53, 54]. The development yields the compact expression
  
3 → −jθr  −
− →∗ 
Te = Lm Im is e ir
2
   
3 −
→ − → ∗ 
= Lm Im is ir ejθr . (A.19)
2

Equations (A.3), (A.4), (A.12), (A.17), and (A.19) describe the machine dynamics
in the space-phasor form. The equations can be expressed in the αβ-frame or in an
arbitrary dq-frame. For example, Chapter 10 introduced a dq-frame that renders the
machine model suitable for analysis and control design purposes.

A.4 MACHINE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

A.4.1 Machine Dynamic Equivalent Circuit

Equations (A.3), (A.4), (A.12), and (A.17) can also be used as a basis to develop an
equivalent circuit for the machine. To realize an equivalent circuit, we eliminate the
terms ejθr and e−jθr in (A.12) and (A.17), using the following transformations:
−
→ − →
fr = fr ejθr , (A.20)

or equivalently

→ −
− →
fr = fr e−jθr . (A.21)

In the technical literature, (A.21) is known as referring the rotor circuit to the stator
→ −
− → −
→
side. Based on (A.21), replacing Vr , ir , and λr in (A.4), (A.12), (A.17), and (A.19),
−
→ − → −
→
respectively, by Vr , ir , and λr , we obtain

−
→
d λr −
→ −
→ −
→
= Vr − Rr ir + jωr λr , (A.22)
dt 

rotor EMF

−
→ −
→ −
→
λs = Ls is + Lm ir , (A.23)

−
→ −
→ −
→
λr = Lr ir + Lm is , (A.24)
 MACHINE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 419

  
3 →−
− → 
Te = Lm Im is ir ∗ , (A.25)
2

−
→
where ωr = dθr /dt is the rotor angular velocity. The term jωr λr in (A.22) represents
a voltage component, proportional to the rotor speed, which can be regarded as the
rotor back EMF.
Let us define the rotor and stator leakage factors as

Ls
σs = − 1, (A.26)
Lm
Lr
σr = − 1. (A.27)
Lm

Then, (A.23) and (A.24) can be rewritten as

−
→ −
→ −
→ − →
λs = σs Lm is + Lm ( ir + is ), (A.28)


−
→
im

−
→ −
→ −
→ − →
λr = σr Lm ir + Lm ( ir + is ), (A.29)


−
→
im

Based on (A.3), (A.22), (A.28), and (A.29), Figure A.2 presents an equivalent
circuit for the machine. The equivalent circuit of Figure A.2 is known as the
air-gap flux model or the T-form model of the machine [109]. The equivalent −
→ cir-
cuit of Figure A.2 represents the squirrel-cage asynchronous machine, if Vr is zero.
−
→
In
→ the doubly-fed asynchronous machine, in addition to Vs the rotor, voltage vector
−
Vr is also controllable. The equivalent circuit of Figure A.2 is valid for both dynamic
and steady-state conditions.

is Rs σs Lm σr Lm Rr jωr λ′r i′
r
+
−

+ + + +

dλs Lm d λ′r
Vs V′r
dt dt
im = is + i′r
− − − −
FIGURE A.2 Space-phasor domain equivalent circuit of the symmetrical three-phase
machine.
420 APPENDIX A: SPACE-PHASOR REPRESENTATION

A.4.2 Machine Steady-State Equivalent Circuit

In this section, we simplify the equivalent circuit of Figure A.2 to represent the−
steady-
→
state behavior of the machine. If the machine rotor is short circuited, that is, Vr = 0,
and the stator is excited by a balanced three-phase voltage with angular frequency ωs ,
we obtain
−
→
is = is ejωs t , (A.30)
−
→
ir = ir ejωs t , (A.31)
−
→  
im = im ejωs t = is + ir ejωs t , (A.32)
−
→
Vs = Vs ejωs t , (A.33)

→ −
− → −
→
where f = fejθ is a complex number. Substituting for is , ir , and im in (A.28) and
(A.29), from (A.30) to (A.32), we deduce
−
→
λs = λs ejωs t , (A.34)
−
→
λr = λr ejωs t , (A.35)

where

λs = σs Lm is + Lm im , (A.36)
λr = σr Lm ir + Lm im . (A.37)

−
→ − → −
→
Substituting for is , Vs , and λs in (A.3), respectively, from (A.30), (A.33), and (A.34),
calculating the derivative, and eliminating ejωs t from both sides of the resultant, we
obtain

jωs λs = Vs − Rs is . (A.38)

−
→ −
→ −
→
Similarly, considering Vr = 0 and substituting for ir and λr in (A.22), respectively,
from (A.31) and (A.35), calculating the derivative, and eliminating ejωs t from both
sides of the resultant, we obtain

jωs λr = −Rr ir + jωr λr . (A.39)

Equation (A.39) can be rewritten as

Rr
jωs λr = −   ir . (A.40)
ωs −ωr
ωs
 PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE (PMSM) 421

is Rs jσs Xm jσr Xm i′r

+ + +
Rr

( )
jωs λ s
jXm
jωs λ′r ωs − ω r
Vs
ωs
im
− − −
FIGURE A.3 Phasor-domain (sinusoidal steady-state) equivalent circuit of the symmetrical
three-phase machine with short-circuited rotor.

Multiplying both sides of (A.36) and (A.37) by jωs , we obtain

jωs λs = jσs Xm is + jXm im , (A.41)

jωs λr = jσr Xm ir + jXm im , (A.42)

where

Xm = Lm ωs . (A.43)

Equations (A.39) and (A.42) can be represented by the equivalent circuit of Figure
A.3, which is the classical steady-state equivalent circuit of the asynchronous machine.
Based on the equivalent circuit of Figure A.3, blocked-rotor and no-load tests, which
are carried out to obtain the machine parameters, can be readily described. The term
(ωs − ωr )/ωs appearing in (A.40) and in the equivalent circuit of A.3 is referred to
as rotor slip in the technical literature.

A.5 PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE (PMSM)

The model of the three-phase AC machine, that is, (A.3), (A.4), (A.12), (A.17), and
(A.19), can be modified to represent the PMSM. The modification mainly involves
the rotor structure; in the PMSM, no physical rotor windings exist and instead a
permanent magnet is employed for flux generation. Figure A.4 illustrates a simplified
electrical structure of the PMSM.

A.5.1 PMSM Electrical Model

To model the PMSM, we assume that there is no equivalent damper winding effect
introduced by the rotor. Moreover, we neglect the rotor saliency and assume a uniform
air gap [43]. This model approximately represents the surface-magnet PMSM [54],
where the magnets are installed on the rotor surface in which the rotor and stator
structures remain the same as those of the symmetrical three-phase AC machine of
422 APPENDIX A: SPACE-PHASOR REPRESENTATION

bs

Rotor Vsb
ar

θr
N
as
S
Vsa

Vsc
Stator

Air gap
cs
FIGURE A.4 Cross section of the three-phase PMSM.

Section A.2.2 The stator windings constitute a set of mutually coupled inductors. Thus,
the flux linked by each stator winding is a linear function of the winding current and
the currents of the other two windings as if the magnet did not exist. The net flux
linked by each stator winding also has a component due to the rotor magnet. However,
this component is a function of the rotor angle. When the magnetic axis of a stator
winding is aligned with that of the rotor permanent magnet, the flux is maximized
in absolute value. Since rotor saliency is ignored, the mutual inductance between
any two stator windings is constant. The fluxes linked by the stator windings can be
formulated as
λsa = Lss isa + Mss isb + Mss isc + λm cos (θr ) , (A.44)
 
2π
λsb = Mss isa + Lss isb + Mss isc + λm cos θr − , (A.45)
3
 
2π
λsc = Mss isa + Mss isb + Lss isc + λm cos θr + , (A.46)
3

where λm is the rotor maximum flux. Multiplying both sides of (A.44), (A.45),
and (A.46), respectively, by (2/3)ej0 , (2/3)ej2π/3 , and (2/3)ej4π/3 , adding the

2 A PMSM with interior (buried) magnets is often attributed a nonuniform air gap and thus a salient rotor

[54]. A model for the salient-rotor PMSM is presented in Example 4.10.

 PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE (PMSM) 423

corresponding sides of the resultants, and employing the definition of the space phasor
based on (4.2), we deduce
−
→ −
→
λs = Ls is + λm ejθr . (A.47)

where Ls is defined by (A.13). Comparing the stator flux equation for the PMSM, that
is, (A.47), with its counterpart for the symmetrical three-phase AC machine, that is,
−
→
(A.12), we realize that λm ejθr is equivalent to Lm ejθr ir . Thus, the electrical torque
−
→
of the PMSM can be calculated by substituting for Lm ejθr ir = λm ejθr in (A.19), and
we obtain
   
3 −
→
Te = λm Im is e−jθr . (A.48)
2

The stator voltage and current are related through (A.1) or its equivalent, (A.3).
Equations (A.3), (A.47), and (A.48) describe the dynamics of the PMSM in the space-
phasor form. The equations can be expressed in αβ-frame by decomposing the space
phasors into their real and imaginary components. The equations also provide a basis
for machine control, which is usually performed in a dq-frame. In case of the PMSM,
a suitable dq-frame is the one that is synchronized to the rotor angle, θr , as already
discussed in Chapter 10.
−
→
To develop an equivalent circuit for the PMSM, we substitute for λs from (A.47)
in (A.3). Thus,
−
→
d is −
→ −
→
Ls = Vs − Rs is − jλm ωr ejθr . (A.49)
dt 

back EMF

Based on (A.49), the equivalent circuit of Figure A.5 can be sketched for the PMSM.
This equivalent circuit is valid for both steady-state and dynamic conditions.

Rs Ls
is
+ +

dλ s +
Vs jλm ω r e jθ r
dt −

− −
FIGURE A.5 Space-phasor domain equivalent circuit of the PMSM.
424 APPENDIX A: SPACE-PHASOR REPRESENTATION

A.5.2 PMSM Steady-State Equivalent Circuit

To develop a steady-state equivalent circuit for the PMSM, we assume that the ma-
chine stator is excited by a balanced three-phase sinusoidal voltage, and the rotor
speed is equal to the angular frequency of the stator voltage. Thus, the machine
current is also a balanced three-phase waveform. The foregoing conditions can be
expressed as
−
→
Vs = Vs ejωs t , (A.50)
−
→
is = is ejωs t , (A.51)
θr = ωs t + θr0 , (A.52)
−
→
where ωs is the stator excitation frequency. Substituting for is and θr in (A.47), from
(A.51) and (A.52), we deduce
−
→
λs = λs ejωs t , (A.53)

where
λs = Ls is + λm =⇒ jωs λs = j (ωs Ls ) is + jωs λm , (A.54)
λm = λm ejθr0 . (A.55)

−
→ − → −
→
Substituting for Vs , is , and λs in (A.3), from (A.50), (A.52), and (A.53), calculating
the derivative, and eliminating the term ejωs t from both sides of the resultant, we
conclude
jωs λs = Vs − Rs is . (A.56)

Equations (A.54) and (A.56) correspond to the equivalent circuit of Figure A.6, which
is the classical steady-state equivalent circuit of the PMSM.

Rs jLs ωs
is

+ +

+ jω λ
Vs jω s λ s − s m

− −
FIGURE A.6 Phasor-domain (steady-state) equivalent circuit of the PMSM.
 PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE (PMSM) 425

The machine steady-state electrical torque can be calculated by substituting for

−
→
is = is ejωs t and θr = ωs t + θr0 in (A.48):
   
3
Te = λm Im is e−jθr0 . (A.57)
2

Let is = is ejθi . Then, (A.57) can be written as

   
3
Te = λm Im is ej(θi −θr0 )
2
3
= ( λm )is sin(θi − θr0 ). (A.58)
2 

δ

The phase difference between the machine current and the machine internal EMF,
denoted as δ = (θi − θr0 ) in (A.58), is known as load angle in the technical literature.
For a given torque, the machine current is minimum when δ = π/2 rad.