ASSIGNMENT No.

1
Name: Amina Mushtaq
Program /level: BS
Roll no: BY409418
Course: Classical Drama (9057)
Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: BS English
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY,
ISLAMABAD
(Department of English Language and Applied
Linguistics)
Question:
Analyze Aristotle’s concept of Tragedy in detail with particular
reference to its defining features?
Answer:
Components of Tragedy in Aristotle's Poetics
Aristotle's theory of tragedy is completely based on induction. The ample examples or citations
that Aristotle uses in his text from the tragedies of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides, make the
idea clear that his theory of this literary genre comes from his extensive reading of their
tragedies, and the ideas are mere generalizations of the commonalities in their tragedies.
Thus, it is interesting to see a theory that followed the genre for which it is actually theorized. But in modern
times this theory has lost its importance with the development of different sorts of tragic plots
ending with a catastrophe. Now its significance is limited to the level of differentiating Aristotelian mode of
tragedy from non-Aristotelian mode.

Aristotle defines tragedy as "the imitation of an action that is serious and having magnitude, complete in itself"
in the medium of poetic language and the manner of dramatic presentation which incorporates "incidents
arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish catharsis of such emotions". An undeniable fact associated
with this cathartic effect is that tragic representation of suffering and terrific defeat leaves an audience, not
depressed, but relieved or even exalted. This distinctive effect on the reader, "the pleasure of pity and fear", is
a basic way to distinguish it from comic and other forms of dramatic representation. Moreover, Aristotle
makes the pleasure of pity and fear a rule that governs the organization of the tragic plot and choice of tragic
hero and sees that a dramatist's aim should always be how to achieve this end in his drama.

There are six major components in tragedy according to Aristotle. They are:

(a) Plot

(b) Character

(c) Thought

(d) Diction

(e) Song

(f) Spectacle

(a) Plot:
Aristotle defines plot as the soul of tragedy and emphasizes much on its unity. He treats it as a
unified artistic whole directed toward the intended effect, that is, pleasure of pity and fear and
catharsis of such human emotions. Being a unified whole, a plot should have a proper beginning,
a middle and an end in which every part supports the whole and none of the parts are non-
functional. And being an imitation of an action, the plot should imitate single action. The
inclusion of a series of actions simply because they happen to a single character does not make
an artistic whole.

In the plot, the events develop through complication to catastrophe. The "hamartia" or a severe
tragic flaw of the protagonist leads to the complication and a sudden revelation, or "anagnorisis",
of this flaw intensifies the complication and it in turn anticipates the tragic end of the character,
or catastrophe after a sudden reversal in the fortune of the character, that is, "peripeteia". In this
way, the plot moves from hamartia through anagnorisis and peripetiea to catastrophe. This shows
that Aristotle favors the complex plot as opposed to the simple plot in which reversal of the
situation is almost impossible.

(b) Character:
It has a secondary place after the plot. By character, Aristotle means the tragic hero who is
always a noble man who in turn is neither thoroughly good nor thoroughly evil but a mixture of
both. He is always higher than the ordinary moral worth. If, according to Aristotle, the character
is better-than-we-are, the tragic effect will be stronger. The tragic and unfortunate end of such a
character moves in us pity and fear. He moves in us to pity because his misfortune is greater than
what he actually deserves from his hamartia. Likewise, he moves us to fear, for we think of what
will happen to our lesser and fallible selves.

(c) Thought:
It is a way of saying what is appropriate to a given circumstance or situation. There should be a
proper relationship between thought and situation. For example, a grave situation always expects
a grave thought and vice-versa.

(d) Diction:
It refers to the expression of meaning in words, or it is a primary mode of imitating the action.
Words are medium of representation, and bearer of tragic meaning and effect.

(e) Song:
Song is taken to be chief among the embellishments used in tragedy. It particularly refers to the
song sung by a group of people known as chorus. Or, in other words, it refers to what is
generally known as choric commentary in tragedy. It includes analysis of the major events of
past, present and what will happen in the future that intensify the dramatic effects. It narrates the
major events that are not shown on stage.

(f) Spectacles:
It means the scenes used in drama for the sake of emotional attraction of the audience. It
heightens the emotional significance of an event in the drama. But this is the sole work of a stage
machinist or manager to set the scene as described by the dramatist.

This theory of tragedy later developed through Castlevetro to neo-classical theorists like
Cornellie in 16th and 17th centuries. But where Aristotle is descriptive in his own right, the
neoclassical theorists developed it as a rule of tragedy with an addition of two other elements to
make up three unities of drama assimilating Aristotle's emphasis upon the unity of action.

Aristotle's Poetics Summary:

Aristotle's Poetics seeks to address the different kinds of poetry, the structure of a good poem,
and the division of a poem into its component parts. He defines poetry as a 'medium of imitation'
that seeks to represent or duplicate life through character, emotion, or action. Aristotle defines
poetry very broadly, including epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, and even some
kinds of music.
According to Aristotle, tragedy came from the efforts of poets to present men as 'nobler,' or
'better' than they are in real life. Comedy, on the other hand, shows a 'lower type' of person, and
reveals humans to be worse than they are in average. Epic poetry, on the other hand, imitates
'noble' men like tragedy, but only has one type of meter - unlike tragedy, which can have several
- and is narrative in form.

Aristotle lays out six elements of tragedy: plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle, and song.
Plot is 'the soul' of tragedy, because action is paramount to the significance of a drama, and all
other elements are subsidiary. A plot must have a beginning, middle, and end; it must also be
universal in significance, have a determinate structure, and maintain a unity of theme and
purpose.

Plot also must contain elements of astonishment, reversal (peripeteia), recognition, and suffering.
Reversal is an ironic twist or change by which the main action of the story comes full-circle.
Recognition, meanwhile, is the change from ignorance to knowledge, usually involving people
coming to understand one another's true identities. Suffering is a destructive or painful action,
which is often the result of a reversal or recognition. All three elements coalesce to create
"catharsis," which is the engenderment of fear and pity in the audience: pity for the tragic hero's
plight, and fear that his fate might befall us.

When it comes to character, a poet should aim for four things. First, the hero must be 'good,' and
thus manifest moral purpose in his speech. Second, the hero must have propriety, or 'manly
valor.' Thirdly, the hero must be 'true to life.' And finally, the hero must be consistent.
Tragedy and Epic poetry fall into the same categories: simple, complex (driven by reversal and
recognition), ethical (moral) or pathetic (passion). There are a few differences between tragedy
and epic, however. First, an epic poem does not use song or spectacle to achieve its cathartic
effect. Second, epics often cannot be presented at a single sitting, whereas tragedies are usually
able to be seen in a single viewing. Finally, the 'heroic measure' of epic poetry is hexameter,
where tragedy often uses other forms of meter to achieve the rhythms of different characters'
speech.

Aristotle also lays out the elements of successful imitation. The poet must imitate either things as
they are, things as they are thought to be, or things as they ought to be. The poet must also
imitate in action and language (preferably metaphors or contemporary words). Errors come when
the poet imitates incorrectly - and thus destroys the essence of the poem - or when the poet
accidentally makes an error (a factual error, for instance). Aristotle does not believe that factual
errors sabotage the entire work; errors that limit or compromise the unity of a given work,
however, are much more consequential.

Aristotle concludes by tackling the question of whether the epic or tragic form is 'higher.' Most
critics of his time argued that tragedy was for an inferior audience that required the gesture of
performers, while epic poetry was for a 'cultivated audience' which could filter a narrative form
through their own imaginations. In reply, Aristotle notes that epic recitation can be marred by
overdone gesticulation in the same way as a tragedy; moreover, tragedy, like poetry, can produce
its effect without action - its power is in the mere reading. Aristotle argues that tragedy is, in fact,
superior to epic, because it has all the epic elements as well as spectacle and music to provide an
indulgent pleasure for the audience. Tragedy, then, despite the arguments of other critics, is the
higher art for Aristotle.

Question:

How does Oedipus exemplify the qualities of a Sophoclean hero?

Answer:
Introduction:

Sophocles’ Oedipus is one of the most well-known and influential fictional figure in the history
of literature primarily because of the fact that Oedipus symbolizes many things – as a hero, as a
son, as a leader and as an example of the conflicting issues affecting morality. This particular
hero is the center of the story. It’s about a boy who was thrown to the woods and was expected to
meet his end there in the hopes that his death would render a prophecy unfulfilled. He would
later find himself crossing paths once again with his true biological father whom he kills without
knowing the true identity of the person he slew, thus, making the first prophecy a reality. When
he later married his own biological mother upon his entry in his place of birth, he would make
another prophecy realized. Oedipius’ life was tragic because he always ends up suffering various
misfortunes even when his actions are fueled by the best of intentions on his part, a reversal
known as peripeteia (Osborne, p. 69). It was his lack of knowledge and awareness that has
doomed him to do the things he wanted to stay away from, which makes him the suitable
individual to represent the concept of the ‘tragic hero’. Philosophical thinkers like Aristotle
wrote about the idea of the tragic hero, explaining the characteristics of such an individual.
Placing the predicament of Oedipus vis a vis, the characteristics of the tragic hero reinforces the
idea that Sophocles’ Oedipus is the ideal man to exemplify Aristotle’s idea of the tragic hero
based on several characteristics focused on the major flaw of Oedipus as an individual character

Discussion:

There are several characteristics that define the tragic hero, as per Aristotle’s understanding of
the concept, and the life and characteristics of Sophocles’ Oedipus fit perfectly in this
framework. First, there is the idea of evoking two important emotions: fear and pity. The life of
the tragic hero should make the audience feel fear as well as pity. The feeling of pity should be a
result of the audience empathizing to the misfortune that has befallen the hero in the story, while
the feeling of fear should be a result of the realization of the audience that such misfortune could
happen to them. Here, the role of the hero is to represent the human nature and the innate
weakness and futility of the human endeavor to counteract or go against the perceived path that
destiny and the universe has set for an individual. These are two of the strongest characteristics
of Oedipus and two of the most important facets of the overall story of Oedipus’ life.

The audience feels pity over Oedipus because of what Oedipus has to go through, and how he
was powerless to fight a prophecy because he feels that it is the moral thing to do. First, Oedipus,
as a baby, was cursed to die in the forest because his father believed that if Oedipus lives, it is by
his hands that King Laius would receive his end. There is reason to celebrate and be happy
because Oedipus somehow managed to get out of the forest alive as he was discovered by chance
by some peasant farmers who eventually ended up handing them over to the king and queen of
Corinth. However, what was thought to be the start of a better life for Oedipus was actually the
opposite. On the contrary, it will be the start of a life that would have a grim ending not only for
Oedipus but also for his mother and father.

The feeling of pity among the audience continues as the audience witness how Oedipus
unknowingly slays his father (Booker, p. 521), and then marries his mother, and it then becomes
the reason for his mother’s intense feeling of guilt and confusion that led her to kill herself.
Finally, the feeling of pity ends with Oedipus making himself blind and then throwing himself in
exile. He allowed all of these things happen to him in pursuit of saving the lives of those whom
he thought were his parents. Despite Oedipus’ moral and righteous goals, he nonetheless ends up
doing what is wrong, illustrating the futility of the human being versus the power of destiny
which is believed to be out of the control of human beings.

As the audience ponders about the life and predicament of Oedipus, he – as the epitome of the
tragic hero – then becomes the symbol of the inability of a human being to run away from his
destiny, and for that, the audience feel fear. Oedipus then represents every human being (Felski,
p.134). They feel fear because in their everyday lives, they make conscious choices and efforts in
order to keep them from harm’s way or to keep them from doing bad things or being subjected to
bad experiences. They protect themselves and they do everything they can to be morally upright
and to guarantee self-preservation. But Oedipus’ life and the lessons from it will become a
deeply ingrained realization upon the audience that they, like Oedipus, are after all helpless
versus their destiny, especially once it is revealed to them.

Another important characteristic of the tragic hero is the fact that the predicament that has led
towards this destiny of the hero/protagonist is a road that is not paved with moral or virtuous
steps, but should be characterized by the mercurial shift from a life of prosperity transforming
towards the life of adversity. Aristotle does this to paint the tragic hero as imperfect, both in
traits as well as in personal experiences. The tragic hero for Aristotle is a man whose knowledge
and self awareness was a product of introspection resulting from strong and negative
experiences.

When Oedipus was born, he has in his hands the prospect of a prosperous life being the son of
the King and the Queen. But this prosperity turns to adversity as a result of the response of King
Laius to the prophecy. When he was growing up in Corinth, again he was presented by a life of
prosperity to which he turned his back against because he does not want to murder his own father
and marry his own mother, leading to a path that will saw him murder his true father, marry his
own mother who would soon take her own life while Oedipus makes himself blind and them puts
himself in exile – clearly a life filled with adversity and not prosperity.

Aristotle believes that this is essential to the tragic hero because this will augur self-awareness as
well as reinforce pity from the audience. It is perfect for a tragic hero because in the end, there is
no happy ending for a man doomed to experience tragedy. The tragedy and misfortune will
remove the tragic hero from an important trait of the tragic hero according to Aristotle, which is
pedigree. The tragic hero is expected to be coming from a blood line of nobilities, which is
symbolic of the expected role of leadership from which the righteousness or morality of the
actions of the tragic hero are to be seen and gauged by the audience.

Another important aspect of a tragic hero as presented by Aristotle is the presence of both the
flaw and the state of being virtuous. This puts the tragic hero in a balanced human form – there is
the presence of innate good enough to inspire moral actions but not so much that the individual is
saintly and incapable of doing wrong, while on the side there is also the tendency of the tragic
hero to demonstrate his frailty or weakness which will result in his error. In the story, Oedipus is
the epitome of the tragic hero because he is virtuous.

He was a good son to his surrogate parents and his being virtuous was demonstrated in two
important events in his life. The first one was during the time he discovered that he was doomed
to kill his father. It broke his heart to leave his parents behind but he knew that even though this
is a very painful step for him, this was the only way that he could keep the prophecy from
becoming true, saving the life of his father and saving his mother from shame that will result in
the marriage of a son to his own mother.
The other event which showed Oedipus innate characteristic of being virtuous is during the time
he took it upon himself to punish his own self for his wrong doings. When he discovered his own
crime and accepted his own shame, he was the one who took his very own eye sight,
symbolizing how he was blinded and how his punishment means, not allowing him to visually
enjoy life because of what he did. He also threw himself in exile as part of the punishment he
himself embraced, knowing that this is the right and moral thing to do.

But despite these moral actions, Oedipus is not perfect. He is also flawed and is a man who is
characterized with errors. One of his flaws is his temper. It is because of his anger that has led to
his killing his father. Another flaw of Oedipus is his belief that he is more powerful than destiny
and fate. He believed that he could change the course of his life based on his own actions. This
belief has sent him towards the path which he was trying to avoid. He believed that he can outrun
destiny and change it over time, and this sense of overconfidence in what he can do doomed him.
Had he been humble enough to allow destiny to reveal itself without any effort to change it,
things would have been different. Of course, Oedipus cannot be blamed here. Any one would
risk doing anything and everything hoping that things turn out for the best.

Lastly, the most important aspect of the tragic hero is death. Tragedy pertains to a sad ending to a
story or a life. The tragic hero’s life is a tragedy not because of death per se. Every human being
dies, but the essence of tragedy is seen in the details leading towards the death of the hero, a life
characterized by misfortune that the tragic hero has to carry with him to his grave. This is a
tragedy because even in his own death, Oedipus knew that there is nothing he can do to redeem
himself from his sins. He is a hero because he tried to do the right thing but he only ends up
doing the wrong things nonetheless. He was a tragic hero because while the audience praise him
for his values, he is also forever stained by the reality that he can never be redeemed from his
errors brought about by his flaws and weaknesses as a man who is powerless against the power
of destiny and fate, which is a very significant ideal during the time of Sophocles.

Conclusion

Aristotle’s concept of the tragic hero puts in perspective the characteristics of the life of a person
who tries to do good things but eventually ends up doing the wrong things anyway. The tragic
hero paradigm explains a lot about the complex nature of life and destiny, and provides an
excellent insight and commentary with regards on how society sees and judges the morality of a
person. The tragic hero does not adhere to the idea regarding the means being justified by the end
because even when the hero goes for what the people can consider as a moral end through
acceptable means, the tragic hero veers away from this philosophical structure and opens up an
entirely new schemata on how actions are decided, justified and later on adjudged for its morality
and for its virtue.

The tragic hero’s flaw will result in death and not in success. The tragic hero suffers misfortune
not because of a particular vice or any form of depravity in the part of the hero, rather, this is
caused by an error or fault in his part. In the end, the tragic hero’s
Question:
How Sophocles' Oedipus exemplifies or refutes Aristotle's definition of a
tragic hero?
Answer:
Introduction:

The purpose of this study is to expand the boundaries of our knowledge by exploring some
relevant facts relating to Greek theater and the concept of tragic hero by the two great
authors; Aristotle and Sophocles. When speaking of the Greek Theatre, we must
necessarily distinguish between tragic dramas and comic plays. This division will speak
later purpose of the study of Greek tragedy was Aristotle. At the moment, before going
deep into the comment of a classic of its kind as Oedipus Rex, it would be a little stand in
the technical part of a tragedy to see the elements that compose it. The mechanical stage of
a classical tragedy is quite complex: for example, the story line is not continuously
exposed, but is interrupted by choral performances.

Discussion:
Analysis Sophocles' Oedipus exemplifies Aristotle defination of a tragic hero

In Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, the protagonist Oedipus does exemplify Aristotle's definition
of the tragic hero. The tragic hero, according to Aristotle, is a hero who is held high on a
pedestal, seems to be a person of great virtue, who through no apparent fault of his own,
falls from his high position to the lowest depths possible. By falling, the hero becomes the
subject of pity to both the other characters in the play as well as the audience (Whitman,
pp. 23-27).

The most consistent argument in Aristotle's Poetics is that tragedy is action foremost, and
the tragic hero an agent of physical events. A common misapprehension of the character of
Aristotle's tragic hero centers on the misreading of the word hamartia as "tragic flaw." In
this ahistorical model, Oedipus is brought down by a flaw, often thought to be an excess of
pride, or hubris. Hamartia is a difficult word to translate, but linguistic research reveals
little doubt that it does not refer to an intrinsic character flaw. The word was an ancient
Greek archery term, literally meaning "to miss the mark." Hamartia concerns the hero's
actions, not his character. More important, the notion of a tragic flaw flatly contradicts
ancient concepts of justice, confusing intent with result. To claim that Oedipus is
characteristically flawed is to claim that he is brought down by a deep, internal unfitness
for rule. In this respect, Oedipus errs by believing he is greater than the gods, that he can
transcend the destiny decreed by Apollo's own oracle. Hubris is his flaw; his actions are the
result of his excessive pride .

To accept this model, though, one must overlook, or explain away as rhetorical or political
convenience, the fact that Oedipus repeatedly proclaims the supremacy of the gods and the
importance of pledging them what they are due: "Our health (with the gods' help) shall be
made certain." While this is a compelling lesson in morality, it is an ahistoric reversal of
 the moral standards of ancient civilization. A few brief reviews of ancient Greek myths
reveal a world.

Question:Is Dr Fraustus’s damnation a tragedy or an act of justice? Discuss.

Answer:
Faust's damnation is largely an act of justice. Faustus' first great sin is pride. He does not
stop there. Reflecting the Christian view, pride gives rise to all of the other sins, and ends
ironically with the proud man's abasement. Faustus goes quickly from pride to all of the other
sins, becoming increasingly petty and low. It is only God, near the end of the play, that can
provide Faust with salvation.

Dr. Faustus is a tragedy because the main character falls as a victim of his own circumstances,
and is a victim of himself. He is a man with all the potential and possibilities to be successful. He
is a Renaissance man who is versed in every aspect of science, philosophy, the arts, education,
and genius, yet, he utilizes his energy and wit into absolutely nonsense and unnecessary goals,
such as his obsession to be a magician, and his ridiculous fixation for power: A power he has no
clue what to do with. To make matters worse, his self absorbence led him to make a pact with the
devil to obtain that same power he wanted for no factual reason.

He didn’t even know why he did it, in all reality. In fact, he did it with no solid basis, and he
obviously began to regret it. All this for nothing: He dies insane and cursed. No triumph, no
merits. Just he, victim of himself. Understanding of Christopher Marlowe’s Elizabethan tragedy,
Dr. Faustus, can be framed in terms of the Renaissance philosophy and the Elizabethan tragedy,
which takes a different turn on some points from the Aristotelian tragedy, for instance such as
the Elizabethan tragedy’s requisite death of the tragic hero.

Dr. Faustus demonstrates the Renaissance philosophy that pits the dichotomy of good, angelic
humanity against evil, depraved humanity. Marlowe’s play also is a model of the Elizabethan
tragedy. Marlowe constructed the character of Dr. Faustus to represent within himself both
characteristics of the Renaissance view of humanity as divinely good and hellishly evil. First, Dr.
Faustus is presented as a scholar of all things including divinity, the highest Renaissance
scholarly discipline.

Then, Faustus is shown as dissatisfied with the limitations of humanity and grasping for
unlimited knowledge, which is a Biblical allusion to Adam and Eve who ate of the Tree of
Knowledge. Throughout the play, Faustus descends to lower and lower planes of knowledge in
his pursuit for the “power” and “omnipotence” that comes from knowledge. At the beginning,
Mephistopheles answers all Faustus’ questions but draws the line on talk of the universe, which
can be seen to stand for astronomical and cosmological studies–the very studies that science is
deeply involved in today: CERN; Hubble; SoHo; etc).

Faustus must be content with merely mapping the universe instead of understanding it. Marlowe
ultimately shows in Dr. Faustus the futility of the quest for ultimate knowledge and the inevitable
end result of abandoning moral integrity for omnipotent knowledge. Dr. Faustus also represents a
Classic Elizabethan tragedy. First, the tragic hero has a flaw or makes an error in judgment that
leads to his own doom. It’s hard to say whether Faustus had a fatal flaw in his character or
whether he was doomed by a faulty understanding that lead to a fatally disastrous error in
judgment.

All along the way, Faustus has doubts and hesitations which speak for an integrity of his moral
character. If he has a fatal flaw, it might be that he did not reckon the power of evil highly
enough, that he thought that with omnipotent knowledge, he could free himself from the chains
of evil he wrapped so blithely around himself. Adam and Eve also fell to the punishment from
the lure of knowledge. Of course, quite often Faustus’ fatal flaw is said to be greed and irreverent
disregard for goodness. One clue to forming a literary stance on the question lies in examining
his hesitations and second thoughts.

In addition to this, the questions addressed in Marlowe’s play are nobel universal questions
pertaining to the highest order of considerations: the meaning of life and death, the quest for
knowledge, the respective power of of good and evil. In further accord with elizabethan tragedy,
the play Dr. Faustus employs comedic relief through the presence of clowns that also acts as a
means of giving information about the characters and the action of the play. The clowns in Dr.
Faustus are Rafe and Robin.

In Elizabethan tragedy, the clowns (rural, country simpletons who misuse language accidentally)
and fools (urban dwellers who play with language and “misuse” it intentionally for wit) generally
replace the Greek Chorus that carried the task of moving the story along with information not
performed on stage, but in Dr. Faustus, Marlowe employs both the Greek-style Chorus and
Elizabethan clowns. Finally, in keeping with Elizabethan tragic form, Faustus gets himself in so
deep, his tragic flaw or error in judgement is so aggregious that it leads ultimately and
necessarily to his death, thus fulfilling the fate of an Elizabethan tragic hero.

Since Faustus has overestimated what he can attain from an arrangement with Lucifer and since
he underestimated the power of Lucifer’s evil, his ultimate end must be and is death even though
he recognizes his mistakes and pleads for pardon. Dr. Faustus is a tragedy related to a man’s
unrealized ambitions. In fact the play is nearer to the psychic experience of the modern man. In
the fit of achieving the superior status or equivalent to that of God, Dr. Faustus displays the
attitude of power hungry people. Sometimes a dissatisfied with divinity can choose an immoral
path.

He is tempted by the evil with so much affinity that the voice of his conscious is not able to stop
him from wrong deeds. His knowledge and education becomes mean before such huge
temptations. When devil is also unable to satisfy his urges then he feels trapped and prays to the
God to rescue him. He repents a nd curses wicked Mephistophilis. Even Christ cannot save
Faustus , as Lucifer says , as His “justness” precludes those like Faustus who are assertive of
their worth. Faustus dies questioning the very validity of human existence. The tragical history of
Christopher Marlowe’s Dr.

Faustus, a great man of knowledge. He sought to gain more knowledge by making a pact with
the devil. The story of Dr. Faustus’ deception begins with his quest for knowledge. He was the
epitome of the “Renaissance Man. ” The Renaissance man was a man who had achieved great
knowledge and had come to what Maslow considered “self-actualization. ” Marlowe, in his
studies of ambitious men, dealt with the Renaissance “overreacher,” revealing his heroism and
strength of will while simultaneously chronicling the loss of humanity occasioned by his
unchecked abuse of power. This is the tragedy of Dr. Faustus. Dr.

Faustus, a great man of knowledge, sought to gain more knowledge by making a pact with the
devil. He thought that the god of the underworld, a created being, could make all knowledge,
even the forbidden knowledge, available to him. This was the first deception. Faustus deceived
himself into believing that there is no hell. This is his second deception. Faustus believed in the
Elysian Fields, the place of abode for the virtuous mortals or those given immortality by divine
favor. He thought that he would spend eternity debating and learning from the great philosophers
of ancient times. Faustus even asks Mephistopheles “What is Hell? The answer should have
caused Faustus to shiver and turn to the God he had renounced.

“Why this is hell, nor am I out of it. Thinks’t thou that I, who saw the face of God,and tasted the
eternal joys of heaven, am not tormented with ten thousand hells in being deprived of everlasting
bliss! O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands, which strike terror to my fainting soul. ” Even
through the warnings of Mephistopheles of the reality of hell, Faustus would not listen. He was
deceived by his own lust for knowledge, fame and power. Faustus believed that he had greater
strength, as a man, than had Mephistopheles. What, is great Mephistopheles so passionate for
being deprived of the joys of heaven? Learn thou from Faustus manly fortitude, and scorn those
joys thou never shalt possess. ” Faustus continues his self-deception as he is in his study waiting
for the return of Mephistopheles. He is in a debate with himself, the good and the bad angel.
Faustus at one point says, “Abjure this magic, turn to God again. Ay, and Faustus will turn to
God again. ” Then he says that God does not love him and “The god thou servest is thine own
appetite. ” This is the only truth that Faust speaks in this work. At midnight Mephistopheles
returns.

Lucifer had agreed to allow Mephistopheles to attend to Faustus for 24 years, so that he could
destroy his soul. Faustus has to sign a contract in his own blood. Mephistopheles tells Faustus
that when he signs the contract he will be “as great as Lucifer. ” Because of Faustus’ deception,
he did not see that if he were “as great as Lucifer,” then Lucifer would not have the right to claim
his soul. As a part of the contract, Mephistopheles is to give Faustus his every desire. Here again
is Faustus deceived. Because of sacrament or giving praise to God, Mephistopheles cannot give
manifestation to his wishes.

When Faustus asks for a book to reveal the secrets of the universe, Faustus sees the beauty of
God’s creation and says that Mephistopheles has deceived him. Faustus says, “When I behold the
heavens, I repent, and curse thee, wicked Mephistopheles, because thou has deprived me of those
joys. ” As Faustus begins to repent of his magic and conjuring, the good and bad angel appear to
him. The good angel tells Faustus that he may redeem his soul, yet the bad angel tells him it is
too late. Faustus is deceived again. Faustus again begins to repent and call on God. “Ah Christ
my Savior! seek to save distressed Faustus’ soul. At this time Lucifer comes and commands that
he not speak the name of God for it “does injure us. ” Faustus vows to never think of God, to
pray. He also vows to burn the Scriptures, slay His ministers, and burn down His churches.
Mephistopheles gives Faustus his wish of traveling the world and learning the nature of life.
Then, soon, the 24 years of the contract is up. Faustus prepares a banquet for his students. They
celebrate and discuss the beauty of fair ladies. Faustus calls up Helen of Troy, for she is the
fairest. After his students leave, an old man appears to Faustus to persuade him to repent.

He does repent again, but at the threat of death, he turns his allegiance back to Lucifer. At eleven
o’clock, the last hour of his life, Faustus tries to conceive every way of escaping hell. He
commands the sun to stay still, so that the hour may not pass. He calls for the mountians to fall
on him so that he may be spared the wrath of God. He says that he would lift his hands to God,
yet he is bound, he would leap up to God, yet he is pulled down. The hour has come for Lucifer
to lay claim to Faustus’ soul. In the end, because Faustus did not repent, he faced the reality of
death, just as he was threatened by if he did repent.

Faustus’ greatest deception was the he allowed the fear of death and the loss of power to cause
him to lose eternity. What Lucifer promised would happen to him if he repented is the way he
died. He deceived himself in believing that there was no hell, that there was no punishment for
his life. Yet he also deceived himself in believing that there was no mercy for him. God would
pardon him, if he had not wavered. James 1:8 says, “A double minded man is unstable in all his
ways. ” This last statement, I believe, sums up the life of Dr. Faustus, “For the thing which I
greatly feared is come upon me, and that which I was afraid of is come unto me

The word tragedy finds its origin in Greek spirit, theory and mythology in the word tragedia.
Tragedy tends to bring to mind the thoughts of pity and sympathy. According to Aristotle, the
famous Greek philosopher emotions of pity and fear are aroused while watching or listening to a
tragedy. Tragedy is a play that represents a central action or plot that is serious and significant.
These plays involve a main character that is a normal human being with his share of good and
bad characteristics. The protagonist is socially active, intelligent and a learned man.

A tragic play entails both verbal and dramatic irony. Dr. Faustus was perhaps the most well
written tragedy of its times and happens to remain so till date. Christopher Marlowe is the
founder and the originator of the mature English tragedy. Written in 1586, Dr. Faustus is a part
of the age that was famous unprecedented literary activity in England, especially drama. Insofar
as the significance of the formulation of tragedy by Aristotle is unparalleled, the Elizabethan’s
quest for prosperity both personal and national and spiritual and moral growth remains the major
reason for the rise in tragic drama.

In addition to this the Renaissance brought with it a keen awareness of infinite capabilities and
aspirations all of which remain unchanged even today. Marlowe’s Dr. Faustus is on similar lines.
Its art of tragedy is instrumental in comprehending the complex nature, mind and life of a man in
those times. For Marlowe or his successors tragedy was not a restriction of man’s ability to
excel, rather it was in view of the glory it brought to in the man’s pursuit of his dreams, even
though failure was inescapable.

Question?
Discuss the elements of Renaissance in Dr Faustus?
Answer:
The word ‘Renaissance’ itself means ‘rebirth’. “The idea of rebirth originated in the belief that
Europeans had discovered the superiority of Greek and Roman culture after many centuries of
what they considered intellectual and culture decline.” Thus the question what was the
renaissance about is answered as the widespread cultural revival marking the division between
the so called ‘dark ages’ and the modern world. The Renaissance was a period of fundamental
change in human outlook once dominated by religious dogma and Christian theology. The age
was marked by a great yearning for unlimited knowledge; by love for worldliness – supreme
power, sensual pleasures of life; by love for beauty; respect for classicism; by skepticism,
individualism and Machiavellian influence.
         
Christopher Marlowe  was a product of the Renaissance. Therefore it was usual for him
that his play Doctor Faustus would contain Renaissance spirit. We see in Dr. Faustus a
wonderful expression of renaissance elements and the character Dr. Faustus as a renaissance
man.

The most important thing in the Renaissance is craving for ‘knowledge infinite’. This
characteristic has been injected in Faustus properly. He has achieved knowledge of all branches.
Yet he feels unfulfilled. So he wants to practice black art and with this he would be able to know
all things –
“I will have them read me strange philosophy.”
After selling his soul, he, at the very first, questions Mephistopheles to know the mystery of the
universe, about the position of hell.
“First, will I question with thee about hell,
Tell me where is the place that men call hell?”

Faustus’s longing for material prosperity, for money and wealth, which is also a
Renaissance element, has been expressed in the following lines where he desires to gain the
lordship of Embden a great commercial city-
“Of wealth!
Why, the signiority of Embden shall be mine.”
He further wants to enjoy a splendid life full of worldly pleasures. He says,
“I will have them fly to India for gold,
Ransack the ocean for orient pearl,
 ….
And search all the corners of the new found world.
For pleasant fruits and princely delicates.”
Here we see another inherent thing characterized by Renaissance in Faustus i.e. love for
adventure.

Faustus’s eagerness to get the most beautiful German maid to be his wife and Helen to be
his paramour and to find heaven in her lips proves his love of beauty along with love for
sensual pleasure which is also a Renaissance element. He says to Mephistophilis,
“For I am wanton and lascivious     
And cannot live without a wife.”

Dominance of classical literature, art and culture is a prominent feature of the

Renaissance. And it is frequently expressed by Faustus in his allusions, examples, references.
One of such examples can be noticed in the following couple of lines where Faustus says,
“Have I not made blind Homer sing to me
 Of Alexander’s love and Oenon’s death?”

“The Renaissance was marked by an intense interest in the visible world and in the
knowledge derived from concrete sensory experience.” “It turned away from the abstract
speculations and interest in life after death that characterized the middle Ages.” Faustus raises
question and gives answer to that question in the following lines-
“That, after this life, there is any pain?
Thus, these are trifles and mere old wives tales.”
Thus Renaissance allows Scepticism and secularism.

In the Renaissance, “the unique talents and potential of the individual became

significant. The concept of personal fame was much more highly developed than during Middle
Ages.” Actually Faustus is an individualistic tragic hero. His tragedy is his own creation. He
does not think like traditional heroes or men. He crosses his limit while common people do not
generally cross that.
 Renaissance movement is greatly influenced by Niccolo Machiavelli, his The Prince and
his ideal “ends justify the means.” Similarly Faustus also wants to reach his goal by any means,
even by selling his soul to Devil –“Faustus gives to thee his soul.” Furthermore, Faustus earns
money by selling a false horse to a Horse-course deceitfully.

The Renaissance has made Faustus fascinated by supreme power. Faustus says-
“A sound magician is a mighty God
Here, Faustus, tire thy brains to gain a deity.”

Finally we must say that Faustus is a faithful embodiment of the Renaissance. He bears
all the characteristics of the age. Actually Marlowe has pictured Faustus with great care and
interest of the age. George Satayana justly says in this regard –
“Marlowe is a martyr to everything, power, curious knowledge, enterprise, wealth and beauty.

Question:

What is hamartia? Elaborate the term with reference to the character of

King Oedipus Rex?

Answer:

Hamartia:
Hamartia arose from the Greek verb hamartanein, meaning "to miss the mark" or "to err."
Aristotle introduced the term in the Poetics to describe the error of judgment which ultimately
brings about the tragic hero's downfall. As you can imagine, the word is most often found in
literary criticism. However, news writers occasionally employ the word when discussing the
unexplainable misfortune or missteps of übercelebrities regarded as immortal gods and
goddesses before being felled by their own shortcomings.

the term hamartia derives from the Greek ἁμαρτία, from ἁμαρτάνειν hamartánein, which means
"to miss the mark" or "to err". It is most often associated with Greek tragedy, although it is also
used in Christian theology. The term is often said to depict the flaws or defects of a character and
portraying these as the reason of a potential downfall. However, other critics point to the term's
derivation and say that it refers only to a tragic but random accident or mistake, with devastating
consequences but with no judgment implied as to the character.
Oedipus Rex, also known by its Greek title, Oedipus Tyrannus (Ancient Greek: Οἰδίπους
Τύραννος, pronounced [oidípoːs týrannos]), or Oedipus the King, is
an Athenian tragedy by Sophocles that was first performed around 429 BC. Originally, to the
ancient Greeks, the title was simply Oedipus (Οἰδίπους), as it is referred to by Aristotle in
the Poetics. It is thought to have been renamed Oedipus Tyrannus to distinguish it from another
of Sophocles's plays, Oedipus at Colonus. In antiquity, the term "tyrant" referred to a ruler with
no legitimate claim to rule, but it did not necessarily have a negative connotation.
Of Sophocles' three Theban plays that have survived, and that deal with the story
of Oedipus, Oedipus Rex was the second to be written. However, in terms of the chronology of
events that the plays describe, it comes first, followed by Oedipus at Colonus and then Antigone.
Prior to the start of Oedipus Rex, Oedipus has become the king of Thebes while unwittingly
fulfilling a prophecy that he would kill his father, Laius (the previous king), and marry his
mother, Jocasta (whom Oedipus took as his queen after solving the riddle of the Sphinx). The
action of Sophocles’ play concerns Oedipus's search for the murderer of Laius in order to end a
plague ravaging Thebes, unaware that the killer he is looking for is none other than himself. At
the end of the play, after the truth finally comes to light, Jocasta hangs herself while Oedipus,
horrified at his patricide and incest, proceeds to gouge out his own eyes in despair.
In his Poetics, Aristotle refers several times to the play in order to exemplify aspects of
the genre.

Curse upon Laius

The misfortunes of Thebes are believed to be the result of a curse laid upon Laius for the time he
had violated the sacred laws of hospitality (Greek: xenia).
In his youth, Laius was taken in as a guest by Pelops, king of Elis, where he would become tutor
to the king's youngest son, Chrysippus, in chariot racing.
Birth of Oedipus
When Laius' son is born, he consults an oracle as to his fortune. To his horror, the oracle reveals
that Laius "is doomed to perish by the hand of his own son." Laius binds the infant's feet together
with a pin and orders Jocasta to kill him. Unable to do so to her own son, Jocasta orders a servant
to slay the infant instead. The servant exposes the infant on a mountaintop, where he is found
and rescued by a shepherd. (In other versions, the servant gives the infant to the shepherd.)
The shepherd names the child Oedipus, "swollen foot", as his feet had been tightly bound by
Laius. The shepherd brings the infant to Corinth, and presents him to the childless king Polybus,
who raises Oedipus as his own son.
Oedipus and the Oracle
As he grows to manhood, Oedipus hears a rumour that he is not truly the son of Polybus and his
wife, Merope. He asks the Delphic Oracle who his parents really are. The Oracle seems to ignore
this question, telling him instead that he is destined to "mate with [his] own mother, and
shed/With [his] own hands the blood of [his] own sire." Desperate to avoid this terrible fate,
Oedipus, who still believes that Polybus and Merope are his true parents, leaves Corinth for the
city of Thebe.
Fulfilling prophecy
The old man
On the road to Thebes, Oedipus encounters an old man and his servants. The two begin to
quarrel over whose chariot has the right of way. While the old man moves to strike the insolent
youth with his scepter, Oedipus throws the man down from his chariot, killing him. Thus, the
prophecy in which Oedipus slays his own father is fulfilled, as the old man—as Oedipus
discovers later—was Laius, king of Thebes and true father to Oedipus.
Riddle of the Sphinx
Arriving at Thebes, a city in turmoil, Oedipus encounters the Sphinx, a legendary beast with the
head and breast of a woman, the body of a lioness, and the wings of an eagle. The Sphinx,
perched on a hill, was devouring Thebans and travellers one by one if they could not solve her
riddle.
The precise riddle asked by the Sphinx varied in early traditions, and is not explicitly stated
in Oedipus Rex, as the event precedes the play. However, according to the most widely regarded
version of the riddle, the Sphinx asks "what is the creature that walks on four legs in the
morning, two legs at noon, and three in the evening?" Oedipus, blessed with great intelligence,
answers correctly: "man" (Greek: anthrôpos), who crawls on all fours as an infant; walks upright
in maturity; and leans on a stick in old age.
Bested by the prince, the Sphinx throws herself from a cliff, thereby ending the curse. Oedipus'
reward for freeing Thebes from the Sphinx is kingship to the city and the hand of its dowager
queen, Jocasta. None, at that point, realize that Jocasta is Oedipus' true mother. Thus,
unbeknownst to either character, the remaining prophecy has been fulfilled.
Plot:
Oedipus, King of Thebes, sends his brother-in-law, Creon, to ask advice of the oracle at Delphi,
concerning a plague ravaging Thebes. Creon returns to report that the plague is the result of
religious pollution, since the murderer of their former king, Laius, has never been caught.
Oedipus vows to find the murderer and curses him for causing the plague.
Oedipus summons the blind prophet Tiresias for help. When Tiresias arrives he claims to know
the answers to Oedipus's questions, but refuses to speak, instead telling him to abandon his
search. Oedipus is enraged by Tiresias' refusal, and accuses him of complicity in Laius' murder.
Outraged, Tiresias tells the king that Oedipus himself is the murderer ("You yourself are the
criminal you seek"). Oedipus cannot see how this could be, and concludes that the prophet must
have been paid off by Creon in an attempt to undermine him. The two argue vehemently, as
Oedipus mocks Tiresias' lack of sight, and Tiresias retorts that Oedipus himself is blind.
Eventually Tiresias leaves, muttering darkly that when the murderer is discovered he shall be a
native citizen of Thebes, brother and father to his own children, and son and husband to his own
mother.
Creon arrives to face Oedipus's accusations. The King demands that Creon be executed;
however, the chorus persuades him to let Creon live. Jocasta, wife of first Laius and then
Oedipus, enters and attempts to comfort Oedipus, telling him he should take no notice of
prophets. As proof, she recounts an incident in which she and Laius received an oracle which
never came true. The prophecy stated that Laius would be killed by his own son; however,
Jocasta reassures Oedipus by her statement that Laius was killed by bandits at a crossroads on
the way to Delphi.
The mention of this crossroads causes Oedipus to pause and ask for more details. He asks Jocasta
what Laius looked like and the location of where he met his demise, and Oedipus suddenly
becomes worried that Tiresias's accusations were true. Oedipus then sends for the one surviving
witness of the attack to be brought to the palace from the fields where he now works as a
shepherd.
Jocasta, confused, asks Oedipus what the matter is, and he tells her. Many years ago, at a banquet
in Corinth, a man drunkenly accused Oedipus of not being his father's son. Oedipus went to
Delphi and asked the oracle about his parentage. Instead of answers he was given a prophecy that
he would one day murder his father and sleep with his mother. Upon hearing this he resolved to
leave Corinth and never return. While traveling he came to the very crossroads where Laius was
killed, and encountered a carriage which attempted to drive him off the road. An argument
ensued and Oedipus killed the travelers, including a man who matches Jocasta's description of
Laius. Oedipus has hope, however, because the story is that Laius was murdered
by several robbers. If the shepherd confirms that Laius was attacked by many men, then Oedipus
is in the clear.
A man arrives from Corinth with the message that Oedipus's father has died. Oedipus, to the
surprise of the messenger, is made ecstatic by this news, for it proves one half of the prophecy
false, for now he can never kill his father. However, he still fears that he may somehow commit
incest with his mother. The messenger, eager to ease Oedipus's mind, tells him not to worry,
because Merope was not in fact his real mother.
It emerges that this messenger was formerly a shepherd on Mount Cithaeron, and that he was
given a baby, which the childless Polybus then adopted. The baby, he says, was given to him by
another shepherd from the Laius household, who had been told to get rid of the child. Oedipus
asks the chorus if anyone knows who this man was, or where he might be now. They respond
that he is the "same shepherd" who was witness to the murder of Laius, and whom Oedipus had
already sent for. Jocasta, who has by now realized the truth, desperately begs Oedipus to stop
asking questions, but he refuses and Jocasta runs into the palace.
When the shepherd arrives Oedipus questions him, but he begs to be allowed to leave without
answering further. However, Oedipus presses him, finally threatening him with torture or
execution. It emerges that the child he gave away was Laius's own son, and that Jocasta had
given the baby to the shepherd to secretly be exposed upon the mountainside. This was done in
fear of the prophecy that Jocasta said had never come true: that the child would kill his father.
Everything is at last revealed, and Oedipus curses himself and fate before leaving the stage. The
chorus laments how even a great man can be felled by fate, and following this, a servant exits the
palace to speak of what has happened inside. When Jocasta enters the house, she runs to the
palace bedroom and hangs herself there. Shortly afterward, Oedipus enters in a fury, calling on
his servants to bring him a sword so that he might cut out his mother's womb. He then rages
through the house, until he comes upon Jocasta's body. Giving a cry, Oedipus takes her down
and removes the long gold pins that held her dress together, before plunging them into his own
eyes in despair, blinding himself.
A blind Oedipus now exits the palace and begs to be exiled as soon as possible. Creon enters,
saying that Oedipus shall be taken into the house until oracles can be consulted regarding what is
best to be done. Oedipus's two daughters (and half-sisters), Antigone and Ismene, are sent out
and Oedipus laments their having been born to such a cursed family. He begs Creon to watch
over them in hopes that they will live where there is opportunity for them and to have a better
life than their father (half-brother). Creon agrees, before sending Oedipus back into the palace.
On an empty stage the chorus repeats the common Greek maxim, that no man should be
considered fortunate until he is dead
Characteristics Of Oedipus The King:
A good leader is one who rules for his people to maintain order and improves the city for the
people who live there. This idea is what many countries have based their Constitution on, like in
the US. In Sophocles’ play Oedipus Rex the king, Oedipus, was very well liked because of his
heroic act of solving the Sphinx's riddle, ridding the city of the monster, which led him to
become the king of Thebes. During his rule, a plague spreads throughout the city, killing many
people, forcing the people go to their king to plead for the help of their heroic king to once again
save the city. A prophecy from Apollo was given to Oedipus which said, in order to save the
city, the killer of the former king Laios must be found and either exiled or…show more
content…
To his people, he announces “ Then once more I must bring what is dark to light...You shall see
how I stand by you, as I should… And not as though it were for some distant friend, but for my
own sake, to be rid of evil”(9). He expresses that he is there for his people but his arrogance is
shown in his thoughts and words of him referencing his past achievement, furthering making
himself to be great and then says he shall complete the task for himself and not another. Oedipus’
pride clouds his actions and judgment of situations, making him put himself before other and
think that he is above everyone else. As a king, Oedipus puts up an act of being considerate but
with others he is not so much. Oedipus’ ego is so large that he doesn‘t notice that through his act
his true self can be seen.
Oedipus’ true character is one that holds a lot of pride and arrogance in himself. It sometimes
makes him think he above others and can do what he wishes to. When Creon, Oedipus’ advisor
and brother in law comes to talk to him about how he may be the one in the prophecy, Oedipus
lets his anger and pride consume him and calls for Creon’s death. He says to Creon, “No, not
exile. It is your death I want, so that all the world may see what treason means…[and]still I must
rule…”(32,33). He calls for Creon’s death so easily even though he is someone who is close to
him and helped him as king ruling wise.
Oedipus the Tragic Hero     A protagonist is a hero of a tragedy who has a high authority or power,
and is a somewhat okay person, who is brought down by an error in judgement. A good character
example is, Oedipus the King, by Sophocles. Oedipus is a tragic hero who is characterized by the
definition described.  Oedipus the king had a hard way of life since after his birth he is abandoned
by his parents ,who wanted him killed when he was cast out of Thebes. This however, does not
stop him from being