How To Write A Masters Thesis by Yvonne Bui

HOW
TO WRITE A MASTER’S THESIS

Third Edition
To M. & O. with all my love
HOW TO WRITE A MASTER’S
THESIS
Third Edition
Yvonne N. Bui
San Francisco State University
Los Angeles
London
New Delhi
Singapore
Washington DC
Melbourne
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Bui, Yvonne N., author.
Title: How to write a master’s thesis / Yvonne N. Bui, San Francisco State University
Description: Third Edition. | Los Angeles : SAGE, [2019] | Previous edition: 2014. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019006833 | ISBN 9781506336091 (Paperback : acid-free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Dissertations, Academic—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
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BRIEF CONTENTS
List of Students’ Master’s Theses
Preface
About the Author
Chapter 1 Overview of the Master’s Degree and Thesis
Chapter 2 Selecting a Research Topic
Chapter 3 Using the Literature to Research Your Problem
Chapter 4 Conducting Ethical Research
Chapter 5 How to Write Chapter One, Introduction
Chapter 6 How to Write Chapter Two, Literature Review
Chapter 7 How to Write Chapter Three, Methods
Chapter 8 How to Write Chapter Four, Results and Findings
Chapter 9 How to Write Chapter Five, Discussion
Chapter 10 Wrapping It All Up
Appendices
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
DETAILED CONTENTS
List of Students’ Master’s Theses
Preface
About the Author
Chapter 1 Overview of the Master’s Degree and Thesis
The Master’s Degree
What Is a Master’s Thesis?
The Benefits of Writing a Master’s Thesis
The Difference Between a Master’s Thesis and a Term
Paper
The Difference Between a Master’s Thesis and a Doctoral
Dissertation
Selecting a Thesis Chairperson and Committee
How to Read and Use This Book
Components of a Master’s Thesis
Chapter One, Introduction
Chapter Two, Literature Review
Chapter Three, Methods
Chapter Four, Results and Findings
Chapter Five, Discussion
Quantitative, Qualitative, or Mixed Methods Research?
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Mixed Methods Research
Style Form
Summary
Resources
Common Obstacles and Practical Solutions
Reflection/Discussion Questions
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 2 Selecting a Research Topic
Important Factors to Consider When Selecting a Topic
Personal Significance
Critical Issues in the Field
Existing Research Literature
Search Engines
Electronic Databases
Ethical Considerations
How to Narrow and Refocus Your Topic
Feasibility
Accessibility
Time and Resources
Developing Answerable Research Questions
Answerable Questions
Defining Terms
Creating a Realistic Timeline
Time Management
Reserving Time
Chunking Method
Summary
Resources
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 3 Using the Literature to Research Your Problem
Benefits of Conducting a Literature Review
Meeting With a Reference Librarian
Sources of Data: Primary Versus Secondary
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Selecting Keywords
Conducting Searches in Electronic Databases
Basic Search
Search Modes
Limiters
Expanders
Advanced Search
Using Subject Terms (Thesaurus)
Conducting Searches on the Internet
Different Types of Articles
Refereed Versus Non-Refereed
Staying Organized
Summary
Resources
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 4 Conducting Ethical Research
Legal Regulations and Ethical Standards
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
IRB Protocol Review Process
Ethical Behavior
Plagiarism and Paraphrasing
Summary
Resources
Reflection/Discussion Question
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 5 How to Write Chapter One, Introduction
Writing Style
Chapter One Sections
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Background and Need
Three Parallel Ladders Strategy
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
Significance to the Field
Definitions
Limitations
Summary
Resources
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 6 How to Write Chapter Two, Literature Review
Preparation and Organization
Chapter Two Sections
Introduction
Advance Organizer
Body of the Review
Research Synthesis
Section Summary
Chapter Summary
Summary
Resources
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 7 How to Write Chapter Three, Methods
Research Designs and Research Methods
Chapter Three Sections
Introduction
Setting
Participants
Intervention and Materials
Measurement Instruments
Validity and Reliability
Procedure
Data Analysis
Summary
Resources
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 8 How to Write Chapter Four, Results and Findings
Chapter Four Sections
Quantitative Data
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Variability
Additional Ways to Report Data Descriptively
Inferential Statistics
Tests of Significance
Independent-Samples t Test
Paired-Samples t Test
Qualitative Data
Major Themes and Patterns
Research Questions
Validity of Findings
Mixed Methods Data
Summary
Resources
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 9 How to Write Chapter Five, Discussion
Chapter Five Sections
Introduction
Discussion
Limitations
Recommendations for Future Research
Conclusion
Summary
Resources
Try It Exercises
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Chapter 10 Wrapping It All Up
APA Style
Levels of Heading
Citations in Text
Direct Quotes
Paraphrasing
One Work, One Author
One Work, Multiple Authors
Two or More Works
Reference List
Order and Format
Tables
Tables in Text
Placement and Spacing
Title
Headings and Body
Notes
Figures
Figures in Text
Placement, Size, and Font
Captions and Legends
Graphs
Final Formatting
Appendixes
Appendixes in Text
Placement and Cover Pages
Front Pages
Title Page
Signature Page
Acknowledgments
Abstract
Table of Contents
Lists of Tables and Figures
Final Tips and Checklist
Copying and Binding
Next Steps: Presenting at Conferences and Getting Published
Summary
Resources
Try It Exercises
Key Terms
Suggested Readings
Web Links
Appendices
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
LIST OF STUDENTS’ MASTER’S THESES
BY STUDENT
Cheryl Gomes: Chapters 7, 9
Lindsey Henderson: Chapter 8
Lori Hess: Chapter 9
Amelyn Ho: Chapter 6
Diana Iniguez: Chapter 8, Appendix G

Robin Irey: Chapters 7, 8, 9
David Kendall: Chapters 7, 8, 9, Appendix G
Michelle Kornhauser: Chapter 7
Sara Mireles: Chapter 8
Barbara Nixon: Chapter 7
Shain Rau: Chapters 8, 9
David Stephens: Chapter 7

Aprille Williams: Chapters 7, 8, Appendixes E and F
BY CHAPTER
Chapter 6:
Ho
Iniguez
Chapter 7:
Williams
Kendall
Irey
Kornhauser
Gomes
Nixon
Stephens
Chapter 8:
Henderson
Irey
Iniguez
Kendall
Mireles
Rau
Williams
Chapter 9:
Gomes
Hess
Kendall
Rau
Irey
Appendix E:
Williams
Appendix F:
Williams
Appendix G:
Kendall
Iniguez
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to teach and model how to write a master’s
thesis. The book is intended for graduate students who will write a thesis
as part of the requirements for a master’s degree as well as for university
faculty who are teaching and advising students pursuing this goal. As a
former faculty member at the University of San Francisco and now at San
Francisco State University, a major part of my role has involved teaching
and advising graduate students pursuing their master’s degrees. This
time has been an enjoyable, fulfilling, and educational experience. Most
of my students are employed professionals working and going to school
full time, caring for families, or assuming other responsibilities that
require their attention. As the culminating experience of their graduate
program, some see the master’s thesis as an opportunity to research
new solutions to problems they have encountered in their course work or
in their professional work. Behind their enthusiasm, however, there is
often fear and uncertainty about how to conduct the research and write
the thesis.
Based on my experiences in advising and teaching master’s students, I

have undertaken the task of demystifying the process of how to write a
master’s thesis. In writing the book, I assumed that you are familiar with
the content in your field or discipline. However, I did not take for granted
that you know the process of writing a master’s thesis because the only
way to know how to write a master’s thesis is to have already written one!
Thus, my goal was to provide a useful, straightforward, and practical
book that goes beyond informing what “should” be done. In addition to
the “should dos,” the organization and structure of the book is designed
to offer guidelines on how to research and write the master’s thesis, step-
by-step.
There are 10 chapters in the book, and each one begins with a detailed
outline of the content in the chapter. Chapter 1 provides an overview of
the master’s thesis. Chapters 2 and 3 focus on how to select a research
topic and search the existing research literature in electronic databases
and Internet search engines. Chapter 4 discusses the ethical issues
when conducting research and the process of applying for approval from
the Institutional Review Board (IRB). Chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 introduce
how to write the main components of each of the five chapters in a
traditional master’s thesis: Introduction, Literature Review, Methods,
Results/Findings, and Discussion. Chapter 10 focuses on editing and
formatting citations, references, tables, and so on, using the writing style
from the American Psychological Association (APA). Within each
chapter, I describe and explain what is expected within a specific section
in the thesis, give tips and strategies on how to prepare and write the
section, and provide sample excerpts adapted from students’ completed
master’s theses to illustrate my suggestions. There are also numerous
figures and captured “screenshots” from relevant websites to enhance
the text.
At the end of each chapter, there is a Resources section that can be

used to deepen your understanding or to tailor information in the text to
your particular thesis. The resources are suitable for use by individual
students or in group and/or class settings. The Resources section
includes Common Obstacles and Practical Solutions,
Reflection/Discussion Questions, Try It Exercises, Key Terms, Suggested
Readings, and Web Links. In the Common Obstacles and Practical
Solutions section, I discuss problems that students typically face and
make suggestions that may help prevent or alleviate these frustrations. In
the Reflection/Discussion Questions, I offer broad questions that may
help synthesize the information in the chapter. The Try It Exercises are
opportunities to practice what was discussed in the chapter to prepare for
or write sections of the thesis. The Key Terms are critical concepts that
were defined in the chapter and are included in the Glossary. In the
Suggested Readings and Web Links, I offer recommendations for
additional readings and websites on the Internet to supplement your
understanding of the information in the chapter. Taken as a whole, the
book is full of detailed explanations, examples, and supplemental
materials that I have successfully used to advise students to complete
their master’s theses.
Important changes have been made to this third edition. First, every
chapter has been carefully edited and updated with new citations.
Second, the suggested readings and web links at the end of each
chapter have also been updated to reflect the most current electronic
resources. Third, due to advances in technology, new sections on
conducting Internet searches and screenshots have been added to
Chapter 2. Fourth, more details and updated examples are provided to
illustrate the funnel writing strategy and the three parallel ladders
strategy. Fifth, there is more information about qualitative research and
mixed methods and data analysis in this edition. Finally, sections were
added on how to read and use the book and prepare the master’s thesis
for presentation and publication.
Writing a master’s thesis is a complex task, and I would be less than

honest if I suggested that all you need to do is read this book and the
task will be easy. You will work hard in doing your research, and you will
spend long hours writing the thesis. I have great respect for you as you
task will be easy. You will work hard in doing your research, and you will
spend long hours writing the thesis. I have great respect for you as you
undertake this important and admirable task to fulfill a worthy goal, both
personally and professionally. Your master’s research will cause you to
think and write differently, give you confidence in your professional role,
and open new doors for you. In the absence of not having the opportunity
to work with you personally, I hope that this book serves your needs
during your journey and that you benefit from it as much as I have from
working with students like you.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge and express my appreciation for the
individuals who helped make this book a possibility. I would like to thank
the following reviewers for their comments and suggestions on how to
strengthen the book:
Andrew Vorder Bruegge, Winthrop University
Margaret K. Chojnacki, Barry University
Joel M. Cox, Liberty University
Michael Dreher, Bethel University
Tavis Jules, Loyola University Chicago

Hsin-I Liu, University of the Incarnate Word
Jonathan Mercantini, Kean University

Dr. Julie Norflus-Good, Rampao College of New Jersey
Linda Smetana, California State University, East Bay

Libby Smith, University of Wisconsin-Stout
Elizabeth Tolman, South Dakota State University
Cheryl Young-Pelton, Montana State University Billings
To Leah Fargotstein, my amazing editor at SAGE Publications, I cannot

thank you enough for your guidance, patience, and support. To the
To Leah Fargotstein, my amazing editor at SAGE Publications, I cannot
thank you enough for your guidance, patience, and support. To the
editorial, production, and support staff at SAGE Publications, thank you
for your assistance throughout the entire process. To my students, thank
you for all that you taught me and for sharing your master’s theses with
others. To my devoted friends and colleagues, thank you for providing
sustenance and comfort. To my life mentors and confidantes, Edward
Meyen and Larry Brewster, thank you for your eternal wisdom,
encouragement, and insight. To my loving parents and siblings, thank
you for believing in me and supporting all my endeavors. To my beautiful
family, you are my heart and inspiration. Thank you for your unconditional
love. I am grateful to you all.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Yvonne N. Bui
(PhD, Special Education, University of Kansas) is a Professor and
Chairperson of the Department of Special Education, Graduate College
of Education at San Francisco State University. She has taught master’s-
and doctoral-level courses in Special Education, Research Methods,
Master’s Thesis, Statistics, Grant Writing, and Dissertation Proposal
Development. She has served as the chairperson and committee
member for students’ theses and dissertations. She is the coeditor of
Exceptional Children in Today’s Schools: What Teachers Need to Know.
Her research interests include developing curriculum for students with
disabilities from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and
international special education. Her personal interests include reading,
writing, hiking, backpacking, camping, traveling, and spending time with
her family.
1 OVERVIEW OF THE MASTER’S DEGREE
AND THESIS
The Master’s Degree 2

What Is a Master’s Thesis? 3
The Benefits of Writing a Master’s Thesis 4

The Difference Between a Master’s Thesis and a Term
Paper 4
The Difference Between a Master’s Thesis and a Doctoral

Dissertation 5
Selecting a Thesis Chairperson and Committee 6
How to Read and Use This Book 7
Components of a Master’s Thesis 8
Chapter One, Introduction 9
Chapter Two, Literature Review 9

Chapter Three, Methods 10
Chapter Four, Results and Findings 11

Chapter Five, Discussion 11
Quantitative, Qualitative, or Mixed Methods Research? 12
Quantitative Research 12
Qualitative Research 14
Mixed Methods Research 15
Style Form 16
Summary 17
Resources 18
Common Obstacles and Practical Solutions 18
Reflection/Discussion Questions 18
Try It Exercises 18
Key Terms 20
Suggested Readings 20
Web Links 21
As it has for more than two centuries, progress will come in fits
and starts. It’s not always a straight line. It’s not always a
smooth path.
—Barack Obama
If you are reading this page, congratulations! This signifies that you have
already successfully completed a bachelor’s degree in your field, a major
accomplishment. Now you are ready to embark on the next phase of your
educational journey: completing a master’s degree. Why congratulations
and not condolences? Because whether or not the master’s degree is the
highest professional degree in your field or a gateway to doctoral studies,
completing the degree will open many doors for you, both personally and
professionally; it is up to you to find them and walk through.
THE MASTER’S DEGREE

There are a vast number of types of master’s degrees in a variety of
disciplines and specialty areas. The two main types of academic degrees
at the master’s level are the Master of Arts and the Master of Science.
The Master of Arts (MA) degree is typically awarded in the disciplines of
arts, sciences, social sciences (e.g., education, psychology), and
humanities (e.g., history, philosophy, religion). The Master of Science
(MS) degree is typically awarded to students in technical fields such as
engineering, nursing, mathematics, and health care management but can
also be in the social sciences.
In some fields, the master’s degree is referred to as a professional

degree or terminal degree. A terminal degree is the generally accepted
highest academic degree in a field of study. For the purposes of this
book, no distinction is made between the MA, MS, or professional
degrees, because all are referred to as the master’s degree.
A master’s degree program is a graduate-level, postbaccalaureate

program in a specific field or discipline that typically involves a
culminating activity, project, exam, or thesis. Depending on the discipline
and the institution, there may be several pathways to obtain the master’s
degree. In some cases, students may take a certain number of units
through coursework and complete a fieldwork project at the end of their
studies. For example, graduate students may submit a project related to
a particular topic such as a curriculum unit, a handbook or manual, or a
visual arts performance. In other cases, students may take courses and
pass a comprehensive oral or written exam at the end of their studies. In
still other cases, the degree may require coursework and a research
study. There may be a combination of the options mentioned involving
coursework, an exam, and a final project or study. Although each
discipline has its own specific requirements for the master’s degree, they
all share a commonality of having a cumulative experience or final activity
to show that students have “mastered” the necessary content. Thus,
before you proceed in your studies, it is best to find out the requirements
for the master’s degree within your own discipline, field, and institution of
higher education.
In addition to many tangible benefits, a major benefit of obtaining the
master’s degree is the amount of personal satisfaction that it brings. I
always tell my students (especially when they are on the verge of giving
up), “Yes, it is a tremendous amount of work; yes, I know you have not
seen your partner in a week; and yes, I understand the dog is angry at
you. However, when you are done and you have completed your
master’s degree, no one can take that away from you.” This usually
keeps them going for about a week. The point is although it will seem like
a long (and virtually endless) journey, and it will not always be easy to
see the finish line, once you complete your culminating experience, a
unique sensation will overcome you (unrelated to the fatigue). This
sensation comes from knowing that despite the adversity and hurdles,
you have accomplished your own personal goal, acquired by only a small
proportion of the general population.
WHAT IS A MASTER’S THESIS?

For the purposes of this book, I only address the master’s thesis option.
The master’s thesis is an empirically based research study that is an
original piece of work by the graduate student. An empirically based
research study is based on data that are produced by experiment or
observation (rather than opinion). The thesis must be an original piece of
work because it represents the student’s culminating research and writing
abilities. Thus, this book focuses on the research process and a
traditional five-chapter thesis rather than an artistic performance or
production. Completing a thesis demonstrates your ability to conduct
original research, review the existing literature, collect data, analyze the
data, report the results, discuss conclusions, and draw implications from
your research findings. Moreover, the completion of a thesis represents
your perseverance, discipline, and scholarly writing. Just like there is
more than one way to skin a catfish, each discipline has slightly different
specifications and requirements for the thesis. Some institutions may also
require that there is a final presentation of the study. It is important for
you to find out what the requirements are for the components, format,
and process for completing the thesis. Usually the graduate division,
college, school, or department will offer these guidelines.
If you are preparing to write your master’s thesis, most likely you are at
the end or toward the end of your master’s degree program. Although
master’s degree programs are not typically designed to teach students
how to write a thesis, the course of study and experiences from the
program benefit you greatly as you go through the research and writing
process for the thesis. First, the master’s thesis process provides you
with multiple opportunities to learn the critical core content in your field or
discipline. This content knowledge will help you as you select an
appropriate topic to study—one that is both relevant and significant to
your field—and frame your research interests. Next, most master’s
degree programs require students to take a research methods course.
The thesis experience will help you research the literature, analyze and
synthesize research articles, develop answerable research questions,
and create a rigorous, yet feasible, design for your study. Thus,
throughout the thesis writing process, you will be constantly relying on
the content knowledge and experiences that you gained from the
master’s degree program to demonstrate you have “mastered” the
content and associated research skills in your field or discipline.
The Benefits of Writing a Master’s Thesis

As mentioned earlier, there are many options to obtaining the master’s
degree—with the thesis as one of them, perhaps the most challenging
and time-consuming. You are probably thinking, then, “Why on earth am I
choosing this option?” Besides the feeling of euphoria that will wash over
you when you copy and bind your final draft, there are some tangible
benefits of choosing a thesis that make it a worthwhile choice.
First, completing a master’s thesis can inspire you to continue study

within your discipline. Conducting academic research or pursuing an
academic career is not for the weak of heart. The thesis can help prepare
you for the next level of research practice within your discipline and/or
candidacy for a doctoral program. Not only will you have evidence of
research potential (and practice in conducting research), you will have
the opportunity to discern early if an academic career is a good fit before
committing to pursue further degrees.
Second, the thesis writing experience provides a rare opportunity for

mentorship and guidance with a faculty member, an expert in your
discipline area. During this process you will meet and work individually
with a faculty thesis advisor and committee members who will give you
detailed advice and push you to a higher level of thinking and writing. The
faculty thesis advisor can also be a great reference for future jobs,
internships, or the next graduate- school application. To this day, I still
maintain a close relationship with my former thesis students, and they
know they can always come to me for support.
Finally, the skills you acquire in writing a thesis will benefit you in any
career you choose. For example, you will learn how to pose a problem,
present data to support an argument, organize your thinking,
communicate through scholarly writing, manage a large project and your
time effectively, and receive constructive feedback. All these skills will
enhance your performance in any chosen career path.
The Difference Between a Master’s Thesis and a

Term Paper
One of the biggest hurdles for students when writing the master’s thesis
is adjusting from the writing style of a term or research paper format, a
common expectation at the undergraduate level. There is a qualitative
(and often quantitative) difference between the master’s thesis and a
term paper. As mentioned, the master’s thesis is based on original
research on a particular topic conducted by the student. In comparison,
the term paper is a major written assignment about a particular topic
(representative of a student’s achievement during a term)
(https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/termpaper). In the term
paper, there may be a subject or question that will be answered using
examples from books, journals, articles from newspapers, and so on, to
support the findings. However, the student is not conducting a research
study to answer a research question. For example, a term paper may
consist of presenting the argument that the use of social media
technologies (e.g., blogs, social networks) has actually decreased rather
than increased the quality of relationships within society. The student
would cite research and other sources to persuade the reader and
support his argument. For a master’s thesis, on the other hand, the
student would conduct a full literature review on the topic and then
develop a research question. Then he would collect data, perhaps
administering a survey to 200 people at random to find out their
perspectives about their social media usage and the quality of their social
relationships. Finally, he would analyze the data, report the results, and
discuss the conclusions and implications of his findings (based on the
data that were collected).
The Difference Between a Master’s Thesis and a

Doctoral Dissertation
In some cases, you will hear the word “thesis” used to refer to both
master’s and doctoral degrees. More commonly, universities use the term
thesis to refer to the requirement for a master’s and a dissertation for the
doctorate. A dissertation is typically the culminating requirement for a
doctoral degree. The difference between the thesis and the dissertation
depends on your particular discipline, specialty area, and institution. In
many instances, there are more similarities than differences between the
two, especially when considering the “traditional” research form of a
master’s thesis. For example, both the thesis and dissertation studies
should follow a systematic process where there is a researchable
problem, literature to support and contextualize the problem, data
collection methods (e.g., sampling, measurement instruments), analysis
of the data, and discussions and conclusions based on the results of the
study.
However, at every step of the process, the dissertation may require the
student researcher to go into more depth or breadth. For example, the
dissertation usually includes a theoretical rationale or conceptual
framework that relates to the problem. Sometimes the purpose of the
dissertation could be to develop or to refine an existing theory. This is not
commonly required for a master’s thesis. The dissertation may also
require a larger sample size or complicated sampling plan, more
measurement instruments, and complex statistical or rich qualitative
analysis of the data. Thus, the length of the dissertation study (both in
time spent collecting data and page numbers) may be significantly
greater than that of the master’s thesis.
Another distinction between the dissertation and the master’s thesis is
the number of people involved in the process. For the dissertation, most
institutions require that the doctoral student form a committee with a
chairperson and two, three, or sometimes four other faculty members
who serve as readers. Students have to “defend” their dissertation
proposal to the committee members before they are allowed to proceed
with the study, with a final defense after they have completed the study.
For the master’s thesis, it is more common for the student to work with
her assigned faculty chairperson and one other faculty member
throughout the process.
Finally, another important distinction between the two is the focus or

purpose of the study. The master’s thesis may have a narrow practical
focus, whereas the dissertation may have a broader and more theoretical
focus. Although both have practical implications, the master’s thesis may
be more directly related to a present or immediate problem. Thus, one
way to differentiate between the two is to think of the dissertation as a
more complex and sophisticated master’s thesis. In fact, when I advise
students on their master’s theses, I am constantly reminding them that
this is to prepare them for their doctoral dissertation!
SELECTING A THESIS CHAIRPERSON AND

COMMITTEE
One of the most important parts of the thesis process is selecting a
chairperson and committee member(s). A critical benefit going through a
master’s degree program is getting to know the different faculty in your
program or department. By this time, you will have a better sense of
which faculty would be the most compatible in terms of working style and
research interests to select as your chairperson. The chairperson is the
faculty member who is assigned to or selected by the graduate student to
advise him throughout the master’s thesis process. Keep in mind that
your chairperson may be different from your faculty adviser or the
department chairperson. At some institutions, the program selects the
chairperson for you, while in others you can select the chairperson as
well as the other members of your committee. Typically, there are two
faculty members on your master’s thesis committee: the chairperson and
one committee member. However, it is best to check with your institution
because this number can vary from two to five members. Most
commonly, it is required that the chairperson be a faculty member within
the degree program, while the committee members could be faculty from
within or outside the program and department. Again, it is a good idea to
check with your institution regarding the specific criteria for the selection
process.
If you are allowed to pick your own chairperson, there are a few things to
keep in mind. First, your chairperson is not the coauthor of the master’s
thesis. In other words, she will not be writing the thesis with you (or for
you). Rather, the role of your chairperson is to guide and direct your
study. This does not include writing, editing, conducting research, or
collecting and analyzing data. The chairperson will assume that you have
all the necessary skills to complete the thesis—she will help facilitate the
process. One factor to consider when selecting a chairperson is her area
of expertise. Having a chairperson who is familiar with the topic of your
thesis is helpful because she can offer suggestions on critical research
literature. The chairperson may also have expertise in a particular
research design that you want to use in the study. Another factor to
consider when selecting a chairperson is fit. Here, you should evaluate
whether or not you could have a positive working relationship with the
faculty member. Keep in mind that you are not trying to make a new
friend, but you do want someone who will offer insight and constructive
feedback on your work. Finally, make sure to consider whether or not the
faculty member is accessible. The role of the chairperson is time-
consuming (especially when it comes to the giving feedback part), so do
not pick a person who is already overwhelmed with her other
responsibilities.
Once you have selected a chairperson, set up an initial meeting to
discuss how you will work together. Each chairperson will vary on how
she will want to work with graduate students, so it is critical for you to
know and follow her expectations. See the Resources section at the end
of this chapter for a list of possible questions to ask at your initial
meeting. These questions will help you and your chairperson get off to a
great start with a mutual understanding of your working relationship.
HOW TO READ AND USE THIS BOOK
The intent of this book is to give you a blueprint of the research process
as well as to provide you with step-by-step guidance on how to write the
actual thesis, one chapter at a time. This is not a New York Times best-
selling novel, so unless you are an insomniac like me, there is really no
need to read the book from front to back cover in one sitting. Rather, it
might be helpful to read the book as you would a reference book—
skimming the entire book and then probing deeper into specific chapters
as you need more detailed information. As noted with the beginning
quote, everyone’s writing process will differ. While the book is written in a
linear fashion for organizational purposes (and because I’m a pretty
linear person), some of you may want to start with writing Chapter 2, and
then go back to write Chapter 1. Others may want to start with writing
Chapter 3 and so on. This is really a matter of personal choice (and that
of your advisor). Clearly the only chapters you cannot start with are
Chapters 4 and 5! The key point is that you start and keep reading and
writing; use the book as a reference guide to keep your progress and
momentum going forward.
Keep in mind that this book is not written as a research methods book
(and should not replace one) that teaches in depth how to conduct
different research designs and data analysis methods. While I cover
these topics briefly, I highly recommend that you supplement this book
with actual research methods books (and courses) that fit your selected
design. There are many excellent research methods texts available, and
there are some suggested throughout this book. Your faculty advisor will
also know which research methods books to recommend.
At the end of each chapter there are also additional resources: common
obstacles and practical solutions, reflection/discussion questions, try it
exercises, key terms, suggested readings, and web links. The resources
are a compilation of helpful advice, suggestions, and activities I have
used with my former masters students. The resources give you a chance
to practice and apply the content that is covered in each chapter and get
feedback to make sure you’re on track. I find that it always helps to think
out loud some of the ideas (with a colleague or your faculty advisor)
before you have to commit them to paper.
COMPONENTS OF A MASTER’S THESIS

For the purposes of this book, the master’s thesis structure will consist of
five distinct chapters. Each chapter has a specific focus and objective.
The titles of the five chapters are (a) Introduction, (b) Literature Review,
(c) Methods, (d) Results or Findings, and (e) Discussion. The structure of
the five chapters is the same whether you are conducting a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods research study (although some of the
subsections may be different). Each chapter is described briefly here.
There is a more comprehensive discussion of how to write each chapter
of the thesis in Chapters 5 through 9. To avoid confusion, I refer to
chapters of this book with numbers (e.g., Chapter 1, Chapter 2) and
chapters of the master’s thesis with their word forms (e.g., Chapter One,
Chapter Two). Keep in mind that your school or program may use a
different chapter format for the thesis or use other terms, such as
“sections,” to refer to the different components of the master’s thesis.
Chapter One, Introduction
Chapter One introduces the topic of the thesis to the reader. The critical
part of writing Chapter One is to establish the statement of the problem
and research questions. Basically, you are justifying to the reader why it
is necessary to study this topic and what research question(s) your study
will answer. Usually, the topic is based on a particular problem area you
want to focus on (I discuss how to select an appropriate topic in Chapter
2). For example, if your master’s degree is in social work, your topic of
interest may be homeless single women with children, and the specific
problem may be that these mothers are not able to find jobs because
they lack appropriate child care or educational services for their children
due to their frequent transitions. However, before you introduce the
reader to the specific topic and problem, you have to first provide the
reader with the broader context (the general problem) and consequences
related to the topic. In other words, before you discuss the specific
problem, you need to contextualize your topic within the larger problem.
For example, you would first discuss the problems related to homeless
families with children in general and use national or state data and
statistics to support your claims. This part would include the
consequences related to the social and emotional effects on the mothers
and their children.
Chapter One of the thesis includes a section on the Statement of the

Problem (information about the specific problem), Background and Need
(the background literature related to the problem and gaps that still
remain), the Purpose of the Study (the focus and goal of the study),
Research Questions (what questions the study proposes to answer), and
other significant sections. In this chapter, you need to support all your
claims and positions using citations from empirical research studies,
government reports and data, websites, and theory and opinion papers.
How to write Chapter One and its major sections is discussed in great
detail in Chapter 5.
Chapter Two, Literature Review
Chapter Two introduces the reader to the research literature related to
the topic. The critical part of writing Chapter Two is to identify the most
relevant and significant research related to your topic rather than to
conduct an exhaustive search. Basically, you are informing the reader of
the critical studies that have been conducted related to this topic. This
provides the reader with the background information that she needs to
understand the problem(s) related to your topic. The literature review also
provides the justification for your study as you indicate the gaps and
weaknesses in the existing research. Chapter Two provides credibility to
your study because it shows you have done your “homework” in reading
the research for this topic and your study is “grounded” in the research. In
other words, your thesis did not simply appear from thin air; instead, it
was developed because there was a need to conduct the study, and it
will contribute to the body of research related to this problem.
To organize Chapter Two, you first start with an introduction about the
general problem and your topic. Then you provide an advance organizer,
which indicates what will be covered in the literature review. For the
purposes of this book, you will cover three areas that are related to your
problem. The advance organizer explicitly states the three areas of
research that are addressed and the order of the discussions. This helps
structure the literature review and manage the research articles that you
find. For example, in the social work example, three areas related to the
problem could be (a) homelessness and its effect on children’s
development, (b) quality of parental interactions between homeless
mothers and their children, and (c) collaboration of school and social
agencies. Where did these areas come from? Do not worry; the three
related areas will emerge as you read the existing literature and develop
the Statement of the Problem and the Background and Need sections in
Chapter One and the literature review in Chapter Two.
After you have introduced the three related areas, you will locate and
synthesize three to four research articles (with empirical data) for each of
the three areas related to the topic. Each section should start with a brief
introduction about the area and end with a summary paragraph to recap
the main points and limitations within the area. At the end of the literature
review, there should also be a summary that ties together all the literature
related to the topic. How to write Chapter Two and the three major
sections are discussed in great detail in Chapter 6.
Chapter Three, Methods
Chapter Three explains the research methods and design that were used
to conduct the study. The critical part of writing Chapter Three is to
describe the actual procedures that were used to conduct the study.
Basically, you are informing the reader of how the study was conducted.
Thus, you need to include detailed descriptions about every aspect of
your study. Chapter Three will include the following components: (a)
Setting (where the study took place), (b) Participants (the individuals who
participated in the study and how they were selected), (c) Instructional or
Intervention Materials (any materials or instructional strategies that were
used to conduct the study), (d) Measurement Instruments (the tools you
used to collect data), (e) Procedures (how you collected the data and/or
implemented the study), and (f) Data Analysis (the statistical, qualitative,
or mixed methods techniques that were used to analyze the data).
Enough detail should be included so that another researcher could
replicate your study (for a quantitative study). How to write Chapter Three
and the major sections are discussed in great detail in Chapter 7.
Chapter Four, Results and Findings
Chapter Four reports the results or findings of the study. The critical part
of writing Chapter Four is to present the results or findings from the data
collection and data analysis process in Chapter Three. Basically, you are
informing the reader of what was discovered. This chapter integrates a
narrative, numerical, or tabular presentation of the outcomes of the study,
depending on whether you have conducted a qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed methods study. In Chapter Four, you report the results or findings
from the data analysis for each variable, participant, and measurement
instrument that was discussed in Chapter Three. For example, if you
conducted a qualitative study, you would provide a narrative description
of the findings in relation to the research questions. If you conducted a
quantitative study, you could include descriptive statistics for each
participant or for the entire group (or both). Descriptive statistics are the
basic level of statistical analysis for a data set from a sample group.
Typically, reported statistics include the mean, median, mode, variance,
and standard deviation. If you conducted an intervention for a large group
or more than one group of participants in the study who received different
treatments, you could apply inferential statistics to indicate any
differences observed in performance before and after the intervention or
between the two groups (if appropriate). Inferential statistics is the higher
level of statistical analysis where inferences are made from a sample to a
population. Inferential statistics may also include hypothesis testing and
set probability levels to test for statistically significant differences between
groups (or treatments). How to write Chapter Four and the major sections
are discussed in great detail in Chapter 8. For the purposes of this book,
quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods are discussed separately in
Chapter 7 (Methods) and Chapter 8 (Results and Findings) since these
are the main areas where the distinction between the three methods is
the greatest.
Chapter Five, Discussion
The last chapter in the thesis, Chapter Five, discusses the results from
Chapter Four and draws conclusions about the study’s results or findings.
The critical part of writing Chapter Five is to discuss the significant results
or findings in relation to the statement of the problem and the research
questions that were identified in Chapter One. The discussion section
includes the researcher’s interpretation of the results or findings. You
may also discuss the relationship of your study’s results or findings to
previous research conducted in the literature. In addition, Chapter Five
includes a section on Limitations. This section discusses the limitations or
weaknesses of the study’s design or findings. Another section in Chapter
Five is the Recommendations for Future Research. In this section, you
make recommendations for future areas of research that should be
conducted related to your study (e.g., follow-up). Additional
recommendations could include those for actions, policies, or
procedures. Finally, the last section of Chapter Five is the Conclusions.
In this section, you identify the critical conclusions about the results (e.g.,
lessons learned) and their implications. How to write Chapter Five and
the major sections are discussed in great detail in Chapter 9.
QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, OR MIXED

METHODS RESEARCH?
Thus far, I have briefly mentioned quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
methods research, assuming you know the difference between the three
types. Because you are reading this book, it is likely that you have taken
or are currently taking a course in research methods, so I do not go into
too much detail about the different research approaches and designs.
However, since the type of study you conduct, whether quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed methods, informs the writing of the five-chapter
thesis, I briefly distinguish the broad approaches and give examples of
possible topics from different disciplines. Although quantitative and
qualitative approaches will be described separately, it is important to
keep in mind that these approaches fall on a continuum rather than on
polar opposites (Newman & Benz, 1998). Neither method is considered
better or more important than the other, and they each have their
strengths and weaknesses and advantages and disadvantages. What
drives a researcher to conduct either a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed
methods study is not so much a match to the personality of the
researcher (although this is important) but rather the research question(s)
methods study is not so much a match to the personality of the
researcher (although this is important) but rather the research question(s)
that need(s) to be answered. In addition to the type of study a researcher
chooses to conduct, she must also select a specific research design
within quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods studies. Research
designs are types of inquiry or “strategies of inquiry” (Denzin & Lincoln,
2011). A few examples within each type of study are offered below.
Quantitative Research
In a quantitative research study, the emphasis is on numerical data
(i.e., numbers) that can be collected using objective measures and
analyzed with statistics (descriptive or inferential). The results from the
data analysis (of the sample group) are then used to generalize findings
across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon (Babbie,
2016; Mujis, 2010). Some of the more common quantitative research
designs include experimental (e.g., true experiments, quasi-experiments,
single-subject design) and nonexperimental (e.g., causal-comparative,
correlational, survey) (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Mills & Gay, 2019).
In quantitative experimental studies, the researcher can measure the

outcome of cause-effect scenarios with single or multiple independent
variables. The independent variable is the variable that is deliberately
manipulated (e.g., cause) by the researcher to produce a change in the
dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable that is
observed to see if there is a change (e.g., effect) in response to the
independent variable. The researcher cannot manipulate the dependent
variable. In quantitative research, deductive reasoning is often used,
which is moving from the general to the specific. Typically, a quantitative
researcher has a set hypothesis (prior to conducting the study) based on
a theory that he tests to support or not support the given hypothesis. In
quantitative studies, a hypothesis involves making assumptions or
predictions based on probability distributions or likelihoods of events.
In quantitative nonexperimental studies such as correlational designs, the
researcher is trying to measure the degree of association or the
relationship between two or more variables or sets of scores. Survey
research provides a description of trends, attitudes, behaviors, and
opinions of a population based on a representative subset (i.e., sample)
of the population.
Data are often collected with one or several measurement instruments.

Measurement instruments are data collection tools (e.g., surveys,
observations, tests) that are used to measure changes in dependent
variables or variables of interest. The data are recorded in numerical
format such as a percentage score, grade point average, mean score, or
rating. After the data are analyzed, the hypothesis is either confirmed or
unsupported. Quantitative studies typically have large sample sizes and
can also have multiple groups within the sample. In addition, the
researcher may have limited direct interactions with the participants in the
study. Once the data are collected, descriptive or inferential statistics are
applied to analyze the data. Some of the strengths of quantitative
methods are that the researcher has control over many aspects of the
study and, given a large sample size, the results of the study can be
generalized to a broad population.
Quantitative studies can be conducted in many different disciplines and
topics, again depending on the research question(s). For example, in
counseling, a study could be conducted on the effects of parents’ divorce
on children’s social and emotional behavior for 4-year-olds at one
preschool. In criminology, a study could be conducted surveying
adolescents whose parents are incarcerated to assess their attitudes and
perceptions toward law enforcement. In organization and business
management, a study could be conducted on the relationship between
employees’ use of self-care strategies to mediate stress (e.g., exercise,
yoga, meditation, acupuncture) and their level of productivity. In social
work, a study could be conducted on the effects of having aging parents
on sibling relations within Asian American families. Finally, in education,
a study could be conducted on differences in math scores between
female and male high school students in coed or same-sex classrooms.
As you can see from the examples mentioned, there is no limit to the
topics and studies across the disciplines that can be conducted using
quantitative methods. Notice that all the mentioned potential studies
would require numerical data collection using surveys, tests, or
observation checklists.
Qualitative Research
A qualitative research study delves into a particular situation to better
understand a phenomenon within its natural context and the perspectives
of the participants involved (Mills & Gay, 2019). In general, qualitative
researchers attempt to explore, describe, and interpret human behavior
based primarily on nonnumerical data (e.g., words).
Studies that use qualitative approaches collect nonnumerical data to
answer the research question(s). Nonnumerical data are narrative data
(i.e., words). There are many different kinds of qualitative research
designs. Some commonly found approaches in the social and health
sciences literature are narrative research, phenomenology, grounded
theory, ethnography, and case study (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Unlike
quantitative researchers, qualitative researchers do not start their study
with a hypothesis that they set out to find support for or to test. In
qualitative research, inductive reasoning is often used, which is moving
from the specific to the general. A qualitative researcher starts with
specific situations, finds patterns or themes in the data, establishes a
tentative hypothesis, and then develops theories or conclusions. Data are
often collected through extensive and detailed field notes, observations,
interviews, and focus groups with the participants in a natural setting (i.e.,
the researcher does not control or manipulate the environment).
Qualitative studies typically have small sample sizes, which allow the
researcher the time and opportunity to have extensive interactions with
the participants. Once the data are gathered, they are coded, analyzed,
and organized or categorized according to the themes and patterns that
emerge. This provides the researcher with findings in a narrative format.
Some of the strengths of qualitative methods are that the researcher (a)
has investigated a topic in depth; (b) has interpreted the outcomes based
on the participants’, not the researcher’s, perspectives; and (c) has
created a holistic picture of the situation.
Qualitative studies can be conducted in many different disciplines and

topics. For example, in counseling, a study could be conducted on the
perceptions of single-parent Latinas on using mental health services. In
criminology, a study could be conducted on how incarcerated teenage
mothers cope with raising their children in juvenile detention centers. In
organization and business management, a researcher might be
interested in how volunteerism affects employee motivation and
satisfaction at a nonprofit organization. In social work, a study could be
conducted on the factors that promote resiliency within domestic violence
victims. Finally, in education, a researcher could conduct an ethnographic
study on the experience of first-generation African American college
students. As you can see from the examples mentioned, there are certain
topics that require using qualitative methods such as interviews and
observations to answer the research question(s).
Mixed Methods Research
A third type of study, mixed methods research, resides in the

middle of the continuum of qualitative and quantitative
approaches because it incorporates elements of both. The
mixed methods research study has gained in usage and
popularity over the past few decades. “In mixed methods, the
researcher collects and analyzes both qualitative and
quantitative data rigorously in response to research questions
and hypotheses, integrates (or mixes or combines) the two
forms of data and their results, organizes these procedures into
specific research designs that provide the logic and procedures
for conducting the study, and frames these procedures within
theory and philosophy.” (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018, p. 5)
Three core mixed methods designs are convergent design, explanatory

sequential design, and the exploratory sequential design (Creswell &
Plano Clark, 2018). The different designs illustrate the phases of data
collection and interpretation with subsequent results building on each
other or offering further explanation. In the convergent design, the
researcher typically collects both forms (QUAN+QUAL) of data at the
same time and then integrates the information for data analysis and
interpretation. In the explanatory sequential design, the first phase is
quantitative and the researcher analyzes the numerical data; the second
phase involves qualitative research (QUAN➔qual). In the exploratory
sequential design, the order of phases is reversed with the first phase as
qualitative research and the quantitative research as the second phase
(QUAL➔quan). While it may appear that the researcher is simply
“adding” phases of research together, there is actually an integration of
information that should occur to create new knowledge greater than the
sum of the parts such that 1 + 1 = 3 (Fetters & Freshwater, 2015).
Researchers can conduct mixed methods studies in all disciplines when

they find that in answering their research question, one data source may
be insufficient. In some ways, mixed methods research is a researcher’s
dream—you are not restricted to certain types of quantitative or
qualitative data collection tools, and you can provide more evidence to
study the research question(s) in depth. However, keep in mind that
mixed methods research does require extensive research skills and also
the time and resources to conduct the multiple phases of data collection
and data analysis.
STYLE FORM
In addition to selecting a research type and design, you also need to
adhere to a style form. All scholarly writing such as books, journal
articles, reference materials, dissertations, and theses must comply with
a style form. Style form refers to both writing style and editorial style. The
editorial style is a set of rules or guidelines that writers must adhere to
for publishing manuscripts, books, and so on. Some of the critical
elements include how to format headings, citations, references, tables,
figures, and so forth. The style form developed by the American
Psychological Association (referred to as APA style) was selected for
this book and the master’s thesis because it is commonly used in various
social science disciplines such as education, psychology, sociology,
business, economics, nursing, and social work. Specifically, I follow the
sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (VandenBos, 2010). The APA manual is a reference book
that has the rules and guidelines for the APA writing and editorial style.
As new issues arise, the manuals are revised or updated on the APA
website (http://www.apastyle.org), so make sure that you are following
the most current edition. The APA style is widely accepted in the
behavioral and social sciences, but the particular style form varies by
discipline or academic departments. Other common references include
the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition, 2017) from the University of
Chicago Press and the Modern Language Association (MLA) (8th edition,
2016), which is widely used in the humanities. Check with your
chairperson for the one that applies to your thesis.
The thesis must be written in a format that complies with a style form, so
it is always helpful to be familiar with the style form as you begin to write.
However, the style form is not a research method. Rather, it is a tool to
use in communicating your thesis. In this book, Chapter 10 is devoted to
helping you comply with the APA style. The placement of the chapter late
in the book does not diminish its importance. If you have used the APA
style for previous papers or are familiar with the style form, this chapter
will be a review for you. If you have not used the APA style before, I
recommend referring to Chapter 10 as you proceed through the data
collection and writing process for each chapter.
Summary
Congratulations on getting through the first chapter of the book
(only nine more to go)! You should now have a sense of the
overall thesis and feel energized, empowered, and ready to
embark on this educational adventure. Thank you for allowing me
to be your tour guide. In the next chapter, I discuss how to select
a research topic and questions. I wish you all the best of luck and
will lead you to the finish line (and pull you through if I have to)!
Here is a summary of the most critical points from Chapter 1:
The master’s degree is a postbaccalaureate degree

conferred by a college or university on candidates who
complete 1 to 2 years of graduate study.
In some fields, the master’s degree is referred to as a
professional degree or terminal degree, meaning that the
program or degree is the highest academic level for that
profession rather than a gateway to the doctoral degree.
The master’s thesis provides you with multiple opportunities

to learn the critical core content in your field or discipline and
research methods.
For the purposes of this book, the master’s thesis is an

empirically based research study written in five distinct
chapters.
Chapter One introduces the topic of the thesis to the reader

and establishes the statement of the problem and research
questions.
Chapter Two introduces the reader to the research literature

related to the topic and identifies the most relevant and
significant research.
Chapter Three explains the research methods and design

that were used to conduct the study and describes the actual
procedures.
Chapter Four reports the results or findings of the study from
the data collection and data analysis process in Chapter
Three.
Chapter Five discusses the results or findings from Chapter
Four in relation to the statement of the problem and the
research questions that are addressed in Chapter One and
draws conclusions about the study’s results or findings.
What drives a researcher to conduct either a quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed methods study is not a match to the
personality of the researcher (although this is important) but
rather the research question that needs to be answered.
Resources
Common Obstacles and Practical

Solutions
1. A common problem that students face at this stage is feeling
overwhelmed with the magnitude of the thesis. Words that
come to mind are, “What did I get into?” If you are feeling
anxious because you have never conducted research or
written something like a master’s thesis, do not panic! This
book (and your chairperson) will help divide the parts into
manageable and feasible chunks and guide you through the
entire process. However, it might be helpful for you to review
the text and notes from any research methods course that
you took.
2. Another common obstacle that students face at this stage is
trying to decide between conducting a quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed methods study. Instead of putting
pressure on yourself to make that decision now, it is better to
let the design emerge as you read the existing research and
develop your research questions.
Before you delve into the thesis, it is a good idea to take some
time to make the “mental shift” from the type of conceptualizing
and writing that was required in your undergraduate years and the
type of conceptualizing and writing that is required for the
master’s thesis. In addition, now is a good time to think broadly
about the issues and problems in your discipline and whether they
would be amenable to quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods
research. The following reflection/discussion questions will help
guide this process.
1. What are the similarities and differences between
quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research?
2. Brainstorm and discuss critical research problems in your
specific field or discipline. What would be the best
approach(es) to address these research problems? Provide
the pros and cons of selecting each type of research
approach.
Try It Exercises
The following exercises (Activities One and Two) will help you
identify potential faculty to serve as your chairperson and
committee members as well as prepare for that first critical
meeting with your chairperson. Activity Three is designed for you
to research the professional and personal benefits of receiving a
master’s degree in your field or discipline. This knowledge will
help keep you motivated as you progress through the thesis
knowing that when it is all done, you can reap the rewards!
1. Activity One: For this activity, focus on the faculty within and
outside of your master’s degree program.
Make a list of all the professors and/or instructors from

whom you have taken a course.
Make a list of all the professors and/or instructors with

whom you have worked on projects outside of
coursework.
Review the professors’ and/or instructors’ curriculum

vitae (usually available on the university website) and list
the professors and/or instructors with whom you have
common (research) interests.
Make a list of potential professors and/or instructors who
could serve as your faculty chairperson and additional
committee members.
Create an e-mail message that gives a general overview

of your research interest(s) and ask one of these
professors or instructors if she would be willing to serve
as your master’s thesis chairperson or committee
member. Set up an initial meeting.
2. Activity Two: The first meeting with your chairperson is very

critical. This meeting sets the tone for future meetings and
also clarifies the expectations for the relationship between
you and your chairperson.
Make a list of questions that you would ask at the initial

meeting with your chairperson. Keep in mind that you
may only have 30 minutes with your chairperson, so the
questions should be succinct and related to your thesis.
You should also be prepared to answer questions that
your chairperson might have related to his expectations
of you. The following is a list of possible questions that
may be included in your list:
1. How often should we meet—weekly, biweekly, as

needed?
2. Which days and when are the best times to meet—

mornings, afternoons, evenings?
3. What is the best way to contact you if I have to
schedule or cancel an appointment?
4. In which format should I present drafts—

electronically by e-mail or with hard copy?
5. What is the typical turnaround time to receive

feedback for my drafts?
6. What is the typical turnaround time you will want me

to return the next draft?
7. What are some tasks I should be doing while waiting
for feedback?
8. What resources are available on or off campus to

help with writing, editing, and data analysis?
3. Activity Three: For this activity, focus on personal and
professional benefits of receiving a master’s degree in your
field or discipline.
Imagine that you have completed your master’s degree

and have been asked to give the keynote address at
your graduation. The department chair has asked you to
conduct research in your field or discipline related to how
the degree will enhance and/or further your career goals.
You have to write a 5-minute speech that addresses the
professional and personal benefits of receiving your
master’s degree (as well as thanking everyone who
supported you along the way). Knowing why we want to
do something can be just as important as how.
Key Terms
advance organizer 10
APA style 16
chairperson 6
deductive reasoning 13
dependent variable 13
dissertation 5
editorial style 16
empirically based 3
hypothesis 13
independent variable 13
inductive reasoning 14
Master of Arts (MA) 2
Master of Science (MS) 2
master’s degree 2
master’s degree program 2

master’s thesis 3
measurement instruments 13
mixed methods research 15

nonnumerical data 14
numerical data 12
qualitative research 14
quantitative research 12
terminal degree 2
Suggested Readings
Creamer, E. G. (2017). An introduction to fully integrated mixed
methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design:

Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and
conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and
research design (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dane, F. C. (2018). Evaluating research: Methodology for people

who need to read research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Drennan, J., & Clarke, M. (2009). Coursework master’s
programmes: The student’s experience of research and research
supervision. Studies in Higher Education, 34(5), 483–500.
doi:10.1080/03075070802597150
Ercikan, K., & Roth, W. M. (2006). What good is polarizing

research into qualitative and quantitative? Educational
Researcher, 35(5), 14–23.
Fatima, N. (2009). Investment in graduate and professional

degree education: Evidence of state workforce productivity.
Florida Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 3(1), 9–
35.
Fletcher, K. M. (2005). The impact of receiving a master’s degree
in nonprofit management on graduates’ professional lives.
Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 34(4), 433–447.
Labaree, D. F. (2003). The peculiar problems of preparing

educational researchers. Educational Researcher, 32(4), 13–22.
Little, S. G., Akin-Little, A., & Lee, H. B. (2003). Education in

statistics and research design in school psychology. School
Psychology International, 24(4), 437–448.
Mills, G. E., & Gay, L. R. (2019). Educational research:

Competencies for analysis and applications (12th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Modern Language Association. (2016). MLA Handbook (8th ed.).

New York, NY: Author.
Morrow, S. L. (2007). Qualitative research in counseling

psychology: Conceptual foundations. Counseling Psychologist,
35(2), 209–235.
Patenaude, A. L. (2004). No promises, but I’m willing to listen and

tell what I hear: Conducting qualitative research among prison
inmates and staff. Prison Journal, 84(4), 69S–91S.
University of Chicago Press. (2017). The Chicago Manual of Style

(17th ed.). Chicago, IL: Author.
VandenBos, G. R. (Ed.). (2010). Publication manual of the
American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
Yauch, C. A., & Steudel, H. J. (2003). Complementary use of
qualitative and quantitative cultural assessment methods.
Organizational Research Methods, 6(4), 465–481.
Web Links
APA Style
http://www.apastyle.org/
Glossary of Master’s Degree Programs

https://study.com/article_directory/Glossary_of_Master’s_Degree_Programs.html
Modern Language Association (MLA)
https://www.mla.org/
Modern Language Association (MLA) The Style Center
https://style.mla.org/
Purdue Online Writing Lab (Chicago Manual of Style 17th Edition)
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/
research_and_citation/
chicago_manual_17th_edition/
cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/
chicago_manual_of_style_17th_edition.html
The Chicago Manual of Style Online
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html
The Princeton Review: Find Your Grad School

https://www.princetonreview.com/grad-school-search
2 SELECTING A RESEARCH TOPIC
Important Factors to Consider When Selecting a Topic 24
Personal Significance 24
Critical Issues in the Field 25
Existing Research Literature 26
Search Engines 27
Electronic Databases 30
Ethical Considerations 30
How to Narrow and Refocus Your Topic 31
Feasibility 32
Accessibility 33
Time and Resources 34
Developing Answerable Research Questions 35
Answerable Questions 35
Defining Terms 36
Creating a Realistic Timeline 38

Time Management 41
Reserving Time 41
Chunking Method 42
Summary 43
Resources 44
Try It Exercises 45
Key Terms 46
Web Links 46
Writing is making sense of life. You work your whole life and
perhaps you’ve made sense of one small area.
—Nadine Gordimer
Now that I have covered the basic overview of the master’s thesis, it is
time to start the work! As in most writing projects, the first step is to select
a topic. This is often a difficult task because there are many interesting
unanswered research questions to study. Obviously, the topic that you
choose for your thesis should be important to your field or discipline.
However, keep in mind that your study should address a research
problem and questions that you want answered because they are
important to you and you have been unable to find meaningful and
validated answers. Your research problem and question could address
original research (a new question) or be a replication of a previous study.
For example, if I am earning my master’s degree in college counseling,
then I may want to study some aspect of college counseling that is
important to the process of counseling, the issues and challenges related
to counseling, or the people involved in counseling. I also have to focus
on a research question, or a few, that my study will attempt to answer.
For the college counseling process, perhaps I want to find out the
differences in participation and satisfaction during group or individual
advising sessions. For the issues or challenges related to college
counseling, my research question could examine the differences in
retention and graduation rates for first-generation students or students of
color. Finally, for the people involved in counseling, I could research the
differences in college experiences for immigrant or refugee students.
Framing research questions is an important part of planning your thesis.
Later in this chapter, I discuss research questions in depth.
IMPORTANT FACTORS TO CONSIDER

WHEN SELECTING A TOPIC
A common question asked by graduate students is, “Where do I start?”
Often, students feel anxious about selecting a research problem because
it is like making a long-term commitment to someone you have not met!
Selecting a research problem should not be like going on a blind date or
a random act. Instead, it is a systematic process that requires time,
reflective thinking, discussion, and, of course, research. You want to
select a problem that has significance and is in need of attention. You
should also select a problem that you can research within the time that is
available for your thesis. I discuss four important factors to consider when
selecting a research problem: (a) personal significance, (b) critical issues
in the field, (c) the existing research literature, and (d) ethical
considerations.
Personal Significance
The first place to look for a research topic is within. The research problem
that you select should be first and foremost meaningful to you. There was
a reason why you chose to enter your particular field or discipline, and
hopefully you have an affinity or passion for what you are studying. This
is where all the course work and experiences in your master’s degree
program should come in handy. Through your course work, you reviewed
research and are familiar with several studies. Some of these studies
may have caused you to think about additional research problems.
Perhaps there was a topic, theory, or problem from a course, reading,
something an instructor said, or fieldwork experience that intrigued you.
Keep in mind that your research study and thesis may take 1 to 2 years
to complete, so the topic should be meaningful and something you are
passionate about since you will be devoting a lot of time and energy to it.
Selecting a topic based on personal interests will also keep you
motivated to continue and persevere, especially when you feel like
quitting (which will be often).
When I pursued my master’s degree, I was having problems selecting a

topic because there were so many educational problems that I was
interested in. Most of them were broad, societal issues that were
important for students with disabilities, but none were within my reach.
When I finally sat down with my chairperson and rattled off 10 ideas, he
said, “What is important to you? Where do you come from? Who can you
give a voice to that so few others can?” I was stunned. Important to me?
Why would anyone want to hear about what is important to me? I replied,
“Well, there are a lot of recent Vietnamese refugees who have children
with disabilities who emigrate to the United States, and I wonder if they
know much about special education services since they do not speak the
language and there are few special education services in Vietnam.” Thirty
minutes later, I walked out of his office with a research problem and
questions in hand and excitement in my heart! I had just been given
permission to conduct a research study that was personal and
meaningful to me. Conducting a study on a topic that was personally
significant changed my entire perspective about the process. Instead of
viewing the data collection process as a burden, I was excited to meet
different families and was truly interested in their perspectives and
experiences related to obtaining special education services for their
children with disabilities. When I completed my study and presented the
findings at a national conference, I was absolutely amazed by the roomful
of people who wanted to hear about the perspectives and stories of
refugee Vietnamese families with children with disabilities—I guess I was
not the only one who thought this was important after all. Thus, the
lessons learned here are to select a topic that you are passionate about
and get guidance from your chairperson who will help you focus on the
critical issues. After all, you cannot go wrong if you follow your heart
(well, most of the time).
Critical Issues in the Field

The second place to look for a research topic is right in your own
backyard. In other words, what problems or issues are you and your
colleagues currently facing in the immediate environment, whether it is at
a university, school, classroom, clinic, juvenile detention center, foster
home, business, or nonprofit organization? Often, the research
opportunity calls to you because it is an issue or problem that you have
been grappling with and need some help to find solutions. For example,
maybe you are interested in finding out how to retain and engage donors
for nonprofit organizations. At the school setting, maybe you are
concerned that the level of cyberbullying has increased over the past few
years. Perhaps you are interested in mental health issues for young
adults in the juvenile justice system.
If you are not sure about the problematic issues in your field, a good idea
is to talk to your colleagues, instructors, administrators, and your
chairperson. They will have a plethora of ideas, and it is always helpful to
bounce your ideas off another person, especially someone who is familiar
with the issues in the field. The research problem could be something
that has a direct relationship and implication to what you do or see in
your professional setting. However, keep in mind that the goal is to focus
on one problem, not all the problems in your field (or obtain world peace).
Existing Research Literature

A third way to find a research topic is by doing good, old-fashioned
research of the literature. Conducting research through the Internet or at
the library is often a good method of finding a topic because it gives you
a sense of the broad and critical issues in your field. This is very
important because your study should make a contribution to the research
literature. As is the case with most research studies, you want to be able
to add to the existing knowledge base in your field. In other words, a
“personal” concern must also be a concern for the larger academic
community” (Machi & McEvoy, 2016). Conducting research gives you a
general sense of what studies have already been completed, the best
practices, and the gaps that still remain. Based on your findings, you may
choose to replicate an existing study, implement a previously validated
practice with a new population, or conduct a study that fills one of the
gaps in your field.
An often overlooked resource for finding existing research is
clearinghouse websites and reports from government offices. These
websites list research studies that were often funded by grants and are
published in many different fields and disciplines. This is a good place to
start your research because they are indicators of the major issues and
problems in a particular area. For example, the National Institute of
Justice (Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice) hosts a
clearinghouse website called CrimeSolutions.gov. The website posts
clearinghouse website called CrimeSolutions.gov. The website posts
research studies conducted on a variety of practices and programs
related to criminal justice, juvenile justice, and crime victim services.
Experts in the field rate each program’s effectiveness (e.g., Effective,
Promising, No Effects) based on the strength of the evidence presented
in the study. An example of a clearinghouse website in education is
WhatWorksClearinghouse, which is hosted by the Institution of Education
Sciences. Advantages of looking at clearinghouse websites and
government reports is that they are usually readily available, free to the
public, and provide a broad overview of the existing research in a
particular area.
The process of conducting research of the literature has changed

dramatically over the past 15 years. When I conducted research for my
master’s thesis, I had to actually walk into the library (yes, in the snow),
first locate the books and periodicals through the card catalog, then find
and take books and periodicals off the shelves, and finally bring rolls of
nickels and dimes to feed the copy machine. Sometimes I had to figure
out how to use and make a copy from the microfiche! Now, with modern
technology, conducting research of the literature involves sitting
comfortably in front of your home or library’s computer in a plush chair
with a cup of coffee and a half-dozen donuts.
Search engines
Through the Internet, there are many available search engines to help
you with your research of the literature. A search engine is a computer
system where information is stored and organized for easy retrieval. The
most common search engines search for information on the World Wide
Web through the Internet. However, when searching the Internet, you
want to make sure that your research is guided rather than general.
Advanced search is setting specific parameters (e.g., date, author, and
subject) around your search to narrow the pool of resources and results.
This helps you avoid reading thousands of article abstracts. One place to
start your research is Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com) (see
Figure 2.1 for Google Scholar search screen). The Google Scholar
search engine will locate thousands of research articles in many
discipline areas in less than a few seconds. Note that this is different than
researching a topic in the regular Google search engine (which would be
like trying to find a penny dropped in a well). For example, pretend I want
to conduct a study on cyberbullying. When I typed “cyberbullying” into
Google Scholar and clicked on the magnifying glass icon (or hit enter) to
search, I retrieved over 37,300 articles! To narrow my search, I can use
the Advanced Scholar Search (see Figure 2.2 for Advanced Scholar
Search screen). In the Google Scholar screen, you need to bring the
cursor to the top left side and click on the menu bars for the Advanced
Scholar Search box to appear. In the Advanced Scholar Search, you can
find articles about a topic using specific search terms and where they
appear, and by author, publication, or date. When I used the Advanced
Scholar Search and asked for articles where “cyberbullying” is “in the
title,” I retrieved 4,640 articles (see Figure 2.3 for Advanced Scholar
Search screen using title of the article). I further narrowed my search by
putting a 5-year limit on the dates and retrieved 2,670 articles. Finally, I
added “social media” in the “exact phrase” box and guess what—I only
have to read 62 articles (see Figure 2.4 for Advanced Scholar Search
screen using exact phrase and date limits). That is quite a big difference
from the 37,300 that I started with! Narrowing your search fields and
conducting an advanced search will help you sort through the information
and cull out the research that is important, but not specific enough to your
research problem. Your chairperson is a good resource if you need help
shaping your search terms to conduct the advanced search. A 15-minute
meeting with your chairperson could save you hours and hours of being
lost in cyberspace.
Description
Figure 2.1 Search engine Google Scholar search screen.

Description
Figure 2.2 Advanced Scholar Search screen in Google

Scholar.
Description
Figure 2.3 Advanced Scholar Search screen using the title

of the article.
Description
Figure 2.4 Advanced Scholar Search screen with exact

phrase and date limits.
Electronic databases
Searching through electronic databases is another method to find a
potential research topic. An electronic database is an electronic
collection of information (e.g., books, journal articles, reference materials)
where an individual can research and retrieve resources.
Electronic databases can be interdisciplinary or organized around a

particular subject area or field. In electronic databases, you can find
citations and summaries to journal and newspaper articles, dissertations
and theses, books and book chapters, technical and government reports,
and tests and measures related to your field. Sometimes, if you are lucky,
you can even get the full article from the database (that always feels like
winning the lottery!). The library at your institution subscribes to a variety
of electronic databases, and as an enrolled student, you may be able to
access the databases for free. Typically, you can search these databases
by subject or alphabetically. For example, PsycINFO
(http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/index.aspx) is a very
popular and helpful database that has resources related to psychology
and related fields such as nursing, sociology, education, linguistics,
anthropology, business, and law.
If you do not have access to your institution’s library, there are other
electronic databases that are free to the public, although some of them
may charge a small fee for their articles. For example, Education
Resources Information Center (ERIC) (http://www.eric.ed.gov) is a huge
digital library that contains over 1.2 million citations, abstracts, digests,
peer-review, and full-text articles related to education from 1966 to the
present. ERIC is sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. Once you enter the electronic database, the
process is very similar to a typical search engine. Again, you will want to
conduct an advanced search with set parameters regarding topic, author,
dates, and so on. However, an advantage of an electronic database over
a general search engine is that most of the resources in the electronic
database will be directly related to the field of study. I discuss how to
search for research through electronic databases and the Internet in
more detail in Chapter 3.
Finally, another important factor to consider when selecting a research
topic is ethics. For example, it would be unethical to ask a group of
volunteers to deliver electric shocks to another person (against their
conscience) if directed by an authority figure, right? This study was
actually conducted at Yale University by Stanley Milgram in 1961. Thus,
before proceeding in selecting your topic, you should ask yourself these
questions: Will my study on this topic and the methods used to answer
the research question(s) jeopardize the participants’ (a) physical well-
being, (b) emotional well-being, (c) academic well-being, (d) economic or
financial well-being, (e) spiritual well-being, (f) social well-being, or (g)
privacy? If you can respond with a definitive “No” to these questions, then
most likely your study will pass muster on ethical considerations. If you
are unsure whether or not your study will violate an ethical consideration,
do not worry; every institution of higher education requires that graduate
students submit their master’s thesis study proposals through the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) for approval prior to conducting the
study. The IRB is a group that has been formally designated by the
institution to review and monitor research applications involving human
subjects. I discuss ethical considerations, the IRB process, and how to
write an IRB proposal in more detail in Chapter 4.
HOW TO NARROW AND REFOCUS YOUR
TOPIC
Once you have selected a potential research topic, you will probably
need to narrow it down. Often, students select topics that have met the
four criteria above—personally significant, critical issue in the field,
contributes to the existing research, and meets ethical standards—only to
discover that the topic is still too broad and outside the scope of their
immediate surroundings. This can be somewhat frustrating, but
fortunately there are ways to make your research study more concrete
and manageable. Sometimes students will select significant problems to
study, but because they did not narrow and refocus the study prior to
starting, they eventually feel overwhelmed, helpless, unmotivated, and
finally quit altogether. To avoid these pitfalls, schedule an appointment
with your chairperson early in the process to discuss ways to narrow your
study but still keep the essence of what interests you. Investing this time
at the beginning will save you time and frustration later and could make
the difference between completing or not completing the thesis within the
allocated time. As I often reminded my students, “The ‘best’ master’s
thesis is the one that is completed!” In addition to getting advice from
your chairperson, you also have to draw on your own personal research
skills and knowledge about research methods and designs. Throughout
this process, it will help to access research methods textbooks and
academic journals in your field to use as references. In this section, I
discuss three factors to consider when focusing and narrowing the scope
of your study: (a) feasibility, (b) accessibility, and (c) time and resources.
Feasibility
Often, students will be so excited when they find a topic of personal and
professional interest that they may choose a problem that is not feasible
to study. Feasibility refers to how realistic it will be to access data or
participants and the time needed to complete the study. For example, the
topic of study may be the stress levels of high school students on
applying for college admissions in a school district, and I want to
measure students’ perceptions using a survey and some follow-up
interviews. However, because the problem is so broad, it would require a
team of experienced researchers with sizable resources to make this a
feasible study to complete.
One method to increase feasibility is to limit the sample group. The
sample group is the group of participants in a study. They are the group
that the researcher collects data from or about. How to reduce or shape
your sample group will depend heavily on your research question(s), but
this is one of the best ways to make your study more feasible and
manageable. For example, in the study above, rather than measure the
perceptions of all high school students in the school district, I could study
the perceptions of high school students at one high school within the
school district. However, if it is like the public high school I went to, the
sample group would be 2,400 students! That is still too large for one
person to manage. One method to further reduce the sample size would
be to randomly select a certain number (50) of students from each of the
grade levels. This would still give me a “representative” sample of the
entire school, but I would only have to manage 200 surveys rather than
2,400. Another method to reduce my sample size would be to measure
the perceptions of students from one grade level, such as the juniors.
This shows only one slice of the high school, but perhaps this is the
group most affected by the college admissions process. Again, this could
be 600 students, so taking a random sample from one grade level would
also be another possibility to narrow the study. By limiting my sample
size, I have made the study more feasible, which increases my chances
of successfully collecting the data (and completing my thesis).
Another method of narrowing the study and increasing feasibility is by

reducing the number of research questions. (I discuss how to develop
research questions in more depth later in the chapter.) Keep in mind that
the more research questions you have, the more data you will have to
collect and analyze (and possibly include more participants). The intent of
the thesis is not to study everything with regard to your topic; often, it is
better to study one or two things in depth. By limiting the amount of data
you collect, you gain more control over the process. In many ways,
conducting a study is like cooking (something I have never been able to
master). If you select a recipe with 10 ingredients (some of which you
have to buy in specialty stores), the cooking process becomes more
complicated than if you had a recipe with five ingredients because there
are more factors outside of your control. If done correctly, you could end
up with a mouthwatering dish and get rave reviews from friends and
family. However, with so many ingredients to mix, blend, blanch, or
puree, there is an increased chance of making mistakes, burning
something, cutting yourself, over- and under-cooking items, and basically
losing your sanity in the process.
Accessibility
Another related factor to consider when narrowing your study is
accessibility. Accessibility refers to the ability to gain access or entry to
the research site and participants. This is related to feasibility because
without access to the research site or participants, it will be impossible to
conduct and complete the study. Keep in mind that some places of
business, schools, detention centers, hospitals, and clinics do not allow
individuals outside of the organization to conduct research at their sites. If
they do allow outside researchers, the application and approval process
may take weeks or months to complete, so you need to plan accordingly.
Thus, before you finalize your research plan, it is best to get a letter of
permission to access participants from the administrator at the research
site (some IRB applications require this for the proposal). This will ensure
that you can at least get through the front door.
If you do gain access to the research site, another factor to consider is

ease of access and proximity. Basically, you need to determine how easy
it will be for you to collect the data for your study. For example, I want to
conduct a study on the parenting skills of teenage mothers in juvenile
detention centers. I measure their parenting skills by conducting
observations while they are interacting with their children. The
administrators at the detention center have given me permission to
access the participants for my study. The center is 15 miles away from
my house, and the visiting hours for mothers and their children are
Monday through Friday from 12:00 p.m. to 2:00 p.m. In the morning from
8:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. and in the afternoon from 2:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m.,
the children are at the onsite child care center. However, my normal work
hours are from 8:00 a.m. to 1:30 p.m., which means by the time I get to
the center, I will be able to observe the mothers and children for only 15
minutes! This is not enough time to collect rich observation data for the
study. Even though I had access to the research site and participants,
because of other external factors outside of my control, I did not have
access in terms of ease and proximity. Thus, when considering your
study, make sure that you will have true access to collect data for your
study. One way to increase true access is by conducting the study at a
setting where you already spend a good deal of time such as at your
place of employment, volunteer site, or training or school site. For the
example study above, since I could not quit my job but was able to
access the children at their child care center in the afternoon, I could
refocus my topic to study the effects of incarcerated teenage mothers on
children’s social and emotional development. By refocusing the topic, I
was still within the broader area of teenage mothers in juvenile detention
centers, but I made the study’s participants truly accessible by observing
the children rather than the mothers.
Time and Resources

Time and Resources
In addition to feasibility and accessibility, you must consider available
time and resources before starting a study. Time refers to the
researcher’s time that is available to devote to the study as well as the
duration (length of study) and frequency (how often the researcher will
interact with participants). Resources are tangibles such as materials
and finances necessary to conduct a study but also include nontangibles
such as personal health and energy. Make sure you have the time and
resources to complete the tasks required by the study such as traveling
to the research site, implementing an intervention if required, purchasing
or developing materials, collecting data, analyzing the data, and reporting
the data. Keep in mind your “team” of researchers will consist of yourself,
a computer, and a supportive spouse, partner, friend, pet, or family
member if you are lucky. Thus, before you start, it is critical to narrow and
refocus your study so that you are not overcommitting and stretching
yourself too thinly.
For example, your school district has required all teachers to receive in-
service training on research-based practices to improve students’
statewide reading test scores. Since you are in a master’s degree
program for education, your principal has asked you to conduct your
thesis on this topic. She wants you to lead 20 hours of professional
development sessions at the school site with 15 kindergarten through
5th-grade teachers, collect data on the teachers’ implementation of the
research-based practices, and report on the students’ outcomes. The in-
services would start in January after the winter break, the state
assessments start in April, and you would have to develop and provide all
the training materials. To be fair, the principal has given you a $300
budget and two 50-minute periods of release time per week from your
3rd-grade class. Should you do it? You have access to willing
participants, some release time, a small budget, and the support of the
principal, so it should be feasible, right? WRONG! Clearly, this study is
above and beyond what you have available regarding time and
resources. First, the allocated time is much too short. Three months is
not enough time to research and locate materials, conduct 20 hours of in-
service trainings, conduct observations for 15 teachers, and collect
student data—all this on top of your normal teaching responsibilities.
Second, there are no curriculum resources available, so this means your
$300 budget would be quickly spent or you would have to develop your
own materials (in your spare time) for the trainings. Thus, even though it
may have seemed like a good study to conduct because of the
accessibility, this is an unrealistic study because of the demand on your
time and resources. Some suggestions I would make to narrow the focus
of the study would be to start much earlier in the school year, reduce the
training from 20 to 10 hours per week, limit the responsibilities so that
you would only provide training and observation to one grade-level team,
and ask the principal to increase the budget for materials and release
time. By making the parameters more realistic (both in length of the study
and time to devote to the study) and having resources available, you
have increased the feasibility and quality of the study.
DEVELOPING ANSWERABLE RESEARCH

QUESTIONS
Once you have selected and narrowed your problem, it is time to develop
the research question. A research question is related to the problem in
a study and is the question the researcher attempts to answer. Good
research questions narrow the topic and focus of your research study.
They also guide the type of data that will be collected or how the data
should be collected. For example, I want to conduct research around the
problem(s) related to neighborhood violence and young children’s
development. The broad problem is “neighborhood violence,” and the
research problem within this topic is “How violence within neighborhoods
affects young children’s cognitive development.” Once I know my
research problem, I need to generate a research question(s) that will
guide my study. Some programs or disciplines may use different terms to
refer to the research questions, such as research hypothesis or null
hypothesis. Always check with your chairperson to make sure you are
using the appropriate terms.
Answerable Questions
The most important consideration when developing a research question
is whether or not you can answer the question (i.e., the question is
researchable). That may seem a bit strange—after all, aren’t all questions
answerable? Not necessarily. An answerable research question is one
where the researcher is able to collect data or information (using a
measurement instrument) to answer the question related to the problem.
There has to be some measurement instrument and method that can be
used (e.g., survey, observation, test, interview) to collect data or
information from the participants in the study. In other words, if you
cannot measure the research problem in some way, then you cannot
answer the research question. For example, for my research problem of
“neighborhood violence and young children’s cognitive development,” the
research question is about the effects that violence within a
neighborhood has on young children’s cognitive development. Thus, one
possible research question is, “What are the effects that neighborhood
violence has on young children’s academic performance?” This is a
possible research question because I can collect data to measure the
effect or outcome of the problem on my participants. However, the
research question is not very clear because there are several ambiguous
terms. These ambiguous or subjective terms must be defined before I
can determine what exactly is being studied. For example, what
constitutes neighborhood violence? Who are considered young children?
What is meant by academic performance and which indicators will be
used? When considering whether or not a term is ambiguous, ask
yourself if you and a complete stranger would have a different definition
of the term or if the term would be unfamiliar to a person outside of your
field; if so, it is best to define the term.
Defining Terms
There are three ways you can define terms related to your research
question and study: by dictionary, by example, or operationally (Fraenkel
& Wallen, 2015). A dictionary definition is a definition that is offered in a
dictionary to define ambiguous terms related to the study or research
question. This may not always be applicable to your study, especially
when it is a compound word or if the terms represent a concept or idea
such as neighborhood violence. For example, when I look up
neighborhood in the dictionary, the closest definition is “the people living
near one another” (“Neighborhood,” n.d.). Then, when I look up violence,
the closest definition is “exertion of physical force so as to injure or
abuse.” When I put the two together, my definition of neighborhood
violence would be “exertion of physical force so as to injure or abuse by
people living near one another.” This is close to what I am thinking of but
does not really capture what I want to research because it is vague
regarding the parameters of the neighborhood and type of violence.
Another way to define terms is by giving an example definition. An

example definition is a definition that uses examples to define
ambiguous terms related to the study or research question. For instance,
for neighborhood violence, an example definition would be an area where
violent crimes such as shootings or stabbings, home and auto theft, and
gang-related activity such as fighting, muggings, and so on, occur
regularly. This gives the reader a better idea of what I want to study, but
there is still ambiguity about the size of the area and how regularly the
violent crime must occur in the neighborhood. Perhaps the best way to
define terms is to give an operational definition. An operational
definition is a definition that describes attributes or characteristics of the
term that need to be present to measure it. For example, a neighborhood
could be determined by the area within a given zip code or group of city
blocks, and neighborhood violence could be limited to violence
committed with weapons such as guns and knives. In this study, a young
child could be a child between the ages of 6 and 9, and academic
performance could be the child’s performance on a standardized
achievement test. By operationally defining the ambiguous terms in my
research question, it is now clear to me and to the reader the exact
phenomenon I am studying. I have also defined the terms in such a way
that I can now collect measurable data to answer the research question.
There are at least three types of questions that would not be good
research questions: philosophical/rhetorical, value/moral, and
hypothetical (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). The first kind is philosophical or
rhetorical in nature and resembles questions asked by 4-year-olds that
leave you scrambling for an answer. For example, “Why was I born? Why
did our dog have to die? What is the meaning of life?” are all
nonresearchable questions. A nonresearchable question is a type of
question where the researcher cannot collect measurable data to answer
the question, or where the “answers” are based on philosophical,
spiritual, or personal beliefs. The second kind of nonresearchable
question involves making a value or moral judgment. For example,
“Should plastic bags be eliminated at grocery stores? Should all children
be vaccinated? Does electroconvulsive therapy help or hurt patients?”
are not researchable questions because the answers to the questions
can be influenced by personal values and biases. The third type of
nonresearchable research question is based on hypothetical situations.
For example, “What if there was no war? What if everyone grew their
own food? How long would humans live if disease were eliminated?” are
all nonresearchable questions because you cannot collect data in a
setting that exists only hypothetically. Additionally, there would not be any
measurable outcomes.
Look at these questions from my example study and decide which type of
nonresearchable question they are:
Why are neighborhoods plagued with violence?
What is the best way to save children from neighborhood violence?

Should handguns be banned to reduce neighborhood violence?
What would happen to children’s development if they did not witness
regular violence in their neighborhoods?
In summary, it is critical that the research questions for your study are
answerable and any ambiguous terms are clearly defined. This is a
necessary first step because the research questions will guide the rest of
your study and the methodology (e.g., research design, setting,
participants, measurement instruments, data collection, data analysis)
that you use to answer the questions.
CREATING A REALISTIC TIMELINE

Now that you have narrowed your topic and developed answerable
research questions, it is time to create a timeline. A timeline is a
schedule that is created by the researcher that outlines all the necessary
steps and phases to complete the study within the allocated time. This is
necessary because often students will be so excited about finding an
interesting research problem that they plan a study that does not have a
realistic timeline. For example, imagine that you have 1 academic year to
complete your study, and it is due by the end of the spring semester
(typically in May). Your intervention is going to take three months, and
you cannot start the intervention until the beginning of January. This will
leave you one month to score all the data, complete the data analysis,
report the data, and write up the results (not to mention the multiple
revisions you will have to make). This narrow timeline will not only put
unnecessary stress on you (and your chairperson), but it may also deter
you from completing the study. A better timeline would be to start the
intervention earlier or, if that is not possible, shorten the intervention.
A realistic schedule or timeline is one that gives you some cushion and a
reasonable amount of time to complete each section or chapter. Keep in
mind that when developing a timeline, every part of the process will
probably take longer than you expect, and there are sure to be surprises
along the way. You should also expect to write multiple revisions of every
chapter. In addition, there may be events or situations (personal or
professional) that cause interruptions that you cannot predict or control.
Thus, putting buffers into your timeline will give you the flexibility to stay
on track (and not feel guilty about always being behind schedule).
Here are some possible tasks to include in your timeline and a sample
schedule for 1 academic school year. Because every institution is
different, it is best to check what the expected procedures are at your
institution.
institution.
August–September
Conduct preliminary research to find possible research topics
Speak to colleagues about possible research topics
Meet with chairperson to discuss how to narrow topic and refocus

study
Develop answerable research questions
Obtain permission from research site to conduct study and access

participants
September–October
Meet with chairperson to discuss Chapter One
Locate and finalize sample group of participants

Submit application to university’s Institutional Review Board
Submit application to organization, school district, or other entity for

permission to conduct research
Submit first draft of Chapter One
October–November
Make revisions and submit final draft of Chapter One
Locate and finalize measurement instruments

After receiving permission from all parties involved, start the pretest
phase (if appropriate)
Begin conducting interviews or classroom observations (if

appropriate)
Meet with chairperson to discuss Chapter Two
Conduct literature review

Submit first draft of Chapter Two
November–December
Make revisions and finalize Chapter Two
Begin the intervention phase of your study (if appropriate)
Continue with the interviews and field observations (if appropriate)

Meet with chairperson to discuss Chapter Three
Gather information and demographic data of participants and

research site
Submit first draft of Chapter Three
December–January
Meet with chairperson to discuss ongoing progress
Begin the intervention phase of your study (if appropriate)

Continue with the interviews and field observations (if appropriate)
Make revisions and finalize Chapter Three
January–February
Complete intervention or data collection

Begin the posttest phase (if appropriate)
Meet with chairperson to discuss data analysis
February–March
Score measurement instructions and complete data analysis (if

appropriate)
Transcribe field notes and complete data analysis (if appropriate)
Meet with chairperson to discuss Chapter Four

Submit draft of Chapter Four
March–April
Make revisions and finalize Chapter Four
Meet with chairperson to discuss Chapter Five
Submit draft of Chapter Five
April–May
Make revisions and finalize Chapter Five
Double-check all citations and references for appropriate format

(e.g., APA)
Create necessary tables and figures
Locate all documents for appendices

Create abstract and table of contents
Conduct final formatting

Meet with chairperson for final printout and review
Bind and copy final thesis
May
Submit final revisions and copies of the thesis to committee

members for signatures
Graduation celebrations
June
Take a much-deserved vacation
TIME MANAGEMENT
Realizing all the tasks that need to be done for the entire thesis can be a
bit daunting. However, if you manage your time well, meet regularly with
your chairperson, and try to stick as closely as possible to your timeline, it
is very possible to complete the study in a reasonable amount of time
and do a high-quality job. Because the thesis is different from traditional
course assignments where there are hard-and-fast deadlines, it is easy to
let the months go by without any real progress. Unfortunately, the thesis
is not like those term papers that you wrote in college the night before
(and got an A!). You will need to make consistent progress on the
research and data collection aspects as well as the writing process.
There are two strategies that will help you be successful in this process.
Reserving Time
The first strategy is to reserve time for the thesis. In this day and age, we
are all busy, all the time. There never seems to be enough time to finish
everything that needs to be done—who can possibly eat healthy food,
exercise, and get enough sleep? Like other big projects (e.g., cleaning
the garage), the thesis will fall to the bottom of the to-do pile unless you
allocate and reserve time to work on it on a consistent basis. The
reserved time can be 1 day a week, 1 hour every morning, or even 20
minutes every evening. You can pick whatever works best for you and
your schedule; however, once you have made that reservation with
yourself and the computer, you must treat it as sacred time. This means
there are no excuses for not keeping the “appointment” or putting it off
and saying, “I’ll do double time tomorrow or next week.” Let’s face it, if
you could not find 20 free minutes today, why would you be able to have
40 free minutes tomorrow? Of course, there will be emergencies and
surprises that come up now and then, but it is really critical that you
devote a consistent and regularly scheduled amount of time to work on
the thesis and be self-disciplined. This means turning off the cell phone,
e-mail, television, or anything that will disrupt you. You should also find a
place to work where you will be most productive whether it is in a home
office, library, or café. Meeting with a writing partner on a regular basis
might also keep you from canceling thesis appointments, although make
sure it does not become a social event! You can also set up reminders on
your smart phone and computer calendars. Rather than just writing it on
a to-do list (which can easily be forgotten), you can set the phone
reminder with your alarm for a specific time, date, and location. In this
way, you can at least be thinking about your thesis at regular intervals
during the week. In Google Calendar, the reminders carry over the next
day until you mark it as done. Kind of like having your own guilty
conscience following you around!
Chunking Method
Another strategy that will help you be successful in the process is the
chunking method. The chunking method refers to breaking up large
tasks into smaller, more manageable chunks such as writing one section
of a chapter rather than the entire chapter. If the task is to write an entire
chapter or transcribe all the interviews, this will seem very intimidating,
and the natural response is to do anything (e.g., clean out your desk,
reorganize your closet) to avoid the required task. Believe me, I am the
master of procrastination and have a very clean desk. However, if you set
a goal to work on only one small chunk of the larger task (e.g., one
section of the chapter, one transcription), this will feel less daunting, and
you will be more likely to start the task. Writing the thesis is similar to
sticking to an exercise plan (something I had to do after an ankle injury).
When I set my goal to ride the exercise bike for 40 minutes every other
day, it was almost impossible to find 40 minutes of “free time,” and I just
kept putting it off until the next day. Since my riding time was supposed to
be every other day, this meant I never rode the bike. Meanwhile, the bike
was a constant reminder of my “failure” and was being used as a very
expensive clothes hanger. However, when I set the goal to ride the bike
15 to 20 minutes at the beginning of my day, I was able to stick to this
schedule more regularly, and sometimes I even stayed on the bike for
another 20 minutes! Once I got into the habit of getting on the bike, it
became part of my daily routine. I can now proudly say that I ride the bike
for 30 minutes almost every day and even look forward to it (that is a bit
of an exaggeration). The point is, one of the hardest parts of writing the
thesis will be to motivate yourself to sit down and just turn on the
computer. However, once you start and begin to build momentum and
form a routine, you will find that not only will it be easier to continue, but
you also might actually enjoy yourself in the process. Building in small
rewards after each completed chunk is another way to reinforce your
productive behavior (eating a bag of chips as I did after the bike ride is
not recommended). The next time that you are feeling overwhelmed and
ready to quit, take some deep breaths and remember this quote by the
ancient Chinese philosopher and writer Lao Tzu: Do the difficult things
while they are easy and do the great things while they are small. A
journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step
(https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/lao_tzu_398196).
Summary
Selecting your research topic/problem is perhaps the most
important (and difficult) phase of the thesis process, so I hope this
chapter has given you ideas on where to start and how to narrow
the focus. In the next chapter, I discuss in detail how to research
the existing literature related to your research topic/problem. Here
is a summary of the most critical points from Chapter 2:
The topic that you choose for your thesis should be related to
your field or discipline and address a research problem and
questions.
The research problem that you select should have personal

significance, could be a problem or issue that you or your
colleagues are currently facing in the immediate environment,
and should make a contribution to the research literature.
In electronic databases such as ERIC, you can find citations
and summaries to journal and newspaper articles,
dissertations and theses, books and book chapters, technical
and government reports, and tests and measures related to
your field.
An important factor to consider when selecting a research
topic is ethics, because you should not jeopardize the
participants’ well-being in any way.
Every institution of higher education requires that graduate

students submit their master’s thesis study proposals through
the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for approval prior to
conducting the study.
Three important factors to consider when narrowing your

study are feasibility, accessibility, and available time and
resources.
The most important consideration when developing a

research question is whether or not you can answer the
question (i.e., the question is researchable).
There are three ways you can define terms related to your
research question and study: by dictionary, by example, or
operationally.
There are at least three types of questions that would not be

good research questions: philosophical/rhetorical,
value/moral, and hypothetical.
Once you have narrowed your topic and developed research

questions, create a schedule and timeline (including
reminders) so that you can complete the study within the
allocated time period.
Resources

Solutions
1. A common problem that students face at this stage is feeling
anxious about selecting a research topic. Words that come to
mind are, “Everything sounds interesting—how do I choose
just one topic?” At this point, do not put so much pressure on
yourself to find the perfect research topic. Instead, select a
few, do some scanning of the research, and then see which
one seems the most interesting, feasible, and accessible.
Remember that you can always change topics, and
sometimes in doing the research, the topic will “find” you.
2. Another common obstacle that students face at this stage is
thinking about the time issue. Words that come to mind are,
“How will I ever have enough time to write?” If you are like me
and your days are packed from the moment you open your
eyes in the morning until you close them again in the wee
hours of the morning, finding free time is like winning the
lottery without buying a ticket—chances are pretty slim. That
is why it is critical for you to schedule time to write—schedule
writing time in your daily planner just as you would a doctor’s
appointment. Think of it as an appointment to benefit you
(without copayments!).
As you begin to think about possible research topics, it is
important to frame them in the context of research questions.
Having answerable research questions related to problems in
your field or discipline will help narrow the focus of your study
(and ensure that you have a feasible study). The following
reflection/discussion questions will help guide the process of
developing answerable research questions and defining the
appropriate terms.
1. What makes a research question answerable versus

nonanswerable? What are the different types of
nonanswerable questions? Brainstorm critical problems in
your field and develop three answerable questions and three
nonanswerable questions related to the problem. Discuss
why the questions are answerable or not answerable.
2. What are the differences in the three methods for defining
terms? Discuss the pros and cons of each type of method.
Based on the answerable research questions you developed
earlier, identify and define ambiguous terms using the most
appropriate method.
Try It Exercises
Try It Exercises
The following exercises (Activities One and Two) will help you
identify a potential topic for the thesis and ways to narrow the
topic so that it is feasible to study. Activity Three is designed for
you to create a timeline with the help of your chairperson. This
timeline and personal writing schedule will help you stay on track
and finish the thesis in a timely manner (remember the rewards
from Chapter 1!).
1. Activity One: For this activity, focus on the knowledge and

experience you have gained from your master’s degree
program that will help you throughout the thesis process.
DREAM TOPIC: In the perfect world where I had

limitless time, money, and energy, I would conduct a
study with this topic:
Now that you have that out of your system, follow the
steps below to choose a topic for your master’s thesis.
Remember that you’re saving the dream topic for your
doctoral dissertation.
Make a list of the topics/problems (based on course

work) that would be interesting to research further.
Make a list of the topics/problems (based on

community, fieldwork, or clinical experience) that
would be interesting for you to research further.
Based on the information above, answer the
following prompts:
1. A topic that has personal significance:
2. A topic that is a critical issue in my field:
3. A topic that I found in existing research:

4. A topic that is ethical to research:
Now choose the BEST topic for you from 1 to 4 and

write a one-paragraph description of the research
topic/problem that you are interested in pursuing for
your master’s thesis study.
2. Activity Two: Based on the research problem that you

selected for Activity One, discuss with a colleague or your
chairperson how to narrow the focus of your study
considering feasibility, accessibility, and time/resources.
3. Activity Three: Meet with your chairperson to create a realistic
timeline for completion of the thesis. Use the sample list of
tasks from this chapter and modify the tasks and timeline to
match the chairperson’s and university’s expectations for
submitting written work and the final thesis. Then create a
personal contract where you schedule when and where you
will focus on the writing tasks. Sign both the timeline and
contract, give one copy to your chairperson, and tape one
copy by your work space. Set up reminders on your phone
and computer calendar.
Key Terms
accessibility 33
advanced search 27
answerable research question 35

chunking method 42
dictionary definition 36
electronic database 30
example definition 36
feasibility 32
Institutional Review Board (IRB) 31

nonresearchable question 37
operational definition 37
research question 35
resources 34
sample group 32
search engine 27
time 34
timeline 38
Suggested Readings
Bell, J., & Waters, S. (2014). Doing your research project: A guide
for first-time researchers (6th ed). New York, NY: Open University
Press.
Lei, S. A. (2009). Strategies for finding and selecting an ideal

thesis or dissertation topic: A review of literature. College Student
Journal, 43(4), 1324–1332.
Shon, P. C. H. (2015). How to read journal articles in the social

sciences: A very practical guide for students (2nd ed.) (SAGE
Study Skills Series). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Web Links
Academia
https://www.academia.edu/
Figshare
https://figshare.com/
Mendeley
https://www.mendeley.com/
MIT Libraries: Selecting a Research Topic
MIT Libraries: Selecting a Research Topic
https://libguides.mit.edu/select-topic
ResearchGate
https://www.researchgate.net/
Descriptions of Images and Figures

Back to Figure
The search engine has the option to search by articles or case law. A
caption below reads, stand on the shoulders of giants.
Back to Figure
The advanced search box seen here shows the following fields:
Find articles
With all words
With the exact phrase

With at least one of the words
Without the words
Were my words occur. The options seen below read:

Anywhere in the article. (option checked).
In the title of the article.
Return articles authored by. The example seen below reads: e.g., “P.
J. Hayes” or McCarthy.
Return articles published in. The example seen below reads: e.g., “J
Biol Chem” or Nature.
Return articles dated between. This has two boxes with a hyphen in
between. The example seen below reads: e.g., 1996.
Back to Figure
Find articles
With all words: cyberbullying is seen in this field.

With the exact phrase
Without the words

Back to Figure
Find articles
With all words: cyberbullying is seen in this field.
With the exact phrase: social media is seen in this field.

Without the words
between. The example seen below reads: e.g., 1996. The years
2013 and 2018 are seen in the two boxes in this field.
3 USING THE LITERATURE TO RESEARCH
YOUR PROBLEM
Benefits of Conducting a Literature Review 48

Meeting With a Reference Librarian 49
Sources of Data: Primary Versus Secondary 50
Primary Sources 50
Secondary Sources 51
Selecting Keywords 52
Conducting Searches in Electronic Databases 54
Basic Search 57
Search modes 57
Limiters 60
Expanders 61
Advanced Search 63
Using Subject Terms (Thesaurus) 63
Conducting Searches on the Internet 66

Different Types of Articles 67
Refereed Versus Non-Refereed 67
Staying Organized 68
Summary 70
Resources 71
Try It Exercises 72
Key Terms 73
Web Links 74
The greatest part of a writer’s time is spent in reading, in order

to write; a man will turn over half a library to make one book.
—Samuel Johnson
Now that you have finished selecting and refining your research problem,
it is time to determine how important your research problem is to others
and what is already known about the problem. The way to do this is to
search the literature to identify prior research about the problem. One of
the questions that might occur to you is, “Why do I need to know about
what others think of the problem when I already know what I want to do
with my study? Isn’t that just going backward?” Keep in mind the goal for
your master’s thesis is to do research that yields answers to problems
that have not been fully answered. If you can find an answer to your
research problem in the literature, then it is not necessary to do all the
work that is involved. Through the literature review, you will read what is
known about your research problem and also learn who else shares your
interest. Later, you may find it helpful to correspond with them as you
progress in your research.
Although the literature review can be a time-consuming and arduous
process, it is also one of the most important aspects of completing the
master’s thesis. Once you become familiar with the tools and strategies
available to you in conducting literature reviews, you will be
knowledgeable and up-to-date with historical and current studies, learn
new ideas, and have a better feeling about how your study fits into the
existing research (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun, 2015). How to actually write
the literature review will be covered in Chapter 6 of this book.
BENEFITS OF CONDUCTING A LITERATURE

REVIEW
There are several benefits of conducting a literature review. One major
benefit is learning how important your research problem is and what is
already known. This includes being familiar with the historical and
seminal theories and research studies as well as the most recent cutting-
edge studies. Once you are able to bridge the existing literature with your
research topic, you enhance the credibility of your study and yourself as
the researcher. The literature review shows that you are knowledgeable
of the content related to your topic and can now apply it to new situations
(McMillan, 2015). The knowledge base in disciplines such as social
sciences and the humanities moves very quickly as researchers develop
new theories and confirm or repudiate existing ones. Additionally, new
interventions and processes are continually tested and supported through
research studies. Thus, it is important for you to keep up with the
research by subscribing to and reading professional journals and
attending research conferences in your field so that your knowledge is
not outdated.
Another benefit of conducting a literature review is to get new

perspectives or ideas that you can incorporate into your study. This
prevents you from having to reinvent the wheel. By reviewing the existing
research related to your problem, you can learn from other researchers’
successes and mistakes (and try not to repeat them). This will make the
task of refining the research questions and methods much easier and
should strengthen your study. This may also help you narrow further your
research problem and focus or restate your research hypothesis
(McMillan, 2015). For example, by examining a previous study’s research
questions, methodology, and results, you can determine what has
worked and not worked with a particular sample group. If a particular
intervention or process was successful with a sample group (e.g.,
adolescents) that is similar to yours, you may want to replicate part of or
the entire study. Similarly, if a particular intervention or process was
successful with a sample group (e.g., children) that is very different from
yours, you may want to study whether or not the same results would be
obtained with your sample group (e.g., adults). Sometimes you can find a
validated measurement instrument or data analysis process in the
Methods section that would be relevant to include in your study. A great
place to look for the researcher’s advice is in the Limitations section. In
this section, the researcher usually discusses some of the problems that
were encountered, mistakes that were made, and suggestions for how to
improve the study.
Finally, conducting a literature review allows you to see how your study
fits into the existing literature. Remember that one of the goals of your
research will be to move the field forward and add to the current
knowledge base. This means either adding to, extending, or building on
previous research (McMillan, 2015). By reviewing the literature, you will
be able to determine whether your study will fill a gap or need in the
literature or will extend what is known about a specific topic. A great
place to see how your study fits into the existing literature is to read the
Recommendations for Future Research section in the studies. This
section usually offers suggestions for how future studies can extend the
current research and indicates the unanswered questions related to the
topic. The citation reference section at the end of each article is also a
treasure trove to find additional research that is relevant to your topic;
you can follow an author’s “arc” or line of research studies.
MEETING WITH A REFERENCE LIBRARIAN

Before embarking on your literature review journey, the first thing you
should do is make an appointment with a reference librarian at your
institution’s library. Besides your thesis chairperson, the reference
librarian is the other most important person in helping complete your
thesis! Plus all reference librarians must have a master’s degree in library
science, information studies, or library and information science, so they
will be empathetic to your needs.
Because we live in the information age, meeting with a reference librarian
is even more critical to cull through the vast amount of research that is
not relevant to your topic. With easy access to Internet search engines,
hundreds of electronic databases, and hundreds of thousands of
research articles, it will be easy to become overwhelmed with information
overload. The English-American poet Wystan Hugh Auden characterized
it best with the following quote (which interestingly was written before the
advent of the Internet).
The greatest problem of today is how to teach people to ignore

the irrelevant, how to refuse to know things, before they are
suffocated. For too many facts are as bad as none at all. —W.
H. Auden
Often there are reference librarians assigned to different discipline areas

(e.g., business, education, psychology), so it will be important to find out
who is the librarian in your area. The reference librarian will be able to
customize your search and give you a tutorial on how to use and log in to
the library services at your institution, use basic research skills, access
and select specific databases, and find research articles and books.
Having an individualized research consultation with your reference
librarian will save you many, many hours of time and frustration later on.
Also remember that it always better to log in to the university’s online
library (rather than open access) because the library has already paid the
fees to subscribe to different databases; this will ensure that you have
access to free resources (put your tuition dollars to work!).
SOURCES OF DATA: PRIMARY VERSUS

SECONDARY
Before you begin your literature review, it is important to distinguish
between the different sources of data available in the literature. The two
main sources of data are primary and secondary. Each serves a different
purpose, but both are important to consider in your literature review. I
discuss each type of data source briefly and how you might want to use
each in your search.
Primary Sources
Primary sources are the actual or the original results of studies reported
by researchers (i.e., firsthand information). These research articles are
usually very detailed and include all the information about the study:
research questions, sample, methodology and research design, data
analysis and results, discussion, and conclusion. Primary sources are
typically published in professional journals in the form of articles or
monographs but can also be papers presented at conferences. Basically,
to identify a primary source, ask yourself whether the information comes
directly from the person(s) who developed and conducted the research,
similar to someone writing an autobiography.
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources describe or summarize the work of others (i.e.,
secondhand information). These sources are typically not as descriptive
or comprehensive as primary sources. Secondary sources are typically
published in research journals in the form of meta-analyses, literature
syntheses, research reviews, or textbooks. You can also find secondary
sources in reference materials. Reference materials are collections of
information such as encyclopedias, handbooks, indexes, and
dictionaries. Listed below are sample reference materials found in
academic libraries. Make sure to check what reference materials are
available through your library (this varies depending on which reference
package the library buys).
Multidisciplinary:
Gale Virtual Reference Library
Oxford Reference
SAGE Knowledge
Business and Management:
Encyclopedia of Business in Today’s World

GMID: Global Market Information Database (Euromonitor)
Communications:
Communication Yearbook 40
Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence
Education:
Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory
Gender and Education: An Encyclopedia
International Handbook of Survey Methodology
The SAGE Handbook of Research on Teacher Education
Philosophy:
Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sociology:
The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology

The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice
International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral

Sciences
The Oxford Handbook of American Immigration and Ethnicity
In addition, secondary sources may appear in articles published in

newspapers and magazines. When identifying secondary sources, ask
yourself whether the information comes from a source other than the
work of the original researcher. If it comes from someone who is
describing the research of others, then it is a secondary source (like a
biography). Secondary sources help you identify primary sources and
illustrate the value placed on the primary sources.
illustrate the value placed on the primary sources.
There are advantages of reviewing both types of data sources.
Secondary sources are probably the best place to start your research
because they give you a broad overview of the information related to your
topic, and they offer a wide range of materials to explore. Searching
through secondary sources may also help you refine your research
problem and questions (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun, 2015). Starting with
secondary sources is also a good way to immerse yourself in the
literature (without drowning) because the articles or summaries are
typically short and easy to read, so you will not be bogged down with too
much specific information. They will give you leads on some specific
research articles related to your topic.
Keep in mind you will still need to locate primary sources to write Chapter
Two, Literature Review of the thesis. The primary sources give you a full
depiction of the research study, and you can synthesize the data as they
relate to your specific research topic and questions. In addition, by
making your own analysis, you can avoid the possibility of relying on
someone else’s erroneous interpretations of the results. Thus, you should
use the secondary sources to help you identify critical primary sources or
other secondary sources related to the research topic.
SELECTING KEYWORDS
A comprehensive review of secondary sources will also help you find
primary sources through the use of keywords. Keywords are typically
two to three words or short phrases that are fundamental to the research
topic, problem, or questions and are used to refine the search process.
Selecting appropriate keywords early in the search process will save you
a lot of time and frustration later on. A good strategy is to use the words
or phrases that are commonly used in the current literature related to the
specific topic (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
For example, my research topic involves immigration and human
trafficking, so I start my search in the reference The Oxford Handbook of
American Immigration and Ethnicity (Bayor, 2016). Some of the listed
keywords in The Oxford Handbook of American Immigration and Ethnicity
are immigration, ethnicity, race, panethnicity, assimilation,
transnationalism, and nativism. However, not all these would be good
keywords for my research study because they are not all centrally related
to the topic. Some keywords related to my topic are “human smuggling
and human trafficking,” which I type in the search box (see Figure 3.1 for
a quick search for articles).
With this quick search, I retrieve 113 articles and 2 books. If I want to
further refine my search for the specific group I am interested in, I can
add “refugee minors” as keywords in the search (see Figure 3.2 for
refined search). Now I retrieve 17 articles that will give me a general
context and gist of my research topic and some background information
that I will need to write Chapter One, Introduction of the thesis. These
articles will be more closely related to my research topic, and at the end
of each article, I have a list of citations for primary sources that I can use
for my literature review.
Description
Figure 3.1 Quick search in The Oxford Handbook of

American Immigration and Ethnicity.
From Oxford University Press, Oxford Handbooks Online. © Oxford University
Press. Reproduced by permission.
Description
Figure 3.2 Refined search in The Oxford Handbook of

American Immigration and Ethnicity.
From Oxford University Press, Oxford Handbooks Online. © Oxford University
Press. Reproduced by permission.
CONDUCTING SEARCHES IN ELECTRONIC

DATABASES
One of the best places to research the literature is in electronic
databases. Electronic databases are storage banks of thousands of
books, articles, reports, presentations, and so on. The major benefits of
an electronic database are that you can set limits on your search such as
dates, language, and type of resource, and search using different
descriptors. The database can be multidisciplinary or related to a specific
field/discipline.
There are many multidisciplinary databases. A multidisciplinary
database is an electronic database that covers numerous subjects rather
than just one specific field/discipline. These are important databases to
search through if your particular field/discipline does not have a specific
database or if your research problem is related to several different fields.
Some of the common multidisciplinary databases—Google Scholar,
JSTOR, Academic OneFile, ProQuest Central, Academic Search
Complete, and Academic Search Premier—include articles, citations, and
abstracts across subjects. Another multidisciplinary database is the
Dissertation Abstracts International database. This will give you access to
doctoral dissertations and master’s theses across disciplines from
various universities and colleges. Although you can view the citations and
abstracts for free, there is often a nominal fee to obtain a full copy of a
dissertation or thesis.
One advantage of these multidisciplinary databases is they frequently

offer the articles in full-text format. Full-text is when the entire resource is
available either in a printable webpage format or a PDF format. The PDF
format is a full-text electronic “picture” of a document and resembles how
a research article actually looks in the journal. This often saves you time
from searching other databases for the resource or taking a trip to the
library to locate the hard copy. Here is an important tip for searching in
full-text databases: If you have a choice between selecting the printable
webpage format or PDF format, always select the PDF format because
with the PDF format, you have the article’s page numbers (e.g., 534–552)
from the journal. Thus, you will be able to provide specific page numbers
for APA style citations if you are selecting quotations from the article (see
Chapter 10 for APA style). There are also many electronic databases
available for specific fields or disciplines. Two very popular databases
mentioned in Chapter Two were PsycINFO for psychology and ERIC for
education. ERIC is one of the largest databases in education and is free
to the public through the U.S. Department of Education. If you use the
ERIC database through the U.S. Department of Education website
(http://eric.ed.gov), the interface may be different from the one you will
find at your institution’s library because of the different commercial
vendors that license databases to libraries.
Listed below are sample subject databases found in academic libraries

(make sure you check to see what databases are available through your
library).
Business:
ABI/Inform Collection
Business Source Complete

Key Business Ratios
Mergent Online
Standard and Poor’s NetAdvantage
Communication:
Communication and Mass Media Complete
GenderWatch
Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts
Sociological Abstracts
Education:
Educational Administration Abstracts
Education Database
Education Full Text
Education Research Complete

ERIC
PsycINFO
Ethnic Studies:
Bibliography of Native North Americans
Black Thought and Culture

Ethnic NewsWatch
HAPI Online
Humanities Full Text
International Index to Black Periodicals Full Text
History:
America: History and Life
Historical Abstracts
International Medieval Bibliography
JSTOR
Middle Eastern and Central Asian Studies
Law/Political Science:
CQ Researcher
Criminal Justice Database
Nexis Uni
Westlaw
Worldwide Political Science Abstracts
Nursing and Health Education:
CINAHL Plus With Full Text
Cochrane Library
Human Nutrition
PubMed
Web of Science
Psychology:
JSTOR
Mental Measurements Yearbook With Tests in Print

PILOTS: Published International Literature on Traumatic Stress
PsycARTICLES
PsycEXTRA
PsycINFO
Sociology:
Family & Society Studies Worldwide
JSTOR
LGBT Life With Full Text
Social Explorer
Social Services Abstracts
Social Work Abstracts
Sociological Abstracts
Urban Studies Abstracts
Women and Social Movements in the United States
Although each database’s search formats are slightly different, they all
share common search tools and features that make it easy to navigate
and switch from one database to another. In some cases, your
institution’s library may subscribe to a discovery service (e.g.,
OneSearch, EBSCOhost, ProQuest). A discovery service searches within
the institution’s entire library collection (e.g., books, journal articles, full-
text) from a single find field. This makes library searches very fast and
text) from a single find field. This makes library searches very fast and
easy, because it is similar to using a search engine on the Internet (e.g.,
Google Scholar). To show you how to conduct a basic and advanced
search on an electronic database, I use Academic Search Complete as
an example since it is multidisciplinary and has a similar interface with
other databases.
Basic Search
Electronic databases such as Academic Search Complete are large and
hold thousands of records; the key to success is being able to narrow the
search so that you find the resources most relevant to your research
problem. With that in mind, it is critical for you to start with at least five to
10 keywords that are related to your research question or problem (other
keywords will be generated during your search). For example, for my
research topic above, some of the keywords could include refugees,
refugee camps, unaccompanied minors, immigrants, immigration, human
trafficking, human smuggling, and so on. These are the keywords that
you would type into the “find field” box and then click the “search” button
(see Figure 3.3 for the basic search screen). The basic search option
also allows you to limit or expand your search. I will briefly explain each
of these features.
Search modes
In Academic Search Complete, there are four different ways to conduct

your search.
Boolean operators are used in electronic databases and other search

engines to define the relationships between keywords or phrases.
Besides being a really cool word, Booleans allow you broaden or narrow
your search. Three Boolean operators will be critical for your search:
AND, NOT, and OR. The AND Boolean operator combines two or more
terms so that each record contains all the terms. For example, I could
search for the terms “refugees” AND “unaccompanied minors” (see
Figure 3.4 for basic search using AND Boolean operator). This would
provide me with records where both “refugees” and “unaccompanied
minors” are present. In essence, using AND between keywords or
phrases narrows my search because it does not include records that
have only one or the other. The NOT Boolean operator searches terms
so that records with certain terms are excluded from the results. This
would be another way to narrow the search. For example, if I search
using the terms “family-based immigration” NOT “immigration policy,” my
results would contain records where only “family-based immigration” is
present but not “immigration policy” (see Figure 3.5 for basic search
using NOT Boolean operator). The OR Boolean operator searches terms
so that at least one of the terms is present in the record. For example, if I
search using the terms “human smuggling” OR “human trafficking,” my
results would contain records where either “human smuggling” or “human
trafficking” are present (see Figure 3.6 for basic search using OR
Boolean operator). In essence, using OR between keywords or phrases
broadens my search because it retrieves records containing any of the
terms included. If you are using both terms AND and OR in a search, the
AND will take precedent over the OR.
Description
Figure 3.3 Basic search screen in Academic Search

Complete.
Description
Figure 3.4 Basic search using AND Boolean operator in

Academic Search Complete.
Description
Figure 3.5 Basic search using NOT Boolean operator in

Description
Figure 3.6 Basic search using OR Boolean operator in

When using Boolean operators with a phrase, it is important to enclose
the entire phrase within quotation marks; this will ensure the search
includes all the terms and in that specific order rather than searching
each word individually. In some databases, the Boolean operators have
to be in capital letters, so to be on the safe side, make it a habit to type
them in capital letters. If you want to be super fancy and have a decent
understanding of algebra, you can also combine the Boolean operators
using parentheses to nest terms within other terms. For example, you
can search ((human smuggling OR human trafficking) AND immigrants)
OR unaccompanied minors—in this case, the search engine will search
the expression inside the parentheses first and then add on the terms
outside of the parentheses and so on. If you did not understand order of
operations when learning algebra, now isn’t the best time to master it!
The search mode, “Find all of my search terms” is similar to using the
AND Boolean, and the “Find any of my search terms” is like using the OR
Boolean between the terms.
The fourth search mode in Academic Search Complete is SmartText

Searching. In the SmartText searching mode, you can type in any
amount of text or cut and paste from another source. The SmartText will
magically summarize the text and match it with the most relevant search
terms to find the results. I have to admit this one is pretty cool, but it’s not
available in all databases. You can combine any of these search modes
with the limiters and expanders described below.
Limiters
If I want to narrow my search, I would use the limiters features. The

limiters feature narrows an electronic search by allowing the user to set
specific limits, so the search results will only contain research with the
chosen specific criteria. For example, in Academic Search Complete, you
can set the following limits:
full-text: only retrieves records that have a link to the full-text copy of
the article or document (be careful with this limit because you may
miss important references that are not available through one
database)
scholarly (peer-reviewed) journals: only retrieve articles from journals

that have a peer-review selection process
publication: can specify the name of the publication (e.g., title of a

book)
number of pages: limits to the number of specified pages
references available: only retrieves records that have a list of

references from the publication
published date: can specify the time period with beginning month
and/or year to ending month and/or year
publication type: can specify the type of publication (e.g., article,

book chapter, report)
image quick view or image quick view type: contains results with
specific types of image quick view (e.g., chart, color photograph,
graph map)
Because of the huge quantity of records, setting limits is a very critical

step in narrowing your search. However, you have to be careful not to set
too many limits at the beginning of the search because you may not get
enough records or you may miss some critical records. A good strategy is
to start with a few critical limits and then set more limits as needed. For
example, in my search, I am going to set the limits for full-text, scholarly
journal, references available, published dates from 2013 to 2018, and
only periodicals (see 3.7 for limiters feature in basic search).
Expanders
If I wanted to expand or broaden my search, I would use the expanders

feature. The expanders feature is the opposite of the limiters feature
and broadens an electronic search by allowing the user to search using
words related to the key words (see Figure 3.8 for expanders feature in
basic search). Two common expanders are “apply related words” and
“also search within the full text of the articles.” For “apply related words,”
the results expand to include true synonyms and plurals of your
keywords. For “also search within the full text of the articles,” the results
expand to include keywords that are found in the full text, abstract, and
citations of the article.”
Description
Figure 3.7 Limiters feature in basic search for Academic

Search Complete.
Description
Figure 3.8 Expanders feature in basic search for Academic

Search Complete.
Another expander feature in this database is “apply equivalent subjects.”
This is not to be confused with subjects (e.g., sample group) within a
particular study. Instead, “apply equivalent subjects” refers to mapped
vocabulary terms that are used to identify concepts used in subject
indexing. Think about how subject indexes are organized at the back of
most textbooks. By using this feature, it will increase the precision and
relevance ranking of your keyword search. For example, let’s say the
user searches using keywords “workplace injury” because that’s a
user searches using keywords “workplace injury” because that’s a
popular term that is used in the industry. These keywords are related to
the concept of “work-related injuries.” However, as the user, you would
not know how the concept of “work-related injuries” is mapped to subject-
indexed concepts in different vocabularies. Different databases could
map “work-related injuries” with “occupational injuries,” or “occupational-
related injuries.” If you did not use the expander feature here, you would
miss those records subject-indexed with this concept from other
databases. Basically, when you turn this expander on, when your
keywords match a known concept, the search will be expanded to include
the exact terms for that concept in the mapped vocabularies. If I have
only added to your confusion, my suggestion is that if your results seem
too narrow or a bit “off” from the gist of what you are looking for, turn on
this expander feature (it won’t hurt and it may help!).
Advanced Search
Although a basic search is a good starting point, conducting an advanced
search offers several features for a more refined and precise search. This
is really helpful when you want to focus and narrow in on your specific
research topic. For example, in the advanced search, you can set the
following additional limits:
document type: can specify the type of document (e.g., abstract,

article, book chapter, report)
language: can specify the written language (e.g., English, Chinese,

Spanish)
cover story: contains only articles that were featured as a cover story
PDF full text: contains only articles that are available in full text
The advanced search also gives you the option to refine the search with
the “select a field” from a drop-down menu. Some of the options are by
“all text, author, title, subject terms” and so forth. By selecting the “subject
terms” option, this will make my search more accurate than an “all text”
search because the subject terms are assigned by the database and are
included in its thesaurus (see below for a detailed explanation).

Unfortunately, you can search electronic databases for hours typing in
keywords and phrases that you think are most appropriate to your
research question and come up with “no results were found” or hundreds
of irrelevant records. That is when you want to pull out your hair or
change your research topic! The problem is we tend to use our everyday
language when conducting searches while the database uses its own
language to catalog the resources. However, there is still hope by
browsing through the database’s thesaurus. The thesaurus contains
alphabetized descriptors (i.e., subject terms) that are used in the
electronic database to give every record a subject indexing term (i.e.,
controlled vocabulary). By finding out the exact two to three words used
by the database to tag records for different concepts, you make your
searches more efficient by taking out the guesswork of which keywords
to use. The most well-known use of controlled vocabulary is the Library of
Congress Subject Headings. A simpler example is how subjects were
listed in the phone book yellow pages (you may be using one as a
footrest right now). If I need to fix my car, should I look up car repair, auto
repair, mechanic, automotive repair auto service, automobile restoration,
motor rehabilitation . . . ; wouldn’t it be nice to know the one term that the
yellow pages used when they created the listings? That is exactly how
the database thesaurus works! By using the correct subject term from the
thesaurus, I increase the chance of retrieving relevant articles for my
search.
For example, I use the phrase “unaccompanied minors” but when I

searched the subject terms, the database uses “unaccompanied
immigrant children” or “unaccompanied refugee children” to refer to the
same population. By using the relevancy ranked option, the subject
terms are displayed in hierarchical order from most to least relevant,
which helps prioritize my search process (see Figure 3.9 for search
subject term using relevancy ranked). Now I can use these subject terms
for my searches that will give me more accurate records; I can spend
those hours I would have spent pulling out my hair actually reading the
articles!
Description
Figure 3.9 Subject term search using relevancy ranked in

Once I have a reasonable number of records, I usually do a cursory
review of the titles and authors and either add them to my folder for a
more detailed review later or click on the title to get more information
about the record. The detailed record screen gives me very critical
information about the record: the title, authors, source (journal, volume,
issue, and page numbers), subject terms, and abstract (see Figure 3.10
for sample record screen for a journal article). In addition, the record tells
me whether or not the full-text article (PDF) is available. With the PDF
full-text choice, I can download, view and/or print the article, save it to
Google Drive, or e-mail it to another account. When doing searches, it is
very easy to get lost in the process. Most library search interfaces allow
you to keep a record of your search, save records to your computer, or e-
mail searches and records to another computer; this keeps you from
researching with the same keywords or losing precious findings. I highly
recommend that you add relevant results to your folder as you find them.
This way, you can have a record of your results and will be able to print,
e-mail, or retrieve them later.
You can also get a full citation in the style that you need (e.g., APA, MLA)
and export it to a citation management software. Citation management
software is a tool that allows you to collect citations from various sources,
organizes them, and then compiles them into a list of cited works or
bibliography. Instead of going back at the end of your thesis to track
down all the sources, the citation management software will help you
manage this bibliographical information while you are researching and
writing. This is such a gift to students and will save you hours and hours
of trying to put together a reference lists (by hand!) like we old-timers had
to do when we wrote our master’s thesis. There are many different
software programs available (e.g. CITAVI, Easybib, EndNote, Mendeley,
ReadCube, RefWorks, Reference Manager, Zotero) and you can select
the style guide that is needed (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). I list a website
at the end of this chapter to help you decide which would be the most
appropriate for your use, but four popular ones used by graduate
students are EndNote, Mendeley, RefWorks, and Zotero. Check with
your institution’s library because they often have a license to citation
management software, which would allow you to use the service for free.
Description
Figure 3.10 Sample record screen for journal article in

As you are researching, it might also be a good idea to keep a notebook
handy to note authors who have written a few articles related to your
research problem (in case you want to contact them for more information)
or articles that you may need to search for in other databases, on the
Internet, in the library’s catalog, or order through interlibrary loan.
Interlibrary loan is a service provided by libraries whereby a user of one
library can borrow books or acquire photocopies of articles in journals
that are owned by another library (sometimes there is a fee involved).
CONDUCTING SEARCHES ON THE

INTERNET
Conducting searches on the Internet offers advantages and
disadvantages over conducting searches on electronic databases. The
search process is similar to the electronic database in that once you type
in a keyword the search engine will find websites and webpages that are
related to your keyword. Some advantages of the Internet search are that
it is fast, easy, and accessible anytime. In addition, the information is
relatively current, and you will get a wide variety of resources. One
disadvantage of the Internet search is that since you have so much
information and it is not well organized, it may be more time-consuming
and difficult to find relevant information. To be both effective and efficient
in searching the Internet, you must develop rather sophisticated search
techniques. An additional disadvantage is that the information may not be
of high quality or reliable (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Fraenkel, Wallen, &
Hyun, 2015; Mertler & Charles, 2010). For example, often there is no
author listed on the website, so it is unclear whether or not the article was
written by an expert in the field. Additionally, there is no way to check
whether or not the article was externally reviewed. However, sometimes
the Internet is the easiest or the only way to retrieve citations that are
available through the library. Again, Google Scholar will probably be the
most useful search engine to use for research. Typically, I use the
Internet search engines only when I am looking for a specific reference. If
you do retrieve information or documents from the Internet, keep a record
of the website or webpage address and the date that you retrieved the
information. You will need these for APA style citations and references
(see Chapter 10 for APA style).
There are also several free websites that are easy to use, have a large
collection of research documents (some charge a fee to access the
articles), and are organized by subject areas. Some popular websites for
research are IngentaConnect (http://www.ingentaconnect.com) and
Directory of Open Access Journals (https://doaj.org/). These would be
particularly helpful at the beginning of a search or if you do not have
access to electronic databases. There is more information about open
access databases in the Resources section. You may also find LibGuides
on the Internet to help you with your research. LibGuides are
compilations of recommended resources (e.g., databases, journals,
webpages) in a particular area of study. To find a relevant LibGuide, type
in “keyword + LibGuide” in the search engine’s find field. These subject
guides are created by librarians, so you know they will be amazing!
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ARTICLES

As you continue your search in electronic databases or through the
Internet, you will encounter different types of articles. This includes
theoretical articles, empirical research studies, position papers, literature
syntheses, and meta-analyses. A literature synthesis (also referred to
as a research synthesis) is a type of article in which the results of several
related studies are compared and summarized. A meta-analysis
research study is one in which the results of several related studies are
analyzed and reported with statistical measures (e.g., effect sizes). Each
of the different types of articles serves a different purpose. For example,
if I were looking for a theoretical rationale or basis for my research study,
then I would want to search for articles that discuss an existing theory or
suggest a new theory. If I want to review research that is based on
systematic observation, I would search for empirical research studies
(very critical for writing Chapter Two of your thesis). If I want an article
that gives a broad overview or synthesis in a particular area such as
“reading strategies,” I would search for a meta-analysis or literature
synthesis on that specific subject. Finally, if I want support for a particular
position or to quote an expert’s opinion on a particular topic, I would
search for position and/or opinion papers.
Refereed Versus Non-Refereed

As a consumer (in this case of research), you always want to make sure
that you get the best quality. Thus, when deciding on which research
articles to include in your thesis and particularly the literature review, it is
important to keep in mind that like most consumer products there is a
hierarchy of quality involved. A natural tendency is to assume that if
something has been printed in a journal or published on a website, the
article is of high quality. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. In
research, the main stamp of quality is refereed. A refereed (also referred
to as peer-reviewed) article has been submitted for external review by a
panel of reviewers before being accepted for publication. This means that
when author(s) send in their manuscripts, the manuscripts are reviewed
by the journal’s editor as well as other experts in the field. Often, the
reviewers are blind to the identity of the author(s) of the manuscript,
which reduces the chance of bias. This panel then decides whether the
manuscript should be accepted, accepted with revisions, or rejected for
publication in the journal (Creswell & Poth, 2018; McMillan, 2015).
Because the acceptance rate for most refereed journals is typically below
50%, this process ensures that only the most rigorous and high-quality
research is accepted for publication. A non-refereed article is one that
did not go through an external review process before being published.
With that in mind, it is best for you to search in research journals that use
a refereed review process (most databases will allow you to set this as a
limit). Be wary of online journals where the author has to pay a publishing
fee to have their article published on the site! These predatory journals
typically do not have a rigorous peer-review process. This can be a real
danger when searching for articles through the Internet because there
are over 10,000 of these “pay to publish” online journals (they may also
show up in Google Scholar results).
STAYING ORGANIZED
One of the most important strategies during the literature search process
is to stay organized. After all, you may end up with 40 or 50 articles,
books, and documents by the time you are done searching. This means
keeping track of your search records, saving, printing, or e-mailing
relevant records, and also creating an organizational system. Some of
you may want to have a physical organizational system while others will
subscribe to a citation management software program. It really is a
personal preference—as long you have a system to keep you organized!
If you file alphabetically by the author’s last name, this will be an easy
way to retrieve the articles (as long as you can remember who wrote
which article). You can also file the articles by date of publication if you
are interested in a chronological or historical analysis. Finally, you can
group the articles by themes and/or conceptual categories based on
specific common attributes (e.g., topic, sample, intervention, methods). I
prefer this method because it helps me conceptually organize the body of
literature and will help facilitate the writing process later on. Remember
that if the article or information comes from an electronic source (i.e.,
website), you need to record the website address and in some cases the
date that you retrieved the information from the Internet (keep a log).
After you have selected your method for physical organization, it is time
to organize the information within the articles. Rarely will you find an
to organize the information within the articles. Rarely will you find an
article that is completely relevant to your research problem or study.
More often, you will use specific parts from different articles to support
your ideas. Pulling together the studies in a literature review is very much
like putting together a complex puzzle (with some missing pieces). Thus,
how you organize the information within the studies is very important.
You need to have a system that is not only efficient in terms of recording
critical information but also easy to access for retrieval purposes. One
method that I find helpful is using different color highlighters (old school, I
know) as I read to code different types of information (e.g., yellow =
problems, green = possible solutions, orange = background information,
pink = definitions). There are also computer software and applications
that have this capability if you are more comfortable reading documents
and editing on a computer screen.
One method of organizing the information within the articles is

abstracting. Abstracting is a method of organizing information about an
article that includes a brief summary and selected critical information
about the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This is different from
copying and pasting the author’s abstract, which does not always include
the most critical information about the study (from your perspective). The
summary should be brief and does not have to be in complete narrative
form. However, the abstract should contain the following components: the
problem, the purpose of the study, the sample, and key results. Once you
have abstracted the studies in your collection, it will be much easier to
see the relationships between them. This is a critical step in the
organization process because ultimately, in writing the literature review,
you will need to make the explicit connections between the studies that
you select and how they relate to your proposed study.
To help you find the relationships and connections between the studies,
you can also create a literature review matrix. A literature review matrix
is an organizational tool such as a table, chart, or flow chart to display the
relationship or common attributes among multiple studies. The purpose is
to show the relationships between the studies, so use the format that is
best for you. For example, for a study dealing with “reading instruction,” I
may want to group all the studies related to reading instruction for
bilingual learners together. Then, another group would be the studies of
reading instruction for students with learning disabilities. Next, a third
group would be studies of reading instruction for students who are
bilingual learners and have learning difficulties, and so on. By grouping
the studies together into subgroups, this will allow you to see if you have
overlaps or gaps in your pool of studies (which may require you to
conduct another search). I realize that this may seem like a lot of hard
work (and it is), but believe me, it will save you time later. This process
will also make it easier for you to organize your thoughts about the
research problem, conceptualize your research questions and study, and
write the literature review in the thesis. There are websites with samples
of a literature review matrix in the Resources section.
Summary
Researching the literature related to your research problem is a
giant step in the thesis process. As you immerse yourself in the
literature, you will be inundated with resources, so be very critical
and selective, keeping only those directly related to your research
problem. In the next chapter, I discuss the ethics of conducting
research and how to prepare a research study application for
review by the Institutional Review Board (IRB). Here is a summary
of the most critical points from Chapter 3:
The major benefits of conducting a literature review are to

know the research that has already been done that relates to
your proposed study, learn from other researchers’
successes and mistakes, and determine whether or not your
study will fill a gap or need in the literature or extend what is
known about a specific topic.
Primary sources are the actual or the original results of

studies reported by the researcher(s) (i.e., firsthand
information).
Secondary sources describe or summarize the work of others

(i.e., secondhand information).
Keywords are typically two to three words or short phrases

that are fundamental to the research topic, problem, or
questions.
The major benefits of an electronic database are that you can

search using multiple keywords and set limits on your search
such as full-text, dates, peer-reviewed, and so on.
Electronic databases and other search engines often use
Boolean operators AND, NOT, and OR to define the
relationships between words or groups of words.
The thesaurus contains alphabetized descriptors (i.e., subject
terms) that are used in the electronic database to give every
record a subject indexing term (i.e., controlled vocabulary).
Disadvantages of an Internet search include that it may be

more time-consuming and difficult to find relevant information
or the information may not be of high quality or reliable.
The term refereed refers to a quality-control process that

includes an external review of the research manuscript.
One popular method of organizing the information within the

articles is abstracting, that is, writing a brief summary about
the article (usually a research study) that includes selected
critical information.
Resources

Solutions
1. Since we live in a world of information overload, a common
problem that students face at this stage is feeling
overwhelmed and not knowing where to start looking for
research. Words that come to mind are “Lost in cyberspace.”
If you have a general sense of your topic and are familiar with
the Internet, Google Scholar would be a good place to start. If
you have a focused sense of your research topic, I
recommend searching within electronic databases that are
multidisciplinary or specific to your field/discipline. If you feel
completely lost in cyberspace, I recommend setting up an
appointment with the reference librarian at your institution to
help you get started. Remember that the search for research
articles is like a treasure hunt; it is time-consuming and
continual (finding one source usually leads to another).
2. Once you find the research articles, a common obstacle that
students face is organizing them all. Words that come to mind
are “My room is covered in research articles!” From the very
beginning, it is really important to set up an organization
system and stick to it (everything should have a home). Set
up a filing system or subscribe to a citation management
software program that you are comfortable with (not piles on
the floor) and start categorizing your research articles either
with hard copies or electronically (keep a backup). This will
cut down the time later when you need to refer to a specific
article or need to find missing references.
As you begin to find research articles, it is important to consider
how and why you are conducting the literature review and the
types of sources that you will rely on. For example, the research
literature can help identify existing gaps and weaknesses around
a specific topic. In other cases, the research literature can be
used to rationalize or justify using different components in an
intervention. The following reflection/discussion questions will help
you determine how you want to approach the literature review and
the advantages and disadvantages of different types of sources.
1. What is a literature review, and why is it an important part of

the research process?
2. What are the major benefits of conducting a literature review
before planning and implementing the study?
3. What are the differences between primary and secondary
sources? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
using each type of source? Brainstorm and list critical primary
and secondary sources in your field or discipline.
Try It Exercises
The intent of the following exercises is to help you get started with
your literature search. In Activity One, you will identify potential
databases and websites where you can find research or
information related to your field or discipline area. In Activity Two,
you will use keywords and an advanced search to find empirically
based research articles. In Activity Three, you will write a short
abstract based on one of the research articles.
1. Activity One: For this activity, focus on the resources specific
to your field or discipline area.
Through your institution’s library, locate at least five

electronic databases that have information related to
your field or discipline area.
Through an Internet search engine, locate at least five
organization-sponsored or open sources websites that
have information related to your field or discipline area.
Through an Internet search engine, locate at least three

national or state-sponsored (e.g., U.S. Department of
Education) websites that have information related to your
field or discipline area.
2. Activity Two: For this activity, focus on your chosen research

problem as you conduct a literature search.
List 10 keywords that can be used for your literature

search. You should use the thesaurus to help you find
the subject terms.
Conduct an advanced search (using limits, expanders,

and Boolean operators) in one of the electronic
databases from Activity One. Remember to keep track of
the keywords and your search record.
Select five empirically based research articles related to

your research problem (make sure they come from
refereed journals).
3. Activity Three: For this activity, focus on one of the selected

research articles in Activity Two.
Write an abstract for one of the research articles that

includes the following information about the study: (a)
research problem/question, (b) research design, (c)
methods (e.g., sample group, intervention, measurement
instruments, data collection, data analysis), and (d)
results and/or findings.
Key Terms
abstracting 69
AND (Boolean operator) 58

Boolean operators 57
descriptors 63
expanders feature 61
full-text 54
interlibrary loan 66
keywords 52
limiters feature 60
literature review matrix 69
literature synthesis 67
meta-analysis 67
multidisciplinary database 54
non-refereed 68
NOT (Boolean operator) 58

OR (Boolean operator) 58
PDF 55
primary sources 50
refereed 68
reference materials 51
relevancy ranked 64
secondary sources 51
thesaurus 63
Suggested Readings
Kolata, G. (2017, March). A scholarly sting operation shines a
light on “predatory” journals. New York Times online.
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/22/science/open-access-
journals.html?
action=click&contentCollection=Science&module=RelatedCoverage&region=Margi
Kolata, G. (2017, October). Many academics are eager to publish

in worthless journals. New York Times online.
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/30/science/predatory-journals-
academics.html
Lomand, T. C. (2017). Social science research: A cross section of

journal articles for discussion and evaluation (7th ed.). New York,
NY: Routledge.
Subramanyam, R. (2013). Art of reading a journal article:

Methodically and effectively. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial
Pathology: JOMFP, 17(1), 65–70. http://doi.org/10.4103/0973-
029X.110733
Web Links
Duquesne University: Matrix Method for Literature Review
http://guides.library.duq.edu/matrix
EBSCO Free Databases
https://www.ebsco.com/who-we-serve/academic-
libraries/subjects/free-databases
Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)

Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)
http://www.eric.ed.gov/
Google Scholar
http://scholar.google.com/
How to Choose a Citation Manager
http://guides.lib.uchicago.edu/c.php?g=297307&p=1984557
Ingenta Connect
https://www.ingentaconnect.com
UC Santa Barbara Library Free Publically Accessed Databases

https://www.library.ucsb.edu/search-research/free-databases
Walden University: Literature Review Matrix Template
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/assignments/literaturereview/org

Back to Figure
The top part of the website has a banner that reads, browse by subject,
with a list of subjects seen in four columns below.
A left panel labeled search results, is seen below, to the left. The option
to narrow the choices is seen below.
An option to sign in labeled San Francisco State University, is seen just
above.
The large panel on the right of this box displays search results. The box
on top reads, you are looking at 1 – 10 of 133 articles for:
All: Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking.

The two tables seen below read: 133 articles and 2 books.
The first result seen on the 133 articles tab, that is open, reads:
The first result seen on the 133 articles tab, that is open, reads:
Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking
Edward R. Kleemans
Print publication date: Aug 2011. Subject: Criminology and Criminal

Justice, Online publication: Sep 2012. Transactional crime,
property crime.
Back to Figure
A left panel labeled search results, is seen to the left. An option to sign in
labeled San Francisco State University, is seen on the left.
The option to narrow the choices is seen below.
The search has been refined based on the terms human smuggling and
refugee minors.
The large panel on the right of this box displays search results. The box
on top reads, you are looking at 1 – 10 of 17 articles for:
All: Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking. All: refugee minors.
The two tables seen below read: 133 articles and 2 books.
The first two result seen on the 133 articles tab, that is open, reads:
Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking
Edward R. Kleemans
Print publication date: Aug 2011. Subject: Criminology and Criminal
Justice,
Online publication: Sep 2012. Transactional crime, property crime.

...example on true political refugees, travel conditions, and process. Law
enforcement operations may target the part of the smuggling business
that is dominated by criminal groups, large volumes, and bad travel
conditions. In contrast, the basic characteristics of human trafficking are
exploitation and the violation of human rights. Particularly in human
trafficking for sexual exploitation, types of victims and types of traffickers
involved differ substantially from those involved in human smuggling, and
human rights violations of women, boys, and girls are far more severe…
human rights violations of women, boys, and girls are far more severe…
Human Smuggling, Human Trafficking, and Exploitation in the Sex
industry
Edward R. Kleemans and Monika Smit
Print publication date: Oct 2014. Subject: Criminology and Criminal

Justice, organized crime.
Back to Figure
The banner seen on the top part of this website has many options.
The options on the left read:
New search, publications, subject terms, cited references and more.
The options on the right read:
Sign in.
Folder.
Preferences.
Languages.
Ask a librarian.
Help.
The top right corner of the site just below this banner reads, San
Francisco State University.
An EBSCO host icon is seen on the left of the search window seen in the
middle of this page. The text above the window reads: Searching:
Academic Search complete; Choose databases.
The blank search window has text that reads: enter any words to find
books, journals and more.
The options below this window read: Search options: basic search,
advanced search and search history.
Back to Figure
An EBSCO host icon is seen on the left of the search window seen in the
middle of this page. The text above the window reads: Searching:
Academic Search complete; Choose databases.
The search window has text that reads: refugees AND unaccompanied
minors.
The left panel below has an option to refine results. The text below reads,
current search:
Boolean/Phrase:
Refugees AND unaccompanied minors.
The panel on the right shows the search results and the text reads:
Search results: 1 – 20 of 151.
1. Metric approach for age assessment of chi
By: Obertová, Zuzana; Ratnayake, Melanie; Popp

Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences. Feb2018
Subjects: AGE determination of children; HEIGHT

Children; POLITICAL refugees; MULTIPLE regres
An icon labeled Academic journal is seen to the left of text above, just
below the search result numbered 1.
An icon for PlumX Metrics is seen below as well a box that reads, check
for full text.
Back to Figure
An EBSCO host icon is seen on the left of the search window seen on
top of this page. The text above the window reads: Searching: Academic
Search complete; Choose databases.
The search window has text that reads: family-based immigration NOT
immigration policy.
current search:
Boolean/Phrase:
family-based immigration NOT immigration policy.
Search results: 1 – 11 of 11.
1. Immigration plan combines citizenship and…
By: David, Jackson; Gregory Korte; Eliza Collins.
Notes: SFSU subscribes to this journal.
An icon labeled News, is seen to the left of text above, just below this
search result.
Back to Figure
top of this page. The text above the window reads: Searching: Academic
Search complete; Choose databases.
The search window has text that reads: human smuggling OR human
trafficking.
current search:
Boolean/Phrase:
Boolean/Phrase:
human smuggling OR human trafficking.
Search results: 1 – 20 of 4,362.
1. Prioritizing postrafficking car…
By: Ades, Veronica; Wu, Stephanie X; Rabinowit...

Feb2018, Vil. 108 Issue 2, pe8-e9. 2p. DOI:10.2…
Subjects: Human trafficking victims; medical…
Patients; victims; human trafficking; unite…
A PDF icon below reads, PDF Full text (913kb) and an icon for PlumX
Metrics is seen below this result.
Back to Figure
This window reads, limit your results, on top.
The options checked on this window are:
Full text.
Scholarly (Peer reviewed) journals.
References available.
The date range chosen is from January 2013 to January 2018.
The publication type chosen from the drop-down menu reads, periodical.
All the other options seen on this window are unchecked.
Back to Figure
An EBSCO host icon is seen on top of the search window seen on this
page. The text above the window reads: Searching: Academic Search
complete; Choose databases.
The search window has the following text in it: Enter any words to find
The search window has the following text in it: Enter any words to find
The search panel seen below has the following options checked:
Boolean/Phrase.
Apply related words.

Also search within the full text of the article.
Apply equivalent subjects.
Back to Figure
page. The text above the window reads: Searching: Academic Search
complete; Choose databases.
The search window is blank.
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Browsing: Academic search complete – subject terms. A browse button is
seen beside the window.
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is seen beside this window.
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with an instruction the list that reads, click term to display details.
Unaccompanied refugee children.
Unaccompanied immigrant children.

(No check box in front) Unaccompanied minors (Refugees) Use
(No check box in front) Unaccompanied minors (immigrant) Use

Unaccompanied immigrant children.
Minorities in the military.

Libraries & minorities.
Minorities & journalism.

Back to Figure
page. There are a set of windows to the right with text above that reads,
searching: Academic search complete; choose databases.
Row 1:
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down menu with the instruction: select a field (option…). Search and
clear buttons are seen to the right.
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blank. Window 3: Drop-down menu with the instruction: select a field
(option…). Plus and minus buttons are seen to the right.
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history.
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Providing culturally safe care in the best interests of unaccompanied

humanitarian minors.
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supplied keywords and abstract details are provided below the title.
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Google Drive.
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Print.
E-mail.
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Cite.
Export.
Create Note.
Permalink.
Permalink.
Share.
4 CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
Legal Regulations and Ethical Standards 76
Institutional Review Board (IRB) 80
IRB Protocol Review Process 81
Ethical Behavior 83
Plagiarism and Paraphrasing 84
Summary 86
Resources 87
Reflection/Discussion Question 88
Try It Exercises 88
Key Terms 89
Web Links 90
I have learned two lessons in my life: first, there are no sufficient

literary, psychological, or historical answers to human tragedy,
only moral ones. Second, just as despair can come to one
another only from other human beings, hope, too, can be given
to one only by other human beings.
—Elie Wiesel
You might be wondering why it is necessary to include a chapter on

ethical practices in research in a book on writing a master’s thesis. Isn’t it
obvious that when conducting a study involving human subjects, the
researcher would have to disclose the purpose and procedures of the
study to the participants and get their consent? Doesn’t the researcher
know that she must treat the participants with respect, minimize their risk
of harm, and protect their rights for confidentiality? Unfortunately, history
tells us that this has not always been the case. Past situations have
indicated that researchers have intentionally deceived participants (at
great personal cost) without their knowledge or consent. When
conducting research of any kind, there is always the possibility that you
will encounter ethical issues. Thus, it is especially important early in your
research career that you understand the policies and standards
governing research with human subjects and develop an ethical
perspective that will guide your research. Central to doing research is
ensuring that you take the necessary steps to protect the rights of the
human subjects who consent to participate in your study. This chapter
will provide you with an overview of the ethical standards related to the
treatment of human subjects and prevailing policies that govern the
research you will be conducting for your master’s thesis.
LEGAL REGULATIONS AND ETHICAL

STANDARDS
Although the answers to the questions presented above were meant to
be evident, it is important to recognize that until 1974, there were no legal
regulations or ethical standards with regard to the treatment of human
subjects in research studies. Three of the most well-known abuses of
human experimentation were in the Nazi concentration camps during
World War II, the use of the thalidomide drug by pregnant women, and
the Tuskegee Syphilis Study on African American males. It was not until
history revealed these research practices that placed subjects in very
serious harm that the public and in turn policymakers addressed the need
for laws and policies to govern all research conducted with human
subjects. These policies are briefly discussed below.
In 1947, the Nuremberg Code was established as a result of the
inhumane medical experiments on thousands of prisoners in
concentration camps without their consent or knowledge during World
War II. The Nuremberg Code is a set of standards of ethical medical
behavior that all physicians should adhere to when involving human
subjects in medical experiments (see Resources for a web link to the text
of the Nuremberg Code). One of the main standards of the Nuremberg
Code is voluntary informed consent. Voluntary informed consent exists
when a person has the capacity to give consent and receives sufficient
and accurate information about the study (e.g., purpose, methods, risks,
benefits) to make an informed decision to participate. Although the
Nuremberg Code was not a legal mandate, it was the first international
document that supported voluntary participation and informed consent.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, thalidomide, an unapproved drug, was
sold and prescribed to pregnant women to abate symptoms of nausea
and sleeplessness. Due to the unknown side effects of thalidomide,
10,000 babies were born with severe birth defects (stunted limbs or no
limbs at all) (Kim & Scialli, 2011). As a result of this tragedy, in 1962,
Congress passed the Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendments, which
changed how drugs are tested, manufactured, and sold in the United
States. The act increased the regulatory powers of the FDA so that drug
manufacturers had to prove that their drugs were safe and effective
before marketing and selling them to the public and also required that
subjects from medical studies give their informed consent (Greene &
Podolsky, 2012).
Finally, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study was another example of how abuse
of experimentation with human subjects led to policy changes for
research. In 1932, the U.S. Public Health Service and the Tuskegee
Institute in Alabama began a study to monitor the effects of untreated
syphilis on 600 low-income and mostly illiterate African American males.
The study continued for 40 years, even after a cure for syphilis (penicillin)
was made available in 1947. The men in the study were not offered the
penicillin by the researchers, and many of them unnecessarily died of
syphilis during the study (Kim, 2012).
Ultimately, the abuses in research from the Tuskegee Syphilis Study led
Congress to pass the National Research Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-
348). The National Research Act created the National Commission for
the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
Research, the first national public group whose responsibility it was to
identify a set of basic ethical principles and guidelines for conducting
biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects. The
commission fulfilled this responsibility by preparing and releasing the
Belmont Report in 1979. The Belmont Report is a summary of the basic
ethical principles and guidelines for conducting research with human
subjects (see the Resources section for a web link to the full report). In
the Belmont Report, the commission identified three fundamental ethical
principles for conducting research with human subjects: (a) respect for
persons, (b) beneficence, and (c) justice. These principles have
implications for how researchers conduct ethical research today
(USDHHS, 1979). I discuss each one briefly as it pertains to your thesis
study.
The first principle in the Belmont Report, respect for persons, includes
“two ethical convictions: first that individuals should be treated as
autonomous agents, and second, that persons with diminished autonomy
are entitled to protection” (USDHHS, 1979, Part B, para. 2). The first
ethical conviction requires that participants (or their guardians if they are
minors) must be provided with adequate information to give their
informed consent. Participants must be fully aware of the purpose and
procedures of the study, and the researcher cannot omit information
about the study or give false information (i.e., deception).
Here are some basic information points that should be disclosed to your
participants:
Who is conducting the research, and how they can be contacted

before, during, and after the study
The purpose of the study
The data collection procedures (e.g., tests, interviews)
The potential risks involved
The benefits of the study
If the information is incomprehensible to the participants or they are

deceived about the purpose or procedures used in the study, even if they
agree to participate, they are not giving their informed consent (Drew,
Hardman, & Hosp, 2008). Once they are fully informed about the study,
then individuals can voluntarily agree to participate (rather than be
coerced). Informed consent also means that the participants can
voluntarily withdraw from the study at any time, without penalty or
negative repercussions (Orcher, 2014).
The second ethical conviction of respect for persons refers to protecting

those individuals who are not fully autonomous because of age, illness,
injury, disability, or restricted settings such as prison (i.e., vulnerable
populations). Vulnerable populations are children, pregnant women,
prisoners, or others who may need additional protection from harm,
depending on the risks involved.
Beneficence.
The second principle in the Belmont Report, beneficence, refers to two
general rules: “(1) do not harm; and (2) maximize possible benefits, and
minimize possible harms” (USDHHS, 1979, Part B, para. 7). The best
time to examine the proposed research relative to potential risk to
participants is when you are framing your research questions. By
examining the potential risks early, you save time and also increase your
feasibility to conduct the study. Here are some questions to ensure you
are not proposing a study that may be harmful to participants:
Is there potential for the participants to be harmed or be at risk for

harm in any way (e.g., physically, psychologically, emotionally,
socially, or academically)?
If so, could I redesign my study so that I could protect the

participants from harm but still get the information that I need to
answer my research questions?
Do I need to change my research questions to ensure my

participants’ well-being?
Will this research require costly safeguards that require external

support?
The second rule, “maximize possible benefits, and minimize possible

harms,” refers to the cost-benefit analysis where researchers must
weigh the potential benefits against the anticipated risks. Here are some
questions to analyze the cost-benefit ratio when designing your thesis
study:
Do the potential benefits outweigh the anticipated risks?
Will the information that will be gathered as a result of the study be

worth the potential risks placed on subjects?
Have I designed the study in such a way that the risks have been
minimized and the benefits maximized as much as possible?
Have I explored all potential risks?
Justice.
The third principle in the Belmont Report, justice, refers to fairness and
equity in the selection of participants and the distribution of benefits. To
meet this third principle, make sure you are selecting subjects because
they are the group most directly related to your research questions and
not because they are in a vulnerable position in society (e.g., low income,
children). Also consider whether there are fair and equitable benefits for
the participants in your study as well as the larger population that they
represent.
In addition to the ethical principles laid out in the Belmont Report,

researchers in different fields and disciplines have developed and
adopted their own ethical standards specific to the type of research that
is conducted with human subjects. For example, the American
Educational Research Association (AERA) has a set of ethical standards
that focuses on educational research that often involves children and
other vulnerable populations (see the Resources for a web link to the
AERA ethical standards). The American Psychological Association (APA)
also has a set of general principles and ethical standards for
psychologists referred to as the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and
Code of Conduct (see the Resources for a web link to the APA ethical
principles). As a professional, it is important for you to know the ethical
standards and principles that guide your field or discipline, especially as it
relates to research with human subjects.
The three ethical principles in the Belmont Report served as the
foundation for the development of federal regulations in 1981 by the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services for the protection of human
subjects in research studies. In 1991, the core regulations were formally
adopted as the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects,
known as the Common Rule. The Common Rule is a federal policy for
the protection of human subjects followed by most of the federal
departments and agencies that sponsor research with human subjects
(e.g., Department of Education, Department of Justice, Environmental
Protection Agency, National Science Foundation, Consumer Product
Safety Commission) (USDHHS, 1991). Three of the central requirements
in the Common Rule are (a) any research supported or conducted by any
federal department or agency must ensure compliance with the policy, (b)
researchers must obtain written informed consent, and (c) institutions
must have an Institutional Review Board (IRB) in place to review and
approve research studies. The Common Rule also includes three
subparts, B through D, that have additional protections for research that
involves pregnant women, fetuses, neonates, prisoners, and children as
human subjects. On January 19, 2017, the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services issued a revision called the Final Rule to update
the pre-2018 Common Rule. The revisions for the Final Rule are meant
to strengthen the protections for human subjects while also reduce the
administrative and regulatory burden on researchers. The effective and
compliance date of the Final Rule was published in the Federal Register
(FR) on January 19, 2017, and went into effect on January 21, 2019 (see
the Resources section for a web link to the revised Final Rule). If you are
completing your thesis after this date, you will likely follow under the new
guidelines for the protection of human subjects. In the next section, I
focus on the IRB protocol procedures since this may have implications for
your thesis research. Before you go down this path, be sure to check with
the IRB office at your institution to ensure that you are not already
exempt from this process. That will save you a lot of time and energy
(and you can skip the next section)!
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB)

As mentioned, all institutions of higher education that receive federal
funds (for research or scholarships) must have in place an Institutional
Review Board (IRB). In compliance with the Common Rule, the IRB
committee is made up of at least five members, representing a diverse
group of expertise and backgrounds (e.g., from different schools and
colleges within the university). The major role of the IRB is to ensure that
all research with human subjects conducted by persons affiliated with the
institution (including administrators, faculty, staff, and students) is done
ethically and in compliance with federal regulations. In doing so, the IRB
adheres to the three principles of the Belmont Report: respect for
persons, beneficence, and justice. To apply these principles, the IRB
requires that researchers (including undergraduate and graduate
students) submit an IRB protocol for IRB review. Some types of research
(e.g., normal education practices) may not require IRB review, so make
sure you check the requirements at your institution.

In this section, I describe the typical IRB protocol review process at a
university. Although each IRB committee follows the Common Rule, the
actual application process is university specific and will vary, so it is
critical for you to find out the IRB procedures and guidelines at your
institution (there should be an IRB website available with templates and
forms that you can use). Typically, universities offering graduate degrees
have a committee with responsibilities for assisting researchers in
fulfilling their obligations in meeting the requirements related to
conducting research involving human subjects. There is also usually a
training program and short quiz that you can complete online (e.g., NIH,
CITI certificate) to certify your knowledge of the IRB principles. If you
have additional questions about the IRB procedures, you should discuss
these with your chairperson or the IRB committee at your institution.
The IRB protocol review process begins with the initial completed
application. This is to determine which category the protocol fits into:
exempt, expedited, or full committee. If the protocol is determined to be
exempt, no further review is needed and you can begin your research
immediately (it’s like winning the lottery!). The exempt process can take 1
to 2 weeks to receive the approval. If the protocol fits under the expedited
category, then the protocol is reviewed by an IRB committee member to
approve it or ask for additional revisions. If it is approved, you have 1
year to conduct the research (before you have to renew the protocol).
The expedited process can take 2 to 4 weeks to receive the approval. If
your protocol is categorized as full committee (i.e., nonexempt), then the
protocol is sent to the IRB members to review and discuss at their
committee meeting. The committee can fully approve or approve your
protocol with contingencies that need to be met. They can also defer the
protocol if substantive changes are needed. This process could take 4 to
8 weeks (depending on how often the IRB committee meets), so you
need to plan for this possibility in your research timeline. See Figure 4.1
for a pictorial flow chart of a sample IRB review process. To prevent
further delays, make sure that you have answered all the questions on
the IRB protocol, use nontechnical language, and of course use proper
grammar without spelling errors. Nothing irks the IRB committee more
than grammatical and spelling errors!
Keep in mind that the IRB committee reviews applications from faculty,
staff, and students from the entire university, so there will be times when
they have a high volume of applications, especially at the beginning and
end of the semester (this may cause longer process times). Thus, it is
recommended that you start the IRB process well in advance of your
anticipated research start date. The IRB approval must be granted before
any recruitment procedures are enacted, contact with potential
participants is made, or data are collected. Getting IRB approval before
starting any component of your study is extremely important because the
IRB does not retroactively approve applications, and if you start your
study without IRB approval, you may not be able to use any of the data
that were collected or complete your study, not to mention the ethical
issues involved. Once you receive approval from the IRB committee, you
typically have 12 months to complete your data collection involving
human subjects. However, there are processes to renew the IRB
application for additional time or to modify it for any changes to the study.
Description
Figure 4.1 The Review Process at a Glance

Once you have received approval from the IRB, make sure to obtain
permission from any other necessary agency (e.g., school district,
hospital, business). In some cases, you will need to go through a
separate application process, and in other cases, outside agencies will
require a copy of the IRB approval from your institution. Only when you
have received approval from all parties can you access participants. If the
participants are adults, have them sign a written consent form.
Remember that you cannot simply ask the person to sign a consent form
that he cannot read or comprehend (that would not be informed consent).
Thus, if necessary, use an interpreter during a face-to-face meeting with
the individual participant if she cannot read or hear. Translate the
information about the study into the participant’s native language if you
are sending a written notice. If the participants are minors (under 18), you
need to get informed consent from their parents or guardians. The IRB
may also require you to give the participants a copy of their Research
Subject Bill of Rights. The Research Subject Bill of Rights is a list of
rights that is guaranteed for every participant in a study. Make sure the
participants receive a copy of the informed consent form for their records
and keep a copy for your files. After you have received the participants’
informed consent, then you may begin your study!
ETHICAL BEHAVIOR
Completing the IRB approval process and adhering to the requirements
when conducting your study is only one element of ethical behavior as a
researcher. When conducting and reporting research, it is critical that you
demonstrate ethical behavior and integrity at all times. Now is the time to
learn as much as you can about ethics in research and internalize the
information so it is a natural part of your professional behavior. This
includes being honest in your interactions with participants as well as
complying with ethical standards in your field for data collection, analysis,
and reporting. As a beginning researcher, you will find that unanticipated
situations will occur. When this happens, the appropriate solutions will be
evident, but there may be less appropriate solutions in the form of
shortcuts. These will be equally apparent and need to be avoided. Your
master’s thesis will be a public document that will be read by many
researchers as they search the literature for similar problems. I do not go
into all the situations that might occur, but following are some examples.
During data collection, do not interfere with, influence, or modify the
participants’ responses to measurement instruments. This is critical when
the participants do not answer in the way that you anticipate or want,
which happens in the best of research studies. During data analysis, do
not inflate, delete, or manipulate the data to obtain desirable results. This
too is important. Remember it is not uncommon for your hypotheses to
be unsupported by the results. You conduct the research to find that out.
Keep in mind that in research the researcher is also taking risks, and the
results may not always be what are expected or desired. Discovering that
an intervention does not work for a particular sample is still making a
contribution to the literature.
Plagiarism and Paraphrasing

Finally, in writing the thesis and reporting the results, it is important that
you do not plagiarize, whether it is intentional or unintentional. Writing the
thesis is a long, iterative process, and by the time you are done, you will
have read and reread dozens of primary and secondary sources. It is not
uncommon for students to unintentionally plagiarize along the way.
However, plagiarism is a very serious offense, and you need to make
every effort to avoid it. To plagiarize refers to using another person’s
ideas or words without giving them proper credit (Plagiarism.org 2017).
Plagiarism can be any of the following:
turning in someone else’s work as your own; copying words or

ideas from someone else without giving credit; failing to put a
quotation in quotation marks; giving incorrect information about
the source of a quotation; changing words but copying the
sentence structure of a source without giving credit; or copying
so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the
majority of your work, whether you give credit or not.
(Plagiarism.org, 2017, para. 4)
You are not expected to know everything about the topic that you are
researching, but you are expected to credit the individuals whose work
you review and integrate into your study. Based on the definition above,
there are several ways to prevent plagiarism: (a) do your own work, (b)
use quotes and give credit to the original source or idea, and (c)
paraphrase and give credit to the original source or idea. Quoting
sources and paraphrasing are two very important skills that will help you
be successful in writing the thesis. When you are quoting someone, you
copy verbatim from the original source and use quotation marks to
indicate that the text belongs to the original source. At the end of the
quote, include a footnote or an in-text citation of the original source (often
with a page number). Be careful not to overuse quotations in your thesis;
quotes should be used sparingly and really only when you cannot
paraphrase without losing the significance of the other person’s words.
Paraphrasing is rewriting the original text into your own words (with
appropriate citations) while trying to maintain the idea or essence of the
original work.
You would still need to include a footnote or an in-text citation of the
original source to give credit to the original author. This is where students
often get into trouble when they have paraphrased someone’s work but
forgot to give the appropriate credit. Another problem that students run
into is changing only a few words from the original text. Paraphrasing is
not using the thesaurus to find synonyms! Remember that paraphrasing
involves using someone else’s idea and then interpreting and rewriting it
into your own words. Your paraphrased material should not look like the
original source; it should be in your own words and have your own voice.
Sometimes students are unsure if they should give credit to another
source. If you are integrating someone else’s ideas into your thesis, then
that person deserves the credit for having that original idea in the first
place. When in doubt, it is always better to be extra careful and give
credit to the original author(s). It keeps you honest, and it makes the
other person feel good to be cited by another researcher! Consider the
following advice about how to paraphrase from the Purdue Online Writing
Lab (copied and pasted verbatim from this website:
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/quoting_paraphrasi
6 Steps to Effective Paraphrasing
1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.
3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later
how you envision using this material. At the top of the note card,
write a key word or phrase to indicate the subject of your
paraphrase.
4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version
accurately expresses all the essential information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you
have borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you
can credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your
paper.
Just as it has become easy for students to plagiarize because of easy

access to the Internet, it has also become easier for instructors and
universities to identify plagiarized material. Informed people are likely to
identify content from other sources without a citation, and there are
software programs (e.g., Plagiarism Checker X, Turnitin, Grammarly,
Plagiarism Detector, Viper) that are designed to identify plagiarized
material. If a student is caught plagiarizing, this can result in failing a
class, expulsion from a program, or even withdrawal of a degree. If a
member of a profession is caught plagiarizing, the consequences for her
career cannot likely be overcome. Thus, it is not worth succumbing to the
temptation of plagiarism (even if others around you are doing it), and it is
easy to avoid by being professional in your behavior.
The purpose of a thesis is to demonstrate research skills and to do
original work. Knowing and adhering to ethical practice is as important as
knowing and adhering to sound research methodology. By maintaining
your ethical behavior and integrity throughout the research process, you
will have conducted an original study and written a master’s thesis that
you can be proud of.
Summary
Understanding the ethical standards and principles related to
conducting research with human subjects is a critical part of your
formation as a researcher. As you plan and design your study,
make sure that you take into consideration the main ethical
principles and standards from the Nuremberg Code and the
Belmont Report. This will ensure that you prepare an ethical and
successful research study application for the Institutional Review
Board (IRB). In the next chapter, I discuss how to write Chapter
One, Introduction, for your thesis. Here is a summary of the most
critical points from Chapter 4:
The three main standards of the Nuremberg Code are (a)

voluntary informed consent, (b) avoiding all unnecessary
mental and physical pain and suffering, and (c) weighing the
risks against the expected benefits.
In 1962, Congress passed the Kefauver-Harris Drug

Amendments, which increased the regulatory powers of the
Food and Drug Administration.
The National Research Act of 1974 created the National

Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of
Biomedical and Behavioral Research.
In the Belmont Report, the commission identified three

fundamental ethical principles for conducting research with
human subjects: (a) respect for persons, (b) beneficence, and
(c) justice.
Researchers in different fields and disciplines have

developed and adopted their own ethical standards specific
to the type of research that is conducted with human
subjects.
In 1991, the core regulations by the Department of Health
and Human Services (USDHHS) for the protection of human
subjects in research studies were formally adopted as the
Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects, known
as the Common Rule.
Three of the central requirements in the Common Rule are

(a) any research supported or conducted by any federal
department or agency must ensure compliance with the
policy; (b) researchers must obtain written informed consent;
and (c) institutions must have an Institutional Review Board
(IRB) in place to review and approve research studies.
The Final Rule legislation will replace the Common Rule, and
it was implemented July 21, 2019.
The major role of the IRB is to ensure that all research with
human subjects conducted by persons affiliated with the
institution (including administrators, faculty, staff, and
students) is done ethically and in compliance with federal
regulations.
The IRB requires that researchers (including undergraduate

and graduate students) submit an IRB application for
approval before any recruitment procedures are enacted,
contact with potential participants is made, or data are
collected.
When conducting and reporting research, it is critical that you
demonstrate ethical behavior and integrity at all times.
Resources

Solutions
1. One of the common emotions that students face at this stage
is anxiety about the IRB process. Words that come to mind
are “What if I don’t get approval?” Do not worry. Most student
research puts participants at minimal risk of harm (unless you
are doing something very bizarre or something you
shouldn’t). However, it is necessary for the IRB committee to
review your protocol to make sure that your study is feasible
and you have minimized potential harm with maximum
benefit for the participants. Most likely you will be exempt
from the full committee review. Think of the committee as a
friendly guard dog.
2. Another common obstacle faced by students is getting
approval to conduct research from other related organizations
(e.g., school districts, hospitals, prisons). Most organizations
have their own research approval process, and this tends to
take longer than the university’s IRB process. Therefore, it is
critical that you find a main contact person, follow their
guidelines exactly, and start the process early!
Reflection/Discussion Question
As you begin to design your study, it is important to consider the
effects or consequences of your study on others, especially the
participants. In doing so, reflect on the tragedies and unethical
treatment of past research studies. The following
reflection/discussion question will help identify the main standards
and ethical principles that must be applied while conducting
research with human participants. Remember the wise words of
the great philosopher George Santayana who once said, “Those
who cannot learn from history are doomed to repeat it.”
1. What are the main standards and ethical principles from the
Nuremberg Code and the Belmont Report? Give specific
examples of how they relate or could be applied to your field
or discipline area.
Try It Exercises
The following exercises are designed to help you successfully
complete the Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocol for review
at your institution. Doing this early in the process is critical, as you
cannot begin data collection without IRB exemption or approval.
In Activity One, you will research the IRB process at your specific
institution. In Activity Two, you will develop the IRB protocol for
your study (if applicable).
1. Activity One: For this activity, focus on the IRB website or
campus office at your institution.
Search your institution’s website to locate the IRB

website or campus address.
Search the IRB website or visit the IRB office and list the
name of the chairperson or contact person.
Search the IRB website or visit the IRB office and obtain
a manual or guide to complete the protocol review
process. Find out the process to apply for an exempt
protocol.
Find out if you have to complete an online IRB
certification training.
2. Activity Two: For this activity, focus on the IRB procedures

and guidelines at your institution if you do not qualify for an
exempt protocol.
Get copies of templates on the IRB website: protocol

approval form, protocol template, informed consent,
parental permission, permission to recruit, recruitment
materials, photo and video release, and so on.
Complete the protocol template (fill in all the required
sections to describe your study in detail)
Complete the protocol approval form (obtain signatures

as required)
Key Terms
Belmont Report 77
beneficence 78
Common Rule 79
cost-benefit analysis 79
deception 77
Final Rule 80
justice 79
Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendments 77
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of

Biomedical and Behavioral Research 77
National Research Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-348) 77
Nuremberg Code 76
paraphrasing 85
plagiarize 84
Research Subject Bill of Rights 83
respect for persons 77
voluntary informed consent 76

vulnerable populations 78
Suggested Readings
Cooper, H. (2016). Ethical choices in research: Managing data,
writing reports, and publishing results in the social sciences.
Washington, DC: American Psychology Association.
Greene, J. A., & Podolsky, S. H. (2012). Reform, regulation, and

pharmaceuticals— The Kefauver–Harris Amendments at 50. New
England Journal of Medicine, 367(16), 1481–1483.
http://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1210007
Horner, J., & Minifie, F. D. (2011a). Research ethics I:

Responsible conduct of research (RCR)—Historical and
contemporary issues pertaining to human and animal
experimentation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing
Research, 54(Suppl.), S303–S329.
Horner, J., & Minifie, F. D. (2011b). Research ethics II: Mentoring,

collaboration, peer review, and data management and ownership.
Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 54(Suppl.),
S330–S345.
Horner, J., & Minifie, F. D. (2011c). Research ethics III:

Publication practices and authorship, conflicts of interest, and
research misconduct. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing
Research, 54(Suppl.), S346–S362.
Kim, W. O. (2012). Institutional review board (IRB) and ethical
issues in clinical research. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology,
62(1), 3–12. http://doi.org/10.4097/kjae.2012.62.1.3
Nakray, K., Alston, M., & Whittenbury, K. (2015). Social science

research ethics for a globalizing world: Interdisciplinary and cross-
cultural perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.
Shore, N. (2009). Student research projects and the Institutional
Review Board. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 29, 329–345.
Web Links
American Educational Research Association (AERA) Code of
Ethics
http://www.aera.net/About-AERA/AERA-Rules-
Policies/Professional-Ethics
American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduct
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/
Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects
https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2018/01/22/2018-
00997/federal-policy-for-the-protection-of-human-subjects-delay-
of-the-revisions-to-the-federal-policy-for
Plagiarism.org
http://www.plagiarism.org/
Purdue Online Writing Lab
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/619/1/
Teaching the Responsible Conduct of Research in Humans

(RCRH)
https://ori.hhs.gov/education/products/ucla/default.htm
The Belmont Report
https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-
report/index.html
The Common Rule
https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-
policy/regulations/common-rule/index.html
The Nuremberg Code
https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/international/ethical-codes-and-
research-standards/index.html
U.S. Food & Drug Administration

https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm322856.htm

Back to Figure
This flow chart starts with a box labeled, complete IRB Protocol is
received. A dotted line arrow from this box points to a box labeled, review
category is determined. Both these boxes are in a light tone.
A dotted line arrow from this box points to a box labeled, exempt. This
box is in a medium toned box. A dotted line arrow from this box labeled
yes, points to a box that reds, exemption notice sent: research can begin.
This box is in a dark tone.
Another dotted line arrow from the exempt box, labeled no, points to a
box labeled expedited, which is in a medium tone. A dotted line arrow
from this box labeled no, points to a box that reads, full committee, which
is in a medium tone.
A dotted line arrow labeled yes from the expedited box, points to a box
that reads, review cycle by office designee. This box is in a light tone. A
dotted line arrow from this box points to a box that reads, review/approval
by IRB chair, in a light tone.
A dotted line arrow labeled yes from the expedited box, points to a box
that reads, review cycle by office designee + chair. This box is also in a
light tone. A dotted line arrow from this box points to a box that reads,
review at IRB committee meeting, in a light tone.
A dotted line arrow from the review/approval by IRB chair box, points to a
box in a dark tone that reads, approval letter sent: research can begin.
A dotted line arrow from the review at IRB committee meeting box, points
to a box in a dark tone that reads, approval letter sent: research can
begin.
An arrow labeled deferred approval, from the review at IRB committee

meeting box, points to another light toned box that reads, revisions
submitted by investigator.
An arrow labeled contingent approval, from the review at IRB committee

meeting box, points to another light toned box that reads, contingencies
addressed by investigator.
addressed by investigator.
A dotted line arrow from the above box points to a dark toned box that
reads, approval letter sent: research can begin.
5 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER ONE,
INTRODUCTION
Writing Style 92
Chapter One Sections 93
Introduction 94
Statement of the Problem 99
Background and Need 102
Three Parallel Ladders Strategy 102
Purpose of the Study 106
Research Questions 108
Significance to the Field 109
Definitions 110
Limitations 111
Summary 112
Resources 113

Try It Exercises 114
Key Terms 115
Web Links 116
The beautiful part of writing is that you don’t have to get it right
the first time, unlike, say, a brain surgeon. You can always do it
better, find the exact word, the apt phrase, the leaping simile.
—Robert Cormier
The rest of this book focuses on the writing process and formatting style
for the master’s thesis. You will write five separate chapters titled
Introduction, Literature Review (i.e., Review of the Literature), Methods,
Results or Findings, and Discussion (check if your institution has different
chapter titles). Don’t worry; I guide you through each chapter, offering
writing tips, examples, and strategies that will help facilitate the process. I
purposely use the term process because for all the chapters in the thesis,
you will need to write multiple drafts, edit, revise, and ultimately write
more drafts. For each chapter of the thesis, I describe the sections and
subsections that need to be included. After reading the description, I
recommend that you read the examples in the appendixes from actual
students’ master’s theses so that you can get a sense of the breadth,
depth, and style of the writing. In this chapter, I first discuss the writing
style for the thesis and then address each of the required sections for
Chapter One.
Keep in mind that writing a master’s thesis is an individualized

experience, and each person or discipline may have a different way to
approach it. Although this book is laid out in linear fashion (Chapter One,
Chapter Two, etc.), your chairperson may suggest or you may wish to
write the chapters in a different order. Some students may prefer to start
writing the literature review and then go back to write the introduction.
Others may want to write the introduction, literature review, and the
methods section in tandem, going back and forth among the three
chapters and revising as new information or ideas are presented. The
key is to find what works best for you and your chairperson and to keep
moving forward. At this beginning stage, it is also important to focus on
the big picture and not get lost in the weeds. Do not get bogged down
trying to write the perfect sentence or paragraph because more than
the big picture and not get lost in the weeds. Do not get bogged down
trying to write the perfect sentence or paragraph because more than
likely you will have to revise and tweak everything a few times before the
final draft. I have had students become quite upset when certain text that
they were “attached” to (because it took hours to write) ultimately had to
be cut out of the final version. Remember you’re not directing a movie so
each “scene” does not need to be perfect. I always advise my students to
put the date on each document as you revise it even if you change only
one sentence; when you compare the beginning draft to the final draft,
they will look very different!
WRITING STYLE
The writing style in a master’s thesis is very different from that used in
creative writing or narrative writing. The writing style is technical, formal,
serious, and impersonal. This can be a very difficult transition for
students who are used to writing poetry, reflections, or stories. For
example, the tense should be in third person at all times (e.g., refer to
yourself as “the researcher”), and you should not use an informal tone or
colloquialisms (i.e., slang). In fact, the thesis should be free of personal
biases, judgments, and opinions. As I often tell my students, “There is no
room for you or I in a master’s thesis.” Thus any personal positions that
you take throughout the thesis must be supported by the research
literature.
For example, consider the sentence: “I believe that college students

spend a lot of class time on their cell phones instead of paying attention
to the instructor.” Some of the problems with this sentence are that it (1)
is based on personal opinion, (2) is not cited by research evidence, and
(3) has a vague description of the students’ behaviors. A more scholarly
sentence would be: “According to a recent survey of college students,
89% of respondents reported that they were distracted by their digital
device through texting, emailing, or social media for approximately 20%
of class time (McCoy, 2016).”
If you are having difficulty switching or you are unsure how to write in a
technical style, refer to the APA publication manual (APA, 2010) or other
style publication manuals in your field. I have also placed general writing
tips in Appendix D.
CHAPTER ONE SECTIONS
The goal of Chapter One is to introduce the research study to the reader.
However, before you can start writing, you need to have a good feel for
what will be included in the literature review and the methodology
chapters. This level of planning prepares you to determine what to
include in Chapter One. I have noticed that most of the students who
struggle with writing Chapter One do so not because of the writing per se
but because they have not read enough literature about the research
problem. Only after you have “mastered” the necessary background
information can you begin the actual writing process. Chances are if you
get stuck in writing, it’s because you need to go back to the literature and
do more reading! There are risks in beginning to write too soon. The most
serious risk is that you may invest energy and time going in the wrong
direction. This can be frustrating and cause you to lose momentum and
miss important deadlines. Although I know you are eager to start writing,
make sure that you have read all the research and literature resources
related to your research problem and have your organizational system in
place. Writing a detailed outline of the chapter before you start writing
can be very helpful. This will minimize your frustration and help you judge
whether you have enough resources or need to do more researching and
reading.
Chapter One communicates the major elements of the research study

and sets the stage for subsequent chapters. Chapter One is the first page
after the table of contents, and it starts on a new page. The major
sections/headings within Chapter One are (a) Introduction, (b) Statement
of the Problem, (c) Background and Need, (d) Purpose of the Study, (e)
Research Questions, (f) Significance to the Field, (g) Definitions, (h)
Limitations, and (i) Ethical Considerations (see Figure 5.1 for major
sections in Chapter One). These sections are typical of a master’s thesis,
but there may be slight variations depending on your institution or the
preferences of your chairperson. Make sure to check with your
department and chairperson for the thesis requirements for your
program. You should also keep in mind that these are general guidelines
—you may need to write more or less, depending on your chairperson’s
and program’s expectations. I discuss each section separately, but they
should be considered as part of a whole with fluid transitions and segues
between them.
Introduction
The Introduction section in Chapter One describes the general problem
you will be addressing in your research study. Your goal is to present an
overview of the study in a manner that allows the reader to understand
the context of your research regarding the issues it addresses, the
importance of the research to be done, and the specific research problem
to be studied. Readers will expect the introduction to provide them with
the context to understand the subsequent sections of the chapter
describing the research. There should be at least four paragraphs in the
Introduction section, and each paragraph has a different purpose. For
this section, I have found it helpful to use a funnel writing strategy. In an
actual funnel, the opening at the top is wide and then it slowly narrows to
a small opening. A funnel writing strategy is analogous to a funnel
where your first paragraph in the Introduction is broad and every
subsequent paragraph narrows the topic toward the specific research
problem (see Figure 5.2 for the funnel writing strategy for the Introduction
section in Chapter One).
Description
Figure 5.1 Major sections in Chapter One.

The first paragraph in the Introduction section should be a description of
the broad issues related to your study. The purpose of this first paragraph
is to give the reader background knowledge and a context for your study
(without specifically mentioning your problem yet). Typically, in this
paragraph, you discuss broad societal trends, or national or international
phenomena that are related to your research problem. In other words,
what is the big picture? A good type of article to help with this section is
one that gives you a broad overview of your research problem such as a
secondary source, meta-analysis, or literature synthesis. The introduction
section of empirical research articles is also a good source to find broad
issues.
One of the problems that students face in writing this paragraph is that
they are so immersed in their immediate research problem that they
cannot see beyond it. Thus, take three steps back from your specific
research problem and ask, “What are the broad societal issues that have
trickled down to cause or influence my specific problem?” For example, if
you are focusing on broad issues in education, you might discuss federal
mandates, common core standards, bullying, academic achievement
data on large-scale assessments, demographic changes, the
overrepresentation of students of color receiving special education
services, teacher evaluation, and so on. If you are focusing on broad
issues related to juvenile delinquency, you might discuss gang
membership, crime rates, substance abuse, budget cuts in after-school
programs, death penalty for juveniles, and so forth. If you are focusing on
broad issues related to counseling, you might discuss mental illness,
scarcity of mental health services, drug and alcohol abuse, family
relationships, child and spousal abuse, posttraumatic stress disorder, and
so on. If you are focusing on broad issues related to business and
management, you might discuss the global economy, outsourcing,
corporate social responsibility, debt crisis, and so forth.
Description
Figure 5.2 Funnel writing strategy for the Introduction

section in Chapter One.
No matter which societal, national, or international issue(s) you focus on,
it is not enough to discuss the issue; you want to show how the issue
manifests into actual problems and the consequences of the problems for
society. You can do this by supporting your claims with citations from the
research, especially from national and/or international reports with
statistical data (e.g., percentages, average). One of the questions I often
ask my students to answer is “So what? What are the implications of this
issue?” By answering this question, you are making the problem(s)
explicit for the reader and building a justification and rationale for your
study. The key to writing this paragraph is to start broadly—if you are too
narrow here, then you will not have any room to funnel in the next few
paragraphs (see Figure 5.3 for a funnel for the Introduction section of
Chapter One). Here is an example of a topic sentence for the first
paragraph:
Cyberbullying (also referred to as online bullying) is widespread

among adolescents today. Taken from a national sample of 12–
17 year old students, 34% reported that they had experienced
cyberbullying during their lifetime. There is also a significant
amount of overlap between school bullying and online bullying;
students who are bullied at school are also bullied online and
students who bully others at school also bully online. (Brown,
Demaray, & Secord, 2014)
For the rest of the paragraph, I would describe and define cyberbullying
and discuss more recent national and international trends over time.
The second paragraph is a one-step funnel where you begin to narrow

from the broad problem(s) in the previous paragraph. Make sure you
have a smooth transition (i.e., segue) from the first paragraph and a
strong topic sentence. In the first paragraph, you focused on societal,
national, and international trends. For the second paragraph, you will
narrow the discussion to focus on state, regional, or local issues related
to your problem. Thus, take two steps back from your specific research
problem and ask, “What are the state, regional, or local issues that have
trickled down to cause or influence my specific problem?” For example, I
would discuss some of the state laws and school policies related to
cyberbullying. Remember that it is critical to discuss how the state,
regional, or local issues manifest into problems and the consequences
for the communities and neighborhoods. This adds to the justification and
rationale for your study. In addition, support your claims with citations
from the research, especially from state or regional reports with statistical
data. Be careful not to focus too narrowly here; otherwise, you will not be
able to funnel for the next two paragraphs. Here is an example of a topic
sentence for the second paragraph:
Since 2011, California legislators have passed multiple

assembly and state bills related to cyberbullying noting its
detrimental effects on students, including suicide and academic
detrimental effects on students, including suicide and academic
performance. Schools have the ability to suspend or
recommend for expulsion students who bully by an electronic
act (on or off the school site). (National Conference of State
Legislatures, n.d.)
Description
Figure 5.3 Funnel for the Introduction section in Chapter

One.
For the rest of the paragraph, I would describe California legislation and
school policies that are in place to prevent cyberbullying and protect
targets.
The third paragraph (with a smooth transition and topic sentence) is

another one-step funnel where you begin to narrow from the local
problem(s) in the previous paragraph. In the second paragraph, you
focused on state, regional, and local issues. For this paragraph, you will
narrow the discussion to focus on the specific group or subgroups of
individuals related to your research problem. Thus, take one step back
from your specific problem and ask, “How are the groups or subgroups of
individuals related to my problem affected by the national, state, regional,
or local issues?” For example, I would discuss gender differences
between teenage girls and boys regarding rates of cyberbullying and its
impact. This is the group(s) that will make up the sample group in the
study. Remember, it is critical to discuss how the national, state, regional,
or local issues manifest into problems and the consequences for the
group or subgroup of individuals targeted in your study. This adds to the
justification and rationale for the selection of your sample group. In
addition, support your claims with citations from the research, especially
from empirical research studies and reference materials. Here is an
example of a topic sentence for the third paragraph:
Based on a 2015 survey, more teenage girls than boys reported

being cyberbullied (36% compared to 31%) in their lifetime while
more teenage boys reported cyberbullying others (13%
compared to 11%). Girls and boys may also experience different
forms of online harassment including sexting and electronic
forms of teen dating violence. (Hinduja & Patchin, 2015)
For the rest of the paragraph, I would discuss the statistics of

cyberbullying based on gender differences and forms of cyberbullying (in
my state or region if the data were available).
Finally, the last paragraph in this section focuses directly on the research
problem. If you started with the broad problem and slowly narrowed the
focus, this last paragraph should be a natural flow from the first three
paragraphs. Avoid writing, “My research problem is about . . . ,” which is
the book report method you used in the 4th grade. Often this paragraph
will start with words that cue the reader for some type of “disruption” term
such as “however, unfortunately, alas, sadly, regrettably,” and so on. For
the rest of the paragraph, you will discuss how the specific problem
affects the group or subgroups of individuals you have targeted. Then
you want to expand on the consequences of the problem for this specific
group. This is also where you would operationally define key terms that
you will be using as part of your study. Remember to support your claims
with citations from the research, especially from empirical research
studies and reference materials. Here is an example of a topic sentence
for the last paragraph:
While most research on cyberbullying has identified the

While most research on cyberbullying has identified the
alarming prevalence of cyberbullying behaviors, few studies
have explored the relationship between cyberbullying and self-
esteem, especially for adolescent female targets.
For the rest of the paragraph, I would describe the existing research data
on the impact of cyberbullying on female targets’ levels of self-esteem
(and related manifestations). Using statistical data strengthens my claim
that this is a real problem that requires attention. This last paragraph is a
great lead-in to the next section of the chapter, which focuses on the
three areas related to your specific research problem. See Appendix E
for a sample Introduction section for Chapter One.
Statement of the Problem

The next section of Chapter One, the Statement of the Problem, differs
from the Introduction section where you discussed broad issues related
to your problem. In the Statement of the Problem, you will delve deeper
into the specific research problem by describing the problems in three
areas that are related to your research problem. It will help to visualize
your research problem as a ladder and each rung on the ladder as a
related area (see Figure 5.4 for a ladder of the three areas related to the
research problem). At this point, the ladder could be a rope ladder since
you are still framing your research problem; it can turn into a more solid
ladder as you begin fleshing out the research problem. Identifying the
three areas related to the research problem can be the most difficult part
in conceptualizing Chapter One. If you having difficulty with this process,
now is a good time to make an appointment with your chairperson. You
may also need to go back to read the existing research. Once you
establish the three areas (and your chairperson approves), you will have
the organizational framework that will guide you through writing Chapters
One and Two.
The first step to identify the three areas is to read the research literature
you collected for your research problem. This is where abstracting and a
literature matrix really come in handy. Next identify three to four common
themes or patterns that emerge from the literature. Then try to organize
and group your literature resources along those themes (it helps to make
actual piles or folders). Give each group a name that represents the
essence of the theme (you can tweak this later if necessary). If you have
too many groups, you may need to subsume smaller groups within a
broader one. You may also need to create a “maybe” file for resources
that are interesting but not closely related to your research problem. If
that are interesting but not closely related to your research problem. If
you have too few groups, you may need to break one of the groups into
two smaller ones or find more resources. Finally, select the three areas
that are most relevant to your research problem. The areas may be a part
of your research problem or a parallel area that is influenced by or affects
your research problem. Keep in mind that the areas should not be too
narrow because you will need to locate at least three empirical research
articles related to each area for your literature review in Chapter Two.
Figure 5.4 Ladder of the three areas related to the research

problem.
For example, from my research problem of cyberbullying, three related
areas that emerged from the literature are as follows: (a) psychological
concerns; (b) physical health and somatic concerns; and (c) suicide
ideation and behavior.
Once you have identified the three areas, you can write the Statement of
the Problem section. This section has five subsections: (a) introduction,
(b) area one, (c) area two, (d) area three, and (e) summary. The first
subsection is a brief introduction to the three areas related to your
research problem. This will serve as an outline for the rest of the section.
Then write about each related area separately. Do not mix up the three
areas because this will confuse your reader; you can use a heading to
label each area to help you stay organized and on topic. A heading is the
name of a section or subsection used to organize the paper. The
headings are formatted depending on how many levels of heading there
are in the paper (see Chapter 10 for APA style).
For each area, start with an introduction that briefly describes the area.
Next, discuss the relationship between your research problem and the
area (make sure you make this connection explicit for your reader). Then
write about the problems within the area and how they affect your target
group. Here is where you want to be very specific about the
consequences and effects of the problem (i.e., answer the “so what?”
question). For example, for my first area, I would discuss the problems
that female adolescent targets of cyberbullying have with feelings of
depression, loneliness, and isolation and other psychological issues. See
Figure 5.5 for an example ladder of the problems within the three areas.
Description
Figure 5.5 Example ladder of the problems within the three

areas.
Remember to focus on the problems within the areas and do not mention
any types of interventions or “solutions” to the problems yet—that will go
into the next section (Background and Need). You should also define any
ambiguous terms or phrases that are relevant to your study. Finally,
support your writing by paraphrasing (not plagiarizing) information from
the research literature and cite the sources using the appropriate editorial
format. Include quotes sparingly and only if the author said something so
brilliant that you could not paraphrase it without destroying the essence
of the quote (see Chapter 10 for APA style). At the end of the entire
Statement of the Problem section, write a brief summary that highlights
the three areas related to the research problem (see Appendix F for a
sample Statement of the Problem section).
Background and Need

In the Background and Need section of Chapter One, you will provide the
reader with a clear and concise statement on the background of the
problem and the need for more research. In essence, you want to
convince the reader that the problem is important to research (i.e.,
background) and provide a rationale for studying the problem (i.e., need).
Three Parallel Ladders Strategy
In this section, I use the same three areas that were identified in the
Statement of the Problem section. In other words, each area in the
Background and Need will match one of the areas discussed in the
Statement of the Problem section. One model for doing this is the three
parallel ladders strategy. The three parallel ladders strategy is an
organizational writing strategy used to write Chapters One and Two of
the thesis. It may also help you determine the purpose and methods for
your study. For this strategy, imagine three parallel ladders lying side by
side. The first ladder represents the Statement of the Problem. The
second ladder represents the Background and Need. The third ladder
represents the literature review in Chapter Two. The three rungs in each
ladder represent the same three areas related to the research problem
(see Figure 5.6 for the three parallel ladders strategy for Chapters One
and Two).
Since you have already identified the three areas related to the research
problem, it will be much easier to write this section. The Background and
Need has five subsections: (a) introduction, (b) area one, (c) area two, (d)
area three, and (e) summary. The introduction serves as the background
part of the section. Here you want to provide a brief discussion on the
background of your research problem. This could include a historical
perspective, how the problem developed over time, important information
about the problem, or more detail about the contextual issues that were
discussed in the Introduction.
Description
Figure 5.6 The three parallel ladders strategy for Chapters

One and Two.
The next three subsections revolve around the same three areas related
to the research problem (don’t forget to keep each area separate and use
headings). However, in the Statement of the Problem section, you
focused on the problems that emerged from the literature. In the
Background and Need section, you will focus on the potential solutions to
the problems from the literature (see Figure 5.7 for parallel ladders for the
Statement of the Problem and the Background and Need sections).
First, include a brief introduction to the three solution areas related to

your research problem. This will serve as an outline for the rest of the
section. Next, start each subsection with an introduction that describes
the area. Then write about the existing research that may help solve the
problem within the area. This will serve as a preview of your literature
review in Chapter Two. For example, for problem area one in my
cyberbullying study, I would discuss different research-based prevention
and intervention programs that have been effective in mediating the
negative impacts on adolescents’ psychological health such as
negative impacts on adolescents’ psychological health such as
enhancing adolescents’ levels of empathy and self-esteem. Try to avoid
telling the reader what should be done (i.e., do not preach). Instead,
provide a brief description of what has been done and its effectiveness
with a particular sample group. Whenever possible, report on practices
that were effective for your targeted group or a similar group. This also
serves as a justification to include these research-based practices in your
study.
As you are discussing the solutions reported in the literature, point out
the gaps that still remain in the literature related to this area. This is the
“need” part of the section. Identifying the gaps is very critical because it
serves as a rationale to conduct your study and shows how your study
will contribute to the existing research. If there were no gaps left in the
literature, there would not be a need for your study! For example, a gap
could be that the research-based practices were not conducted with your
specific sample group. Another gap could be if your study proposes to
adapt, enhance, or combine existing practices for your specific sample
group. Another gap could be that your study is researching the problem
from a different perspective or research methodology (e.g., qualitative,
mixed methods). Make sure to support your writing by paraphrasing
information from the research literature and cite the sources using the
appropriate editorial format.
Description
Figure 5.7 Parallel ladders for the Statement of the
Problem and the Background and Need sections.
See Figure 5.8 for an example of parallel ladders for the Statement of the
Problem and Background and Need. Notice how in this example the
three solutions are linked to the three problems in each area.
At the end of the entire Background and Need section, write a brief
summary that highlights the existing research that has been conducted
and the gaps that still exist. Since I have given the reader a broad
introduction, described my research problem in detail, and provided the
background and need for my study, I am ready to connect these sections
to the Purpose of the Study. By this time, my reader will be convinced
that I have identified a significant problem that needs to be addressed,
and I am aware of the most relevant research to influence the problem.
This will serve as a smooth lead-in to the Purpose of the Study.
Description
Figure 5.8 Example of parallel ladders for the Statement of

the Problem and Background and Need Sections.
Purpose of the Study

The Purpose of the Study section in Chapter One explains the purpose
and goal of your study related to the research problem. The intent of this
section is to refine what you have written into a precise statement
describing what you propose to research and why. The Purpose of the
Study has four main parts: (a) purpose statement, (b) need/rationale for
the study, (c) description of the study, and (d) expected outcomes. I
explain each part separately and provide some examples. Note that the
Purpose of the Study is written in past tense because it is assumed that
you have already completed the study.
The first part of the Purpose of the Study is the purpose statement. Here,
state the purpose of your study in one sentence! Include in the statement
the what, why, who, and where related to your study. Here is a template
you can use: “The purpose of this study was to (what you did) (why you
did this/issue) (who was your sample group) (where was the setting).”
Here is an example for an intervention quantitative study:
The purpose of this study was to implement the We Care

program (what) to increase the cognitive and affective empathy
levels (why/issue) for 6th-grade female students (who) in a high-
achieving suburban middle school (where).
Here is an example for a mixed methods study:
The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions about

peer relationships (what) by female students who reported being
targets of cyberbullying (who) and who were participating in a
peer-mentoring program (why/issue) in an urban middle school
(where). The students’ levels of self-esteem were also
measured before and after the peer-mentoring program.
The second part of the Purpose of the Study is the rationale. This briefly
explains the need for focusing on this particular problem or issue.
Providing a rationale is critical because it provides justification and
validation for why it is important or necessary to conduct the study. In
qualitative studies, the rationale may also be used to foreshadow the
design of your study (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Here you can
summarize some of the main points from the Introduction and the
Statement of the Problem. Include sentences about the problems (broad
and specific) and the consequences for not addressing the problems. For
example,
Female adolescent targets of cyberbullying experience higher

levels of psychological and physical health concerns and suicide
ideation compared to their unaffected peers. These negative
impacts have been correlated with lower levels of self-esteem,
which can impact students’ overall academic and behavioral
performance. Increasing adolescent students’ cognitive and
affective empathy levels for their peers have been reported to
reduce overall participation in cyberbullying and negative
bystander behaviors.
Here is another example:
Female adolescent targets of cyberbullying experience higher

levels of psychological and physical health concerns and suicide
ideation compared to their unaffected peers. These negative
impacts have been correlated with lower levels of self-esteem,
which can impact students’ overall academic and behavioral
performance. Developing social networks and strong peer
relationships can act as mediating factors to prevent and
intervene with the stressors from cyberbullying.
The third part of the Purpose of the Study is the description. This briefly
explains the methods that you used to conduct the study. Include your
sample group, description of your study or intervention (if you have one),
and how you collected the data. For example,
The researcher implemented the We Care program to increase

the cognitive and affective empathy levels of 6th-grade female
students. The program teaches students to take another’s
perspective and experience someone else’s feelings through
acting and role-playing. Three classes of 20 6th-grade students
(total 60) participated in the program three times a week during
an elective dramatic arts class over a 6-week period. The
students’ cognitive and affective empathy levels were measured
before and after the intervention program using a validated
empathy assessment. The students’ attitudes toward the We
Care program were also measured with a student survey after
the intervention was completed.
To explore the students’ perspectives about peer relationships,

the researcher conducted focus groups with 20 female 7th-
grade students who had reported being targets of cyberbullying.
The students were participating in a peer-mentor program. The
researcher also measured the students’ levels of self-esteem
before and after the program using the DREAM test, a validated
assessment instrument.
The last part of the Purpose of the Study is the expected outcome or goal
of the study. This briefly explains the benefits or impact that will result
from your study. You can have several expected outcomes. For example,
The goal of the study was to measure the effects of the We

Care program with 6th-grade female students. The 60 students
were expected to increase their levels of cognitive and affective
empathy after participating in the We Care program. While not
directly measured, it was expected that the students would be
less likely to participate in or support cyberbullying activities.
Another goal of the study was to describe the students’ attitudes
about their experiences in the We Care program.
The purpose of the study was to explore the perceptions around

peer relationships from the perspective of 7th-grade female
students who reported being targets of cyberbullying. This study
also had implications for how peer mentoring and social
supports can act as a mitigating factor for students’ levels of
self-esteem.
Once you have established the purpose of the study, you need to write
research questions that are aligned with the purpose and the methods of
the study.
the study.
Research Questions
The research question(s) is the question related to the problem that you
are attempting to answer with your study. The key is to frame your
research questions so that you are addressing the most critical elements
of your study. This does not mean that you need to develop an
exhaustive list of research questions. Instead, select those questions that
are most important to you and can be studied within the available time
and resources for doing a thesis. Remember that the more research
questions you have, the more data you will have to collect and analyze
(which require more time and resources). The research questions are
aligned with the methods of the study and vice versa, so you should
consider your research methods as you develop the research questions.
Make sure the research questions are written so that once you collect the
data, you will be able to answer them. This might involve including the
measured variables in the question. A good strategy is to convert the
purpose statement into a question. For example, if I want to know the
impact of the We Care program, I would convert the purpose statement
into a question and ask,
What are the effects of the We Care program (independent

variable) on the levels of cognitive and affective empathy
(dependent variable) for 6th-grade female students (sample) in
a high-achieving suburban middle school (setting)?
If I do not have an intervention but want to measure students’ attitudes

based on a survey, I would still include other measured variables in my
research questions. For example,
What are the attitudes of 6th-grade female students toward the

We Care program?
or
What is the relationship between the students’ attitudes

(measured variable) and their empathy levels (measured
(measured variable) and their empathy levels (measured
variable)?
Here is an example for a qualitative study (notice how the questions are
more open-ended than for the quantitative studies above):
What are the female students’ perceptions around peer

relationships while participating in a peer-mentoring program?
or
What is the impact of the peer-mentoring program on the

students’ levels of self-esteem?
When developing research questions, try to avoid writing research

questions that have a yes-no answer such as,
Can female adolescent students increase their levels of

empathy?
or why questions such as,
Why do the female targets of cyberbullying struggle with peer

relationships?
These questions are more rhetorical (or not answerable) and do not tell
the reader or the researcher anything about the design of the study. In
addition, a yes-no research question does not allow much room for
discussion and interpretation. An open-ended question (with parameters)
not only allows you to answer the research question but also discuss the
implications of the findings.
Significance to the Field

The next section is the Significance to the Field (also referred to as
Significance of the Study). In this section, describe the benefits (short
and long term) for the participants in the study as well as the contribution
that the study made to the research literature in your field. For example, if
you conducted an intervention, you may have made a positive impact on
the participants’ academic, social, physical, or emotional well-being. If
you conducted surveys, interviews, or observations for your study, you
may have discovered important information about the participants’
attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors. Although this section is typically
included in Chapter One, you may want to write this section after you
have completed the study.
Definitions
The next section in Chapter One is Definitions. This section is where you
will define terms or phrases that need a more detailed explanation than
the ones that were provided earlier in the chapter. Remember to use
consistent terms to convey the same meaning as presented in the
definitions. Thus, if you have labeled a concept or variable with a specific
term, use this term consistently throughout the entire text. Once you
formally define the term in this section, the reader will know exactly what
you are referring to.
Perhaps the most difficult part of writing this section is determining which
terms to define. There are three rules that I use in selecting terms to
define. The first rule is to define all terms that a person outside of the field
would not be familiar with (i.e., technical jargon). For example, learning
disability is a very critical term in education today but might not be
understood in other fields. Whenever possible, I would also use the legal,
standard, or recognized definition from the literature and provide the
appropriate citations. A second rule is to define all terms that have been
“coined” by their users. This refers to familiar terms that may have new
definitions because of changing cultural context. These terms would need
to be operationally defined because the standard dictionary definition is
not accurate for how the term is understood by the users. For example,
the standard definition of cyberbullying or bystander might be different
from how they are used in this area of research. Thus, I would have to
define these two terms in this section. Finally, the third rule is to define all
terms that may be ambiguous to the reader because the definition of the
word is dependent on the context or the participant’s interpretation. For
example, transition has multiple meanings depending on the context. In
counseling, life transition refers to moving from one life stage to another
such as from work to retirement. In education, transition refers to moving
between elementary, middle, high school, and postsecondary settings. In
business, a business transition could refer to a change in ownership or
management. Criminologists study how life-course transitions (e.g.,
marriage, employment, entering the military) are correlated with
desistance from crime (Warr, 1998). By defining the term (with a citation
from the literature), this clarifies the concept for the reader and ensures
that everyone is on the same page. After you have defined all the terms,
list them with bullets and arrange them in alphabetical order so that it will
be easy for the reader to find specific terms.
Limitations
The next section is Limitations. This section is where you will discuss all
the limitations in the study. Limitations can be inherent to the research
design, data analysis, time and resources, or a condition that was set by
the researcher. Keep in mind that all studies have limitations, and it is not
a personal reflection on you as a researcher. Thus, the best way to deal
with limitations is to be upfront about them and explain how they affected
the results or findings of the study; trying to hide or cover the limitations
of a study will only further weaken the study. For example, lack of a
control group is a common limitation in students’ theses because of the
limited access to participants. Another common limitation is small sample
size (in a quantitative study).
A limitation is a flaw or weakness in the study that affects the internal
validity and external validity of the results. Internal validity (within the
study) refers to whether the changes in the dependent variable were due
to the independent variable or some other variable. If there is no control
group in an experimental study, this will reduce the internal validity
because it is uncertain whether the changes in the dependent variable
were due to the treatment or some other factors. External validity
(outside the study) refers to whether the results of the study are
applicable or can be generalized to other settings and groups (Mills &
Gay, 2019). Having a small sample size would reduce a study’s external
validity because of the limited generalizability to other groups. However,
depending on the research design, this would not necessarily be a
limitation in a qualitative study. I discuss these in more detail in Chapter
9.
The last section in Chapter One is Ethical Considerations. This section is
where you will describe the procedures that you followed to ensure that
the research was conducted in an ethical manner. This includes following
the Institutional Review Board process for informed consent, obtaining
permission from other agencies to access participants, and minimizing
the potential risks to your participants. You may need to include a blank
copy of the cover letter or informed consent form in the appendix of your
thesis, so make sure you keep a copy.
Summary
Chapter One is perhaps the most important chapter in the thesis
because it provides a rationale for your study and establishes a
structure for the rest of the chapters in the thesis. It is also
typically the most difficult chapter to write, so try not to become
frustrated if it takes a long time or if you have to write multiple
drafts. Once you have described the research problem (and
related areas), background literature, purpose of the study, and
research questions, this will give you a structure for how to write
Chapter Two, Literature Review, and plan for Chapter Three,
Methods. In the next chapter, I discuss how to write Chapter Two,
Literature Review, for your thesis. Here is a summary of the most
critical points from Chapter 5:
The Introduction section in Chapter One describes the

general problem in the study.
A funnel writing strategy is analogous to a funnel where your

first paragraph about the problem is broad and every
subsequent paragraph narrows the topic toward the specific
problem.
The Statement of the Problem section describes the three
problem areas related to the research problem.
The Background and Need section describes the background
of the problem, solutions to the problems in the Statement of
the Problem, and the gaps that still exist.
The Purpose of the Study section has four main parts: (a)
purpose statement, (b) need/rationale for the study, (c)
description of the study, and (d) expected outcomes.
The Research Questions section outlines the questions

related to the problem that you are attempting to answer with
your study and will determine the methods and data analysis
that you use.
The Significance to the Field (also referred to as Significance

of the Study) section describes the benefits (short and long
term) for the participants in the study as well as the
contribution that the study made to the research literature in
your field.
The Definitions section is where you define terms or phrases

that are ambiguous or need an operational definition.
The Limitations section is where you discuss all the

limitations in the study. A limitation is a flaw or weakness in
the study that affects the internal validity and external validity
of the results.
The Ethical Considerations section is where you describe the

procedures that you followed to ensure that the research was
conducted in an ethical manner.
Resources

Solutions
1. A common obstacle that students face at this stage is starting
the actual writing of Chapter One. Words that come to mind
are “I have major writer’s block.” This is a very natural feeling
because, up to this point, you have been focused on reading
and conceptualizing your study. The best way to tackle
writer’s block is to sit down and write (or in most cases, type
on the computer). Believe me—I have been there many
times. Start your writing by opening a new Word document
and putting in the major headers for the chapter. Next write
an outline of the major topics that you will discuss in the
Introduction—do not forget to use the funnel strategy! Once
you begin to flesh out the outline and pull information from
the research, the ideas will flow. If you do not have time to
write it all out, make notes to yourself about what information
needs to be included and where to find it.
2. Another common obstacle faced by students is formulating
the Statement of the Problem and the Background and Need
sections. Words that come to mind are “I don’t know what my
three areas are.” If your three areas have not emerged yet, a
good place to look for them is in your organizational filing
system. Look to see how you organized your research
articles and especially if you created a literature matrix. If
neither is available, do a quick scan of the abstracts and try
to put the articles into three piles and label each one with a
broad heading. This will also inform you of whether you have
enough articles or the most applicable research articles.
Before you write Chapter One, it will save you much time and
frustration if you discuss “the big picture” with your chairperson.
Often, students get so focused on their own study that they lose
sight of the broad context in which the study is situated (the
rationale for why you are doing the study in the first place). The
following reflection/discussion questions will help to identify the
broader issues in your field or discipline related to your research
topic and also how to narrow your research topic into the three
related areas.
1. What are the foci of the first two paragraphs in the

Introduction section? Brainstorm different types of problems
and issues related to your field or discipline area that would
be relevant for these two paragraphs. Discuss how you could
use the funnel strategy to transition between paragraphs in
the Introduction section.
2. What are the similarities and differences between the
Statement of the Problem and the Background and Need
sections? What is the focus of each section? Give examples
of how you could use the three parallel ladders strategy to
organize the writing for these two sections.
Try It Exercises
The following exercises are designed to help you write Chapter
One. In Activity One, you will begin to write the Introduction using
the funnel method. In Activity Two, you will begin to identify the
three problems in the Statement of the Problem. In Activity Three,
you will begin to develop the Purpose of the Study and the
Research Questions.
1. Activity One: For this activity, focus on the issues related to

your research problem.
Make a list of the major national and societal issues

related to your research problem. Describe the
manifestations and consequences of these issues.
Funnel (narrow) one step and list the major state,

regional, and local issues related to your research
problem. Describe the manifestations and consequences
of these issues.
Funnel (narrow) another step and list the specific group

or subgroups of individuals related to your research
of the national and state issues for this group.
Funnel (narrow) one last step and list your research
problem and the specific group related to your research
of the research problem for this group.
2. Activity Two: For this activity, focus on the specific areas

related to your research problem.
Imagine that this ladder represents the Statement of the

Problem section. Write an area that is related to your
research problem inside each rung (total of three).
Then list the problem(s) within each area.
3. Activity Three: For this activity, focus on the purpose of your

research study.
the four parts that need to be included in the Purpose of
the Study section.
Write your purpose statement using the model template

from the chapter: “The purpose of this study is to (what
do you want to do?) to (why do you want to do this?) for
(who is your sample group?) in (where is the setting?).”
List three main points for the rationale of the study.
Write a brief description of the methods that will be used

in the study.
List the expected goals and outcomes of the study.

Convert the purpose statement into a research question.
Key Terms
external validity 111
funnel writing strategy 94

heading 100
internal validity 111
three parallel ladders strategy 102
Suggested Readings
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual
of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington,
DC: Author.
Badley, G. (2009). Academic writing as shaping and re-shaping.
Teaching in Higher Education, 14(2), 209–219.
Miedijensky, S., & Lichtinger, E. (2016). Seminar for master’s

thesis projects: Promoting students’ self-regulation. International
Journal of Higher Education, 5(4), 13–26.
doi:10.5430/ijhe.v5n4p13
Ondrusek, A. (2012). What the research reveals about graduate

students’ writing skills: A literature review. Journal of Education for
Library and Information Science, 53(3), 176–188. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23249110
Schwartz, B. M., Landrum, R. E., & Gurung, R. A. R. (2017). An

easy guide to APA style (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Wallace, M., & Wray, A. (2016). Critical reading and writing for
postgraduates (2nd ed.). London, UK: Sage.
Web Links
APA Formatting and Style Guide: The OWL at Purdue
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
APA Style
Center for Writing Studies (University of Illinois, Urbana-

Center for Writing Studies (University of Illinois, Urbana-
Champaign)
http://www.cws.illinois.edu/
Graduate Writing Center (Teachers College, Columbia University)
http://www.tc.columbia.edu/graduate-writing-center/
Modern Language Association (MLA)
http://www.mla.org/
The Chicago Manual of Style Online
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html
The Elements of Style, William Strunk, Jr.
http://www.bartleby.com/141/
The Writing Center (University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill)
https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/introductions/
The Writing Center (University of Wisconsin-Madison)
https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/

Back to Figure
The sections are:
Introduction.
Statement of the problem.
Background and need.

Purpose of the study.
Research questions.
Research questions.
Significance to the field.
Definitions.
Limitations.
Ethical questions.
Back to Figure
The top of the funnel has three parts that read paragraph 1, broad
problem on top and paragraph 2, narrow problem in the middle and
paragraph 3, further narrow problem, at the bottom.
The circular part of the base of the funnel reads, paragraph 4, specific
research problem.
Back to Figure
The conical part of the funnel looks like a glass with three circles in it.
These circles read:
State, local, regional issues.
Societal, national, international trends.

Specific groups or individuals related to the research problem.
The tip at the bottom has an arrow that points to text below that reads,
your specific research problem.
Back to Figure
The figure has a ladder with three rungs that read psychological
concerns, physical health and somatic concerns and suicide ideation and
behavior, from top to bottom.
The text above the ladder reads, statement of the problem, research
problem, with the following text below:
Female adolescent targets of cyberbullying experience higher levels of
psychological and physical health concerns and suicide ideation
compared to their unaffected peers. These negative impacts have been
psychological and physical health concerns and suicide ideation
compared to their unaffected peers. These negative impacts have been
correlated with lower levels of self-esteem, which can impact students’
overall academic and behavioral performance.
The other three rungs also have text below each heading, on each rung.
This text reads:
Psychological Concerns
Adolescents who are targeted via cyberbullying experience many

psychological concerns. They report increased levels of depressive
affect, anxiety, and loneliness and also feelings of sadness,
hopelessness, and powerlessness.
Physical Health and Somatic Concerns
Adolescent targets of cyberbullying experience severe forms of physical

health concerns (e.g., stomachache, headache, poor appetite, skin
problems). They are also more likely to experience sleeping problems
than their unaffected peers.
Suicide Ideation and Behavior
Adolescents’ involvement in cyberbullying is a strong predictor of suicide

ideation and behavior. Targets of cyberbullying are almost two times as
likely to have attempted suicide compared to their noninvolved peers.
Back to Figure
Each of the three ladders has three rungs that read area 1, area 2 and
area 3, from the first to the third rung. The text above the first ladder
reads, statement of the problem. The text above the second reads,
background and need. The text above the third ladder reads, literature
review (chapter two).
Back to Figure
The Statement of the problem ladder and the background and need
ladder both have three rungs each. The statement of the problem’s
rungs, are labeled area 1, area 2 and area 3, from the first to the third
rung and the background and need ladder’s rungs, are labeled solution 1,
solution 2 and solution 3, from the first to the third rung respectively.
An arrow from the area 1 rung on the statement of the problem ladder,
points to the solution 1 rung on the background and need ladder.
Back to Figure
The figure has two parallel ladders with three rungs on each. These
ladders are labeled statement of the problem (problems) and background
and need (solutions), respectively. The statement of the problem rungs
are titled psychological concerns, physical health and somatic concerns
and suicide ideation and behavior, from top to bottom. An arrow from the
first rung of the statement of the problem ladder points to the first rung on
the background and need (solutions) ladder.
The first rung on the statement of the problem (problems) ladder reads:
Psychological concerns:
Adolescents who are targeted via cyberbullying experience many

psychological concerns. They report increased levels of depressive
affect, anxiety, and loneliness and also feelings of sadness,
hopelessness and powerlessness.
An arrow from the text above points to the following text on the first rung
of the background and need (solutions) ladder:
Empathy training is critical in intervening with the psychological impacts
of cyberbullying because of the lack of available nonverbal cues.
Increasing adolescents’ cognitive and affective empathy towards others
may help to reduce their participation in cyberbullying and negative
bystander behavior.
The second rung on the statement of the problem (problems) ladder

reads:
Physical Health and Somatic Concerns
Adolescent targets of cyberbullying experience severe forms of physical

health concerns (e.g., stomachache, headache, poor appetite, skin
problems). They are also more likely to experience sleeping problems
than their unaffected peers.
A strong social support network may be a protective factor in reducing
the negative physical health impacts associated with cyberbullying. An
effective mentoring program is a strategy that has been used to increase
positive peer attachments among adolescents and decrease their
participation in cyberbullying.
The third rung on the statement of the problem (problems) ladder reads:
Suicide Ideation and Behavior
Adolescents’ involvement in cyberbullying is a strong predictor of suicide

ideation and behavior. Targets of cyberbullying are almost two times as
likely to have attempted suicide compared to their noninvolved peers.
Adults must intentionally reach out to adolescents and establish trusting

and caring relationships. Health care providers and educators can
connect them with caring mentors. Warm and nurturing parental
relationships, open discussions, and close monitoring of their online
behavior are critical.
6 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER TWO,
LITERATURE REVIEW
Preparation and Organization 119

Chapter Two Sections 122
Introduction 122
Advance Organizer 123
Body of the Review 124
Research Synthesis 124
Section Summary 130
Chapter Summary 131
Summary 132
Resources 133
Key Terms 135
Web Links 135
It does not matter how slowly you go so long as you do not stop.
—Confucius
Bravo on getting through Chapter One of the thesis! This chapter focuses
on how to write Chapter Two, Literature Review (also referred to as the
Review of the Literature). The literature review is an important
component of a thesis. While it does not describe your research or the
methodology that you employed, it provides the reader a context for
understanding why and how you conducted your study. Additionally, it
communicates your knowledge of related research and of the conditions
surrounding the justification for your research.
By now, you are knowledgeable of the literature related to your study.

You have translated your knowledge into a statement of your research
problem. In addition, you have had the advantage of examining research
conducted and reported by other researchers with interests similar to
yours and are aware of the gaps that still remain in the literature. The
purpose of writing Chapter Two is to provide the reader with an overview
of the significant research related to your research problem. In doing so,
Chapter Two provides contextual background information for your
research problem as well as justification and rationale for your research
design.
For some researchers, this chapter is difficult to write. There are several
reasons for this. First, it may be difficult to determine what literature to
report and what to exclude. A common misconception is that the
literature review is a comprehensive or chronological summary of every
research article that has been written about the topic. If this were the
case, you would never finish reading all the articles or have time to write
about them! This can be a serious problem because you will have read
an extensive amount of material and may feel that it is all important. Yet
judgments will need to be made on what is most relevant to convey the
significance of how the prior research relates to your research problem
and study. Most likely for every five articles you read, maybe one or two
will actually be relevant to your study (if you’re lucky!).
Consider the different ways that an article could be relevant to your study
(Creswell, 2015, p. 92):
Topic relevance: Does the literature focus on the same topic as your
proposed study?
Individual and site relevance: Does the literature examine the same
individuals or sites that you want to study?
Problem and question relevance: Does the literature examine the
same research problem that you propose to study? Does it address
the same research question you plan to address?
Accessibility relevance: Is the literature available in your library, or

can you download it from a website? Can you obtain it easily from
the library or a website?
If you are still having difficulties finding relevant research studies,

definitely make an appointment to spend time with a reference librarian.
You should also look at the reference section from articles that you do
think are relevant; researchers will often reference other studies and
authors in the same topical area. There are also some Literature Review
LibGuides created by different universities in the Resources section that
have some helpful information and tips.
Another common misconception of the literature review is that it is simply

a summary or description of research articles around a particular topic.
Although you will need to write a summary of the selected research
studies you reviewed, your task is to evaluate and critically analyze the
research that has been conducted and connect it to your research study.
I discuss this in more depth in the research synthesis section.
Unlike the term papers you wrote as an undergraduate, Chapter Two is

not one of those assignments that you can do the night before it is due
(and still get an A!). You can anticipate spending more time on this
chapter than any of the others. The time required to review the literature
will be extensive, as will be the time devoted to writing this chapter. You
must research the literature, make decisions on which studies are most
relevant, critique those studies, and describe how they relate to your
research study and to each other. In other words, your writing is specific
to individual or groups of studies reported in the literature and not a broad
overview of what has been done. The tone and style of writing for the
literature review will continue to be formal and scholarly. Remember you
will need to include a proper citation for every source that you reference
in the literature review, so this is where those reference management
software programs really come in handy!
This chapter also tends to be the longest one in the thesis, so remember
This chapter also tends to be the longest one in the thesis, so remember
to pace yourself and use the chunking method (i.e., one step at a time).
In addition, allow yourself the time to read the research before you start
to write. This may be the only chance you get to delve into a specific
research topic, and you might actually find yourself enjoying the process!
Similar to Chapter One, you need to decide what is the best process for
you in writing this chapter. Some students may want to do all their
reading first and then write. Some may want to read one article at a time
and write about each one separately and connect them at the end.
Others still may want to skim, abstract, sort, create maps, and then write
to clarify your ideas, and so on. In other words, the process can be
individualized so it is best to understand what is most effective for you.
Remember the key is to keep your momentum going forward, so create a
timetable for the literature review with target dates, milestones,
incentives, and rewards! In this chapter, I discuss how to organize your
research articles, write each of the required sections, and synthesize a
research article.
PREPARATION AND ORGANIZATION

In Chapter Two, you will retain the same three areas related to your
research problem that were identified in Chapter One. Thus, you will use
the same three parallel ladders strategy as before. For Chapter One, the
first ladder represented the Statement of the Problem section where you
wrote about the problems within the three areas. The second ladder
represented the Background and Need section where you discussed the
existing solutions and interventions for the problems. For Chapter Two,
we are going to expand the third ladder, which represents the body of the
literature review. The three rungs in the ladder represent the same three
areas from Chapter One. Each area will consist of at least three empirical
research articles that are related to that area, some of which you may
have introduced in Chapter One. Thus, you will need to have a total of
nine empirical research articles to write Chapter Two (see Figure 6.1 for
an expanded ladder of the three areas for the Literature Review). Check
with your chairperson for the required amount of studies per section
because it may be less or more. Remember that empirical research
articles are those in which data are collected through quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed methods. You want to stick with primary sources and
will not use secondary sources, position papers, literature syntheses, and
so on to write Chapter Two (although this may depend on the
preferences of your chairperson). Keep in mind that it will be rare for you
to find articles that fit your topic exactly. In fact, you may not find any
(which adds to the rationale for your study!). The key will be for you to
show how the research study (or parts of it) is related to or supports your
research.
Thus, you will need to retrieve articles from research journals (preferably
refereed or peer-reviewed journals). Depending on your field, the
research literature changes very quickly, so you want to get the most
recently published articles. I would not recommend using an article that is
more than 5 years old unless it was a seminal article. A seminal article
is one that was significant to the topic (e.g., classic) or created a change
in the field. If you are having difficulty finding recent research articles, try
the following quick search strategies in relevant search engines or
electronic databases: (a) Set a limit on the dates, (b) set a limit to
scholarly journals, (c) search the table of contents in high-quality journals
in your field, (d) search the reference lists of relevant articles, and (e)
search for authors who have written extensively on your research
problem. Finally, make an appointment with the reference librarian and
ask your chairperson for some recommendations to get you started.
Description
Figure 6.1 Expanded ladder of the three areas for the

Literature Review.
The first step in preparing the literature review is to read and organize
your empirical research articles according to the three areas. This will
indicate whether or not you have the most significant and relevant
research in each area or need to go back to do more research. A good
strategy to use is skimming where you read the abstract, introduction,
and conclusion, and skim through the rest of the article to get the main
idea (Machi & McEvoy, 2016). Consider this like speed dating the
research! As you skim you can also write a short summary of each article
on a note card. Then you can sort the cards in a logical order that tells
the “story” about the research. For example, you can sort by what they
have in agreement (or disagreement), by research methodology, by the
sample group, by the intervention, and so on. One thing to keep in mind
through this organizing and sorting process is to keep asking yourself,
“How does this research article relate to my research problem?” If you
cannot answer that question, then perhaps this article is not a good fit for
your literature review.
After you have selected the first round of articles, now it is time to go
back and read them more thoroughly to find the relationships between
the research literature and your study. A good strategy to use at this
stage is mapping. There are many different types of maps (e.g., concept,
mind, subject tree, content), so you can pick one that best suits your
needs. There are also different types of software programs and
applications that you can use to “draw” your thoughts into maps (see
examples in Resources section). You can organize your research into
maps around a core issue, theme, author, and so on with supporting
elements (Machi & McEvoy, 2016). The advantage of using a mapping
strategy is that it helps you visually organize the research literature and
see meaningful connections. Ask yourself, “What is the relationship
among the studies to the core issue and to each other?” Having a visual
diagram also allows you to analyze the research to find gaps in your
literature search. Sometimes the most relevant studies are those that
diverge from the pattern or the findings are inconsistent with the others.
Ideally you should have at least one map for each of your three areas of
the literature review. This will prepare you to write the body of the
literature review.
CHAPTER TWO SECTIONS
Once you have reviewed and organized the research articles, you can
use your note cards and maps to write the literature review. Chapter Two
starts on a new page in the thesis. Chapter Two has three main sections:
(a) introduction, (b) body of the review with research syntheses, and (c)
summary. I discuss what needs to be included and how to write each
section. Keep in mind that there are different ways to organize a literature
review, so it is a good idea to check with your chairperson for program
guidelines. One way is to discuss the overall theme from a group of
studies and make references to specific studies to support your claims
and arguments (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Machi & McEvoy, 2016).
Some people choose to write the literature review in response to a
“precisely stated question” (Fink, 2014, p. 3). If you are using this type of
organizational format, be sure that you frame your research around a
specific question rather than a broad, nonspecific one. For example,
“What is the impact of cyberbullying?” is too broad. A more specific
question would be, “What is the psychological impact of cyberbullying on
female adolescent targets?” There are suggested readings at the end of
the chapter if you would like to explore these other ways to organize and
approach the literature review. In the example below I organized each
area of the literature review around one core issue with a descriptive
synthesis of each article. In each synthesis I describe how the research
study relates to my current study. When using this type of organizational
format, it is also important to connect the articles back to each other.
Introduction
The introduction in Chapter Two has two purposes. The first purpose is to
remind the reader about your research problem, and the second purpose
is to inform the reader of the three research areas that will be addressed
in the chapter. The first paragraph in the introduction is the opening. In
this paragraph, revisit the broad problem and research problem from
Chapter One. Remember, you want to refer to these problems in general
terms. Do not write, “My research problem is . . . .” Instead, briefly
describe the broad problem (e.g., national) and then funnel to the
research problem that your study is addressing. Your statement of the
research problem should be concise and clearly identify the key issues
from your study. This paragraph may seem a bit redundant because it is.
As you continue writing, you will notice that there will be a respectable
level of redundancy throughout the thesis, especially at the beginning of
each chapter.
each chapter.
However, the redundancy is purposeful rather than random. In this
context, purposeful redundancy refers to intentionally reiterating main
points about the research problem and study throughout the thesis. This
serves two purposes. First, purposeful redundancy allows each chapter
to stand alone. This means that a reader can begin reading the thesis at
any chapter and understand the gist of the research problem and your
study. Second, purposeful redundancy links the chapters together so that
there is a seamless connection between them. This gives the writing
fluidity and unity, and the reader is not left trying to fill in gaps. Think of it
as a silk thread that tells the narrative of your study throughout the thesis.
However, you want to avoid simply repeating verbatim what has already
been written unless it is serving a strategic purpose. In other words, you
do not want the reader to have a déjà vu, I’ve-read-this-before moment.
Advance Organizer
The next paragraph in the introduction is the advance organizer. In this

context, an advance organizer is an outline for the literature review and
informs the reader of what will be addressed in the chapter. The advance
organizer should be based on the three areas related to the research
problem from Chapter One. In the advance organizer, explicitly state the
areas that will be discussed in the body of the literature review. For
example, here is an advance organizer for the three areas from Chapter
One:
The literature review addresses three areas of research related

to the adverse impact of cyberbullying on female adolescents’
psychological health, physical health, and suicide ideation and
behaviors. In the first section, research studies related to the
negative psychological effects experienced by cyberbullying
targets and also promising interventions to counteract those
effects are addressed. In the second section, there is a
discussion on the physical health and somatic concerns that
these adolescents experience and how supportive social
networks have lessened the impact or decreased adolescents’
participation in cyberbullying. Finally, the last section focuses on
cyberbullying as a predictive factor in adolescents’ suicide
ideation and behavior and how close and nurturing relationships
with parents and adults has been a positive mediating factor.
Here is an example template that you can use to write your advance
Here is an example template that you can use to write your advance
organizer:
The literature review addresses three areas related to (the

research problem). The first section addresses research related
to (the first area’s problem/solution). The second section
focuses on research studies about (the second area’s
problem/solution). Finally, the third section discusses research
related to (the third area’s problem/solution).
Once you have the advance organizer, follow this outline and organize
the text for the body of the review around each of the sections.
Body of the Review

The body of the review is the heart of the literature review. This is where
you will synthesize the research articles in each of the three areas related
to your research problem. Remember to label each section with an
appropriate level heading (see Chapter 10 for APA style). For example,
my heading for the first section would be Psychological Impact and
Intervention for Adolescent Cyberbullying. At the beginning of each
section, write a brief description about the research area. Next provide a
synthesis for each of the individual or group of research studies. Within
each synthesis, inform the reader how the study is related to your
research problem or study (i.e., supports what you are doing or how your
study fills a gap). Although in the example below each article is
synthesized separately, it is important to connect the research articles
within each area as well as establish the connections between the three
areas.
Research Synthesis
The synthesis of an empirical research article is part summary, part

analysis, and part critique. In other words, your job is to summarize the
study and apply your knowledge of research methods and quantitative or
qualitative data analysis to critique the study. Providing a summary of the
research article contributes to the body of information about your
research problem. Providing a critical analysis of the research article
strengthens the justification and rationale for your research study. Thus,
you need to do both to synthesize the literature and relate it to your
research problem. There are 10 basic components included in the
research synthesis: (a) introduction, (b) purpose, (c) setting/sample, (d)
intervention/issue, (e) procedures, (f) variables/measurement
instruments, (g) data analysis, (h) results, (i) conclusions/implications,
and (j) limitation/weaknesses (see Figure 6.2 for major components in a
research synthesis). If you are not comfortable or familiar with these
terms, it would be helpful to review a basic research methods text.
Although there are 10 separate parts, some of them may be only one to
two sentences while others may be one to two paragraphs, depending on
the complexity of the study. I describe how to write each part with an
example research synthesis adapted from a former student’s master’s
thesis (Ho, 2006); there are additional sample research syntheses in
Appendix G.
1. Introduction: Provide a brief introduction about the topic in the study.

You should also define any new terms, if necessary. This information
is typically found in the first section of the article where the authors
discuss the findings from their literature review. For example,
Teachers often have difficulty promoting students’ knowledge

and interpretation of historical events. This is especially true in
diverse inclusive settings where students with and without
disabilities are taught in the same classroom setting. One
alternative method to teach history is through project-based
learning. This type of teaching technique uses a project-based
activity to help students comprehend and apply their
understanding of subject matter content.
Description
Figure 6.2 Major components of a research

synthesis.
2. Purpose: Briefly state the purpose of the study and reference the
authors in the text with the year of publication (the full citation
belongs in the references section; see Chapter 10 for APA style).
This information is typically found in the first section of the article
right before the Methods section. If you are lucky, the authors will
explicitly state their purpose; other times, you will have to infer the
purpose of the study from the given information. For example,
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of a

curriculum model entitled supported project-based learning
(SPBL) on students’ historical knowledge, historical inquiry, and
attitudes in inclusive 5th-grade classrooms (Ferretti, MacArthur,
& Okolo, 2001).
3. Setting/sample: Identify the setting where the research was

conducted, including the state or region. Then describe the
participants of the study, including their demographic data (e.g., age,
grade level, disability, and ethnicity). In some cases, you will need to
explain how the participants were selected. This is especially critical
if the study used a survey or qualitative design because the sampling
procedures are a critical component of the data collection process.
This information is typically found in the Methods section of the
article (sometimes there is a subheading for “Participants”). For
example,
The study took place in two urban elementary schools in

Delaware. The participants included three 5th-grade classrooms
of 59 students without disabilities and 28 students identified with
mild disabilities (24 were identified with learning disabilities).
Sixty-nine percent of the sample group was Caucasian, 28%
was African American, and 3% was Hispanic. Four classroom
teachers (two general education and two special education) also
participated in the study.
4. Intervention/issue: Describe the intervention that was implemented in

the study. This is a brief description of what treatment the
participants experienced including the materials that were used,
professional development or lessons/strategies that were taught, and
so on. This information is typically found in the Methods section of
the article (sometimes there is a subheading for “Materials”). If the
study did not involve an intervention, such as in a survey or
qualitative study, discuss the issue or phenomenon that was
explored. Here is an example of an intervention:
The students were given a task to investigate the experiences of

miners, farmers, or Mormons during the westward expansion
period in U.S. history. As part of the intervention, the students
were taught a strategy to help facilitate the analysis and
interpret, and communicate the information they gathered. They
were also given questions that they could ask each other and a
narrative framework to organize their information.
narrative framework to organize their information.
5. Procedures: Describe the procedures that were used to conduct the

study. This is a brief description of how the treatment was
administered including the length of the intervention, how
participants were put into groups, and under what conditions the
intervention was implemented. If the study did not involve an
intervention, describe other research procedures that may have
been used. This information is typically found in the Methods section
of the article (sometimes there is a subheading for “Procedures”).
For example,
The intervention lasted for 8 weeks over 25 to 29 class periods.

The history unit consisted of 14 lessons. The students worked in
heterogeneous mixed-ability cooperative groups. They were first
shown a video of an emigrant group during westward expansion
and then given primary sources (e.g., diaries, journals,
photographs) to read and interpret; they were assigned to put
together a multimedia technology presentation of the results of
their investigation over eight class sessions.
6. Variables/measurement instruments: Describe the variables that

were measured and how the data were collected. This is a brief
description of the type of data the researcher collected and the types
of measurement instruments used to collect the data. In a
quantitative study, report the independent and dependent variables
and describe the measurement instruments such as surveys, tests,
and so on. In a qualitative study, report how the researcher collected
data such as observations, field notes, interviews, and so forth. This
information is typically found in the Data Collection or Measurement
Instruments sections of the article. For example,
There were four dependent variables that were measured in this

study: content knowledge, historical knowledge, historical
inquiry, and students’ attitudes. The content knowledge of the
unit was measured by a 16-item multiple-choice test on
westward expansion (pretest and posttest). To measure
historical knowledge and inquiry, 20 interview questions were
administered before and after completion of the unit using
scoring guidelines. The fourth measured variable was students’
attitudes including self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and
attitudes toward cooperative learning and collaborating with
attitudes including self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and
attitudes toward cooperative learning and collaborating with
peers. This variable was measured through an attitude scale.
No information was given about the structure, format, or scoring
of the attitude scale.
7. Data analysis: Explain how the data were analyzed. For a

quantitative study, this can include the type of statistics or statistical
tests that were used. For a qualitative study, this can include the
procedures for transcription (for interviews), organization of field
notes (for observations), and the methods used for data coding.
Data coding is a data analysis process used in qualitative research
to categorize and label the major themes. This information is
typically found in the Methods section of the article (sometimes there
is a subheading for “Data Analysis”) or in the Results section. For
example,
After the intervention was completed, several statistical tests

were used to analyze the data. A 2 × 2 repeated measures
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a univariate ANOVA test
were conducted to determine students’ mean gains from pretest
to posttest and if there were any statistically significant
differences between students with disabilities and students
without disabilities. Differences from pre- to posttest on the
attitude scale were analyzed through a multivariate analysis of
variance (MANOVA) test.
8. Results: Discuss the results of the study. For a quantitative study,

this would include numerical data such as percentage scores, mean
scores, or results from statistical tests (e.g., t tests). Remember to
report the results for each of the variables from the measurement
instruments that are relevant to your research problem or study. For
qualitative data, report the major themes and significant quotes from
the participants that support the major themes (remember to include
page numbers for quotes). This information is typically found in the
Results section of the article. For example,
The results indicated that students in both groups improved their

content scores. However, the students without disabilities
scored significantly higher on the posttest than the students with
disabilities. The results were similar for the historical content
and historical inquiry questions. On the attitude scale, both
and historical inquiry questions. On the attitude scale, both
groups improved slightly on the self-efficacy portion, but the
students without disabilities made greater gains than the
students with disabilities.
9. Conclusions/implications: Discuss the main conclusions and

implications based on the results. This information is typically found
in the Discussion section of the article. However, it is important that
you make your own interpretations about the conclusions based on
the actual results because authors have a tendency to overstate
their conclusions beyond the results. For the implications part, this is
where you should make an explicit connection to your research
study. Basically, answer the “So what?” question and discuss why
these results are important for your research problem or study. For
example,
Several conclusions can be made about the students’ learning

in response to the SPBL model. First, both students with and
without disabilities improved significantly on the content test and
interview questions based on historical knowledge and historical
inquiry. After the intervention, students with disabilities were
able to comprehend the concept of bias and why the
interpretations of historians may differ. This provides support for
both general and special education teachers to implement a
project-based curriculum to improve their students’
understanding of social studies content, especially in inclusive
settings. However, some of the mean gains on the test and
interview questions were relatively small, and the students with
disabilities scored significantly below the students without
disabilities on all measures. These results indicate that these
students may need explicit instruction on the core content in
addition to the project-based curriculum. Additionally, the
researchers noted the challenges that general classroom
teachers faced with the multimedia component, which questions
the feasibility of this type of model in a classroom setting with
limited resources and technological support. For future research
in this area, providing an additional component using explicit
instruction on the narrative framework with fewer technological
demands might strengthen the intervention for teachers and
students with disabilities.
10. Limitations/weaknesses: Address limitations or weaknesses of the

study. This information is typically found in the Discussion section of
the article (sometimes there is a subheading for “Limitations”).
Similar to the Conclusions section, it is important for you to form your
own criticisms of the study’s design, methods, results, and so on
rather than relying on the researcher’s stated limitations. Just as
researchers have a tendency to overstate their conclusions, they will
also often understate the limitations and weaknesses of their study.
The limitations and weaknesses section is another area where you
should make an explicit connection to your research study. Basically,
identify the limitations of the study and discuss how these
weaknesses or gaps were addressed in your study. For example,
There were several limitations and weaknesses in the Ferretti et

al. (2001) study that the current study addressed. First, there
was an unequal level of participation from the students in the
cooperative groups. The students with disabilities struggled to
decode words while the students without disabilities quickly read
through books on westward expansion. This could have been a
decisive factor in their lower test scores and interview questions.
Another limitation was the consistency of each of the
instructional periods due to students with disabilities
entering/exiting the class for supplemental services. Finally,
some students lacked the background knowledge that was
necessary to understand the content. In the current study, the
students’ participation levels were more equal because the text
was read aloud. The instructional time and practice were also
controlled to ensure that all students received comparable time.
Further, the researcher incorporated activities that personalized
the events for students and provided explicit instruction on
necessary background knowledge.
The research synthesis process that was described is one model to

summarize, analyze, and critique each of the research studies related to
the three areas of your research problem. If you choose this format, be
sure to include transition phrases (segues) between the research
syntheses and the three areas so that they are seamlessly connected.
Section Summary
After you have synthesized the three articles in each area, provide a
summary paragraph for the section. The purpose of this paragraph is to
not only summarize and connect the main points and limitations from the
summary paragraph for the section. The purpose of this paragraph is to
not only summarize and connect the main points and limitations from the
three studies but also to show how they relate back to your study. For
example,
The research literature indicates that students with learning

disabilities continue to struggle with instruction that is delivered
in a traditional lecture format. The three research articles that
were evaluated in this section provide support for using different
types of instructional techniques, particularly project-based and
authentic learning experiences that involve technology and
cooperative groups. The students with disabilities in these
studies who were taught history using these teaching
techniques benefited from the instruction, as evidenced by their
increase in test scores and attitudes. These findings provide
rationale to integrate such instructional methods in the current
study. However, there were several weaknesses to the previous
studies that limit their generalizability to other settings and
populations. These limitations included small sample sizes and
the limited age groups. Since all the studies were conducted
with middle school students, it is unclear whether these results
would be transferred to high school students, which is the
sample group of this current study. Additionally, other limitations
included the inconsistency of the instruction due to behavior or
attendance of the students, which could have been a factor that
affected the results. These weaknesses were controlled for in
the current study.
Chapter Summary
The last section in Chapter Two is the Summary. The Summary should
have its own level heading. In this section, summarize and connect the
key points and limitations from the three areas of research as well as
show how they relate to your study. For example,
To ensure that students with disabilities succeed, it is imperative

that these students do not fall further behind in proficiency
levels, especially in core content areas such as history. The
current materials and traditional lecture methods of instruction in
today’s high schools seem to put students with disabilities at a
disadvantage. Students with disabilities have a particularly
difficult time comprehending expository texts, which is the
dominant form used in history textbooks and curriculum. The
research studies reviewed in this chapter indicated that students
with disabilities benefit from direct and explicit instruction in
different types of expository texts to assist in their
comprehension of their textbooks. Additionally, researchers
found that using and activating students’ prior knowledge helped
in their reading comprehension, memorization, and recall of
information and text. Another area that has been studied and
shown to be beneficial for students’ comprehension was using
different types of instructional techniques, particularly project-
based and experiential learning strategies that involved
technology and cooperative groups. Although these studies
showed beneficial methods for the students involved, the
studies used small sample sizes and a narrow range of student
ages, particularly middle school ages, which made it difficult to
generalize across the population. Additionally, some of the
studies did not include students with disabilities in their sample
groups. More research with a more diverse sample of students
at different grade levels is needed to determine if these
strategies would be successful across student populations. This
current study contributed to the existing research literature by
measuring the effects of a project-based experiential learning
strategy on the comprehension of historical content for high
school students with disabilities.
In essence, the Summary provides a picture of the most pertinent

research in the literature related to your research problem as well as a
rationale for how your study contributes to the literature. Thus, you
should conclude the summary with a brief statement of how the literature
supports what you are addressing in your study. Writing a strong
summary at the end of the chapter is vital because you want to leave a
lasting impression on the reader and convince her that your study is
absolutely essential.
Summary
Chapter Two is a critical chapter in the thesis because it provides
an overview of the research literature related to your problem and
study. In doing so, you show the reader that you are
knowledgeable about the existing research and that your study
fills a much-needed gap. In synthesizing the empirical research
articles, you have provided both a summary of the studies as well
as a critique (which provides a rationale for your study). In the
next chapter, I discuss how to write Chapter Three, Methods, for
your thesis. Here is a summary of the most critical points from
Chapter 6:
The purpose of writing Chapter Two is to provide the reader

with an overview of the significant research and how they
relate to your research problem.
A common misconception is that the literature review is a

comprehensive or chronological summary of every research
article that has been written about the topic.
A required skill to write Chapter Two is to be able to evaluate
and critically analyze the research that has been conducted
and connect it to your research study.
In Chapter Two, you will retain the same three areas related
to your research problem that were identified in Chapter One.
You will need to have a total of at least nine empirical
research articles to write Chapter Two.
Chapter Two has three main sections: (a) introduction, (b)

body of the review with research syntheses, and (c)
summary.
Skimming, note taking, and mapping are effective strategies

to help organize your research and in preparation for writing.
Purposeful redundancy allows each chapter to stand alone
and links the chapters together so that there is a seamless
connection between them.
There are multiple ways to organize and write a literature

review.
To synthesize an empirical research article, you will need to
summarize the study and apply your knowledge of research
methods and quantitative/qualitative data analysis to critique
it.
Make your own interpretations about the conclusions based
on the actual results because authors have a tendency to
overstate their conclusions beyond the results.
Form your own criticisms of the study’s design, methods,

results, and so on rather than relying on the researcher’s
comments.
Resources

Solutions
1. A common obstacle that students face at this stage is
selecting the articles to include in Chapter Two. Words that
come to mind are “I have over 30 articles!” Although it
seemed like a good idea at the time to collect as many as
possible, having 30 research articles for Chapter Two is
about 20 too many. Remember that the purpose of the
literature review is to synthesize the most critical and relevant
articles for your research topic; the purpose is not to write the
historical chronicle of your research topic. With that said, pick
only the research articles that fit the three related areas and
can support, justify, or reveal a gap related to your research
study.
2. Another common obstacle faced by students is synthesizing
all the research articles. Words that come to mind are, “I don’t
have time to read and critique all these articles!” If you took
my advice in the first tip above, you should only have to
synthesize between nine and 12 articles. This is where the
chunking method is critical. Plan a schedule where you tackle
one article per day (or one per thesis session). At the first
session, read the article carefully and highlight the 10 main
components (see Figure 6.2). Make notes on the article
where you can critique the study’s design, methods, results,
and conclusions/implications, and also note how the article
relates to your study. At the next session, use your notes to
summarize and synthesize the article. Take a much-deserved
break and start the next article.
Before you write Chapter Two, it is important to identify the
common thread that will be carried over from Chapter One so that
the thesis appears to be seamless. Chapter Two also requires
you to extract your prior knowledge of research methods as you
synthesize the articles. The following reflection/discussion
questions will help guide you through these two processes.
1. What is the goal of using purposeful redundancy in the

thesis? Give examples of how and where you can use
purposeful redundancy in Chapter Two. In other words, what
is the narrative of your study from Chapters One and Two?
2. How does a research synthesis differ from a summary? Use
an empirical research article to locate and describe the parts
that should be included in the research synthesis.
Try It Exercises
Two. In Activity One, you will identify the empirically based articles
that are related to your three areas. In Activity Two, you will write
the introduction and advance organizer paragraphs for Chapter
the introduction and advance organizer paragraphs for Chapter
Two. In Activity Three, you will synthesize one of the research
articles for Chapter Two.
1. Activity One: For this activity, focus on the research literature

related to your research problem and study.
List the three areas from Chapter One that are related to
your research problem or study.
For each area, write the full citation of three empirical

research articles that can be included in Chapter Two
(you should have a total of at least nine articles).
2. Activity Two: For this activity, focus on your research problem

and study and the three related areas.
Write an introduction paragraph to Chapter Two,

Literature Review. Remember to use purposeful
redundancy (tell the story of your study) when you
address the broad issues and then funnel to your specific
research problem.
Write an advance organizer for Chapter Two, Literature

Review. Remember to outline the three areas of
research that will be discussed. You can use the
following template:
The literature review addresses three areas related to (the

research problem). The first section addresses research related to
(the first area’s problem/solution). The second section focuses on
research studies about (the second area’s problem/solution).
Finally, the third section discusses research related to (the third
area’s problem/solution).
3. Activity Three: For this activity, focus on one of the

empirical research articles from the three related areas.
Write a research synthesis for one article for the
literature review. Remember to include the following
parts: (a) introduction, (b) purpose, (c) setting/sample,
(d) intervention/issue, (e) procedures, (f)
variables/measurement instruments, (g) data analysis,
(h) results, (i) conclusions/implications, and (j)
limitations/weaknesses. Then submit the synthesis to
your chairperson for review to make sure you are on the
right track!
Key Terms
data coding 128
mapping 121
purposeful redundancy 122
seminal article 121
skimming 121
Suggested Readings
Booth, A., Sutton, A., & Papaioannou, D. (2016). Systematic
approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. (2015). Educational research: Planning, conducting,

and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (5th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Fink, A. (2014). Conducting research literature reviews: From the

Internet to paper (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Harris, M. J. (2006). Three steps to teaching abstract and critique
writing. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education, 17(2), 136–146.
Hart, C. (2018). Doing literature review (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Machi, L. A., & McEvoy, B. T. (2016). The literature review: Six

steps to success (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rhoades, E. A. (2011). Literature reviews. Volta Review, 111(1),
61–71.
Web Links
Literature Review LibGuides

Literature Review (California State University, Chico)
https://libguides.csuchico.edu/c.php?g=414315&p=2822745
Literature Review: Conducting & Writing (University of West

Florida)
https://libguides.uwf.edu/litreview
Literature Review Basics: University of LaVerne
https://laverne.libguides.com/c.php?g=34942&p=222060
The Writing Center (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)

https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/literature-reviews/
Writing the Literature Review (SUNY Empire State College)

https://www.esc.edu/online-writing-center/resources/academic-
writing/types/review-of-the-literature/
Mapping Software
Coggle
https://coggle.it
Mind42
https://mind42.com
MindMeister
https://www.mindmeister.com
MindMup
https://www.mindmup.com
Mindomo
https://www.mindomo.com
SimpleMind
https://simplemind.eu
Visual Understanding Environment
http://vue.tufts.edu
XMind
https://www.xmind.net

Back to Figure
The first second and third rungs of the ladder titled chapter two, literature
review are labeled:
Area 1.
Area 2.
Area 3.
The subpoints under each are as follows:
Area 1:
Area 1:
Article 1a.
Article 1b.
Article 1c.
Area 2:
Article 2a.
Article 2b.
Article 2c.
Area 3:
Article 3a.
Article 3b.
Article 3c.
Back to Figure
The ten squares read:
Introduction.
Purpose.
Setting/sample.
Intervention/issue.
Procedures.
Procedures.
Variables/measurement instruments.
Data analysis.
Results.
Conclusions/implications.
Limitations/weaknesses.
7 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER THREE,
METHODS
Research Designs and Research Methods 138

Chapter Three Sections 140
Introduction 141
Setting 144
Participants 145
Intervention and Materials 147
Measurement Instruments 149
Validity and Reliability 153
Procedure 155
Data Analysis 158
Summary 161
Resources 162
Key Terms 164
Web Links 165
The discipline of the writer is to learn to be still and listen to what

his subject has to tell him.
—Rachel Louise Carson
If you have successfully completed Chapter Two, Literature Review, of

your master’s thesis—well done! Feel free to take a short break and
reward yourself for the hard work up to this point. Then roll up your
sleeves, grab the coffee mug, and wipe the dust off the computer! This
chapter focuses on how to write Chapter Three, Methods (also referred to
as Methodology), of the research study and thesis. Preparing for Chapter
Three with your chairperson and committee members is very important
because they will carefully determine if the research design and research
methods are appropriate to fulfill the purpose of the study and allow you
to answer the research questions. After sweating through Chapters One
and Two, Chapter Three will probably be the most enjoyable to write
because this is where you describe your research design and the
methods implemented in your study. In doing so, you will apply what you
have learned in your research preparation and in the literature review.
RESEARCH DESIGNS AND RESEARCH

METHODS
While they are related, there is a difference between research design and
research methods. The research design can be considered as the overall
logical plan or framework (including philosophy, worldview, and
theoretical foundation) that is used to address the study’s research
problem and answer the research questions. If you have ever been
involved in the headaches of a remodeling or construction project,
consider the research design as the architect’s and structural engineer’s
blueprint plans. It is critical to remember that the research problem and
research questions will inform or drive which research design is used
(and not the other way around). A researcher does not start out by
saying, “For my study, I want to use a mixed methods research design.”
saying, “For my study, I want to use a mixed methods research design.”
Instead, it is up to the researcher to provide a rationale (and justification)
for which research design is best suited to address the research problem
and answer the research questions.
There are many different types of research designs that can be used.
They are divided into three broad categories: quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed methods. Within each category, there are also specific research
designs (also referred to as types or approaches). For example,
quantitative research designs include descriptive, survey, correlational,
and experimental designs (including quasi-experimental and single-
subject). Qualitative research designs include narrative, case study,
ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology. Mixed methods
research designs include three core designs: convergent, explanatory
sequential, and exploratory sequential (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018).
Mixed methods research designs have received a lot of attention within
the past decade. While there are several opinions of what constitutes
mixed methods research, there are some common core characteristics
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018):
collects and analyzes both qualitative and quantitative data

rigorously in response to research questions and hypotheses
integrates (mixes or combines) the two forms of data and their

results
organizes these procedures into specific research designs that
provide the logic and procedures for conducting the study
frames these procedures within theory and philosophy (Creswell &

Plano Clark, 2018, p. 5)
The advantage of using a mixed methods research design is that it

provides evidence to answer research questions that could not be
answered by using either a quantitative or qualitative design alone. The
challenge is that it requires more skill and resources (e.g., time,
personnel) to collect and analyze the data. If you need a refresher on
different research designs, check out the list of Resources at the end of
the chapter.
Once you have selected the best research design to address the
research problem and questions, then decisions need to be made about
the research methods or the tools that will be used to implement the
study. If the research design is the logic, then the research methods can
be considered the logistics of the study. In other words, the research
methods are how the researcher plans data collection, procedures, and
analysis, in alignment with the research design. This includes where
(site/setting), who (sampling plan/sample/participants), what (variables,
measurement instruments), how (procedures), and why (data analysis,
reliability, validity). Going back to the remodel and construction analogy,
the research methods is the part where the contractors take the blueprint
plans and decide what tools and materials they will use for the actual
building process.
The Methods chapter needs to be written with sufficient detail to provide

a context for the results in Chapter Four and for replicability purposes.
Replicability refers to the ability to replicate (i.e., copy) the study to
verify and interpret the results or adapt and expand the study. Do not
worry, replicability does not mean you have to redo your study, but others
may want to. If you have selected a research problem that has wide
interest, it is likely that someone will want to conduct a study in hopes of
confirming or expanding your results. For this reason, you want to be
certain that the full details of your design and methods are sufficiently
described so that someone can independently replicate your study as
you conducted it. Since Chapter Three focuses on your study, it will be
based on what you have already done. Now, it is just a matter of writing it
in a systematic and comprehensive way.

There are several items that need to be prepared and organized before
you begin to write. First, if you have not already done so, it is critical that
you prepare a draft or proposal of Chapter Three before you actually
conduct the research. At a minimum, the proposal should include an
outline of the type of research design and methods that were discussed
in the previous section. This should be very similar to the research
proposal that you submitted as part of your application for the Institutional
Review Board (IRB). During the proposal stage, your chairperson and
committee members will want and need to be very much involved. In
many ways, this is an opportunity for them to teach and for you to learn. If
the research design and methods are not appropriate for the study, then
your work in carrying out the study may not meet the requirements for an
acceptable thesis. Sometimes your chairperson may ask another
colleague to assist you on some component of the research methods
such as the data analysis. Just make sure that Chapter Three’s proposal
is approved by your chairperson and you have IRB approval (or
exemption) before you actually begin to collect data!
CHAPTER THREE SECTIONS
Once you have received all the necessary approvals, you can start to
write Chapter Three. Chapter Three starts on a new page in the thesis
and is divided into eight main sections: (a) Introduction, (b) Setting, (c)
Participants, (d) Intervention, (e) Materials, (f) Measurement Instruments,
(g) Procedure, and (h) Data Analysis (see Figure 7.1 for major sections in
Chapter Three). If you remember the research synthesis structure from
the literature review, the sections in Chapter Three are very similar to a
research article. Keep in mind that although they are written and
discussed separately, the sections are intertwined and collectively they
form the methods of the study.
Description
Figure 7.1 Major sections in Chapter Three, Methods.

Depending on your research design, some of the sections listed above
may have different titles or may not apply to your thesis. For example,
Intervention would only be applicable if you conducted a quantitative
study (i.e., experimental). Thus, before you start writing, check with your
chairperson for which sections to include. Writing Chapter Three can be
enjoyable because it is similar to storytelling. You want to tell the reader
the “story” of how you conducted your research study, so it should
include a setting, characters, and main events (the conclusion of the
story is told in Chapters Four and Five). However, remember that the
writing style must be technical in nature, and you must describe the
critical elements of the research methods you employed. Consider that
the broad audience (readers) may be experienced researchers and/or
practitioners. Thus, they will expect to see the elements of your research
described in a manner that is accurate but easily understood.
To guide you in writing Chapter Three, I first discuss how to write each
section in general. Then I provide examples of written work adapted from
former students’ completed master’s theses or other studies. I include
examples from quantitative (including single subject design), qualitative,
and mixed methods studies when a distinction among the approaches is
helpful. You will notice that the examples are written in the past tense to
indicate that the studies have already been completed. Most likely, you
will write the Chapter Three proposal in future tense (to indicate what you
plan to do) and then come back after the research has been completed to
rewrite the chapter in the past tense. However, I recommend consulting
with your chairperson to make sure that this is the advised approach.
Introduction
Chapter Three opens with an introduction that has several elements. The
first part of the introduction is a brief reminder of the general research
problem. This is where purposeful redundancy (see Chapter 6) is a good
writing technique. Use purposeful redundancy to connect Chapter Three
seamlessly to the previous chapter but also to enable it to stand alone. In
the second part of the introduction, remind the reader of the research
question(s) from Chapter One. By revisiting the research questions here,
you are providing a justification and bridge to the specific research design
that was used to answer the questions. Finally, the third part of the
introduction is an overview of the research design and a brief explanation
of the research methods that were used in the study.
Providing the reader with an overview of the research design is critical
because it sets the tone (and layout of the sections) for the rest of the
chapter. For example, if you used a quasi-experimental research design,
the reader will expect to see large groups of participants, independent
and dependent variables, and hypothesis testing. If you used a qualitative
case study design, the reader will expect to see a small group of
participants, description of observation forms or interview questions, and
coding of narrative data. If you used a mixed methods research design,
the reader will expect to see both elements of quantitative and qualitative
research methods.
Here is an example of research questions and an overview of a

quantitative research design adapted from a former student’s master’s
thesis.
The following research questions were addressed in this study:
1. What are the effects of a self-directed learning program on the

behavior of high school students with learning disabilities?
2. What are the effects of a self-directed learning program on the levels
of self-determination for high school students with learning
disabilities?
This study followed a quantitative research design, using a pre-

experimental one-group pretest–posttest design. Self-directed
learning strategies were embedded into the curriculum of the
participating teacher’s high school special education English
classes. The effects of the self-directed learning program on
students’ behavior and self-determination levels were measured
through a survey. The self-directed learning program included
writing assignments designed to encourage self-reflection on the
student’s approach to his education, a weekly self-evaluation
form that allowed students to self-monitor academic and
behavioral performance, and goal development strategies that
incorporated appropriate feedback and attributional perspective.
Pre- and post-intervention data were collected and analyzed
using descriptive and inferential statistics. (Williams, 2006)
Here is an example of research questions and an overview of a

qualitative research design adapted from a previous student’s master’s
thesis.
The research questions of this study included the following:

1. What are the factors of communication (verbal or nonverbal) that
trigger behavioral outbursts or promote positive behavior and
effective communication in a classroom serving students with
emotional disturbances and learning disabilities?
2. What are the cultural differences in communication (verbal or
nonverbal)?
3. What are the factors leading to positive student–teacher
relationships?
4. What are the factors that promote a high degree of instructional
efficacy?
This qualitative research design used a case study to describe

the cultural views of high school teachers and staff and students
with emotional disturbances and learning disabilities. Interviews
and observations were used to collect data in teacher–student
communication with the primary goal of revealing the
relationship between positive and negative verbal or nonverbal
communications and students’ behavior. The narrative data
were transcribed, coded, and categorized into four themes
related to the research questions. (Kendall, 2006)
Here is an example of research questions and an overview of mixed

methods research developed from our literature review sample from
Chapter 6.
The research questions of this study included the following:

1. What is the relationship between psychological health and physical
health for adolescent male and female targets of cyberbullying?
2. How do adolescent males’ and females’ experiences of cyberbullying
influence their self-perceptions of psychological and physical health?
3. To what extent do adolescent male and female targets of
cyberbullying share common self-perceptions of psychological and
physical health?
In this mixed methods convergent design research study, both

quantitative and qualitative methods were used to explore the
relationship between psychological health and physical health of
60 (30 male, 30 female) middle school students who self-
identified as targets of cyberbullying. The Beck Youth
Inventories (BYI-2) was used to measure the students’
psychological health and the Child Health Questionnaire (CHQ-
CF45) was used to measure their physical health. Follow-up
interviews with 10 students (5 male, 5 female) were used to
explore any commonalities between the two groups’ self-
perceptions of psychological and physical health. (Adapted from
Way, Stauber, Nakkula, & London, 1994)
Way, Stauber, Nakkula, & London, 1994)
Here is an example of a research question and an overview of a

quantitative single subject design study.
The research question of this study included the following:

1. What is the effect of a class-wide, peer-mediated social skills
intervention on the social interactions (as measured by initiations
and responses) of students with low-functioning autism and typically-
developing peers?
This single-subject study examined the effects of a peer-

mediated intervention on initiations and responses of four K–2
students with low-functioning autism and their 2nd-grade peers.
Students were taught a shared reading intervention using visual
support, role-play, discussion, and peer reinforcement. Three
participants with low-functioning autism increased mean
responses to peer initiations from baseline to intervention
stages. (Adapted from Simpson & Bui, 2016)
Setting
The second section in Chapter Three is the Setting (this is the first
section that requires a level heading). In this section, describe the
research site(s) where the research was conducted. Similar to the setting
in a story, the setting in the thesis is where the study took place (i.e., data
were collected). The setting could be in a number of locations such as a
school, hospital, church, prison, office, home, or even on a bus. In writing
about the setting, first provide a description of the broad setting (e.g.,
school, hospital, juvenile detention center, community center).
Remember to include any background or historical information about the
setting so that the reader can situate your research site in the broader
context. In addition to the broad setting, include a description of the
specific area(s) where the data were collected (e.g., classroom, a
person’s home, office). Include any demographic data related to the
setting as appropriate.
Here is an example of a research setting adapted from a former student’s
master’s thesis:
This study took place in an urban elementary school located in

This study took place in an urban elementary school located in
Northern California. Fifty-nine percent of students at the school
qualified for free lunch, and almost 16% were English learners.
Thirty percent of students were Hispanic or Latino; 28% were
African American, not Hispanic; 17% were White, not Hispanic;
9% were Asian; 3% were Filipino; 2% were American Indian;
less than 1% were Pacific Islander; and 11% declined to state or
claimed multiple ethnicities.
The intervention was conducted on a pullout, individual basis.

Instruction was provided in the resource room at the
participants’ elementary school during the regular school day.
The resource room is a small classroom containing a kidney
table with a half-sized chalkboard posted at the front wall. There
is also a long rectangular table in the back of the room, which is
where students received the intervention. (Irey, 2008)
Participants
The third section is the Participants. There are two parts to this section.
The first part describes the sampling plan that was used in the study.
Sampling refers to the process of selecting participants for a study (Mills
& Gay, 2019). In this part, explain how the participants were selected
from the broader population.
The sampling plan will vary depending on the research question and
design of the study. For example, if you are using a quantitative research
design, select a large, representative sample group from the specified
population. Again, depending on the research question and design, you
may need to have a random sample. In a random sample, every
individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of
being selected (i.e., drawing names from a hat).
Be careful not to confuse random selection with random assignment.

Random selection refers to selecting participants from the population.
Random assignment refers to how the participants are put into groups. In
random assignment, each participant in the sample has an equal and
independent chance of being selected for the treatment group. If you are
conducting a true experimental study, participants are randomly assigned
into different treatment groups. This helps eliminate the potential bias of
having one group (e.g., experimental group) be “stronger” than the other
and helps level the playing field before the intervention begins.
Since it is not always possible or necessary to randomly select from the
population, a nonrandom sample is more commonly used in a master’s
thesis. One example of a nonrandom sample is a convenience sample. In
a convenience sample, the researcher selects the individuals who are
available and accessible at the time. An example of a convenience
sample is a teacher who includes all the students in her classroom.
People with clipboards at the shopping mall (the ones you avoid eye
contact with and run away from) are also using a convenience sample
when they select shoppers at the mall.
Another type of nonrandom sample is a purposive sample. In a

purposive sample, the researcher selects individuals who are
considered representative because they meet certain criteria for the
study. For example, some important criteria for selection are whether the
participant is willing and able to contribute to the understanding of the
research problem, issue, or phenomenon being explored. In some cases,
a specific site might be selected for the sample (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). This is very common in qualitative studies. Here is an example of
a nonrandom sample from a qualitative study:
The sampling procedure used by the researcher was purposive

sampling. The participants were restricted to those at the
researcher’s school site who attended or worked at the high
school and the participant’s willingness to partake in the study.
Participants included 12 high-school students, one teacher, two
paraeducators, and one therapist who worked at a public high
school in Northern California. The participants were also
selected because they were from diverse cultural backgrounds
and part of the same classroom environment where they had
multiple opportunities to display and observe communicative
behaviors [the focus of the study]. (Kendall, 2006)
The next part of the Participants section is the description of the

participants. In this section, include the participants’ demographic data
such as age, gender, grade level, race/ethnicity, language, disability,
socioeconomic status, occupation, years of experience, and so on. There
are several reasons why the reader needs to have demographic
information about the individuals who were involved in the study. First, if
a researcher wants to replicate the study with the same type of
participants, he needs to select participants who are comparable to
yours. Similarly, if a researcher wants to replicate the study with a slightly
different type of participant (e.g., age group), she would also need to
know exactly who was included in your study in order to make
modifications. Another reason for describing the participants is for
generalizability purposes. Generalizability refers to the extent to which
the results about a sample group from a study are applicable to the larger
population. This is especially important in quantitative studies. By having
a greater understanding of the sample group, the reader can make
interpretations about whether or not the results apply to the larger
population (assuming that the sample group is representative of the
larger population). In qualitative studies, having a detailed description of
the participants lends credibility to the researcher (and the findings) and
helps the reader understand the phenomenon or issue that was explored.
Since there is typically a smaller sample size in a qualitative study, each
individual’s contribution is heavily weighted regarding shedding light on
the research problem(s). Usually there is a table of participants’
demographic data included as part of the thesis (see Chapter 10 for APA
style). Here is an example of the description of participants:
The participants in the study were from diverse ethnic

backgrounds. There were 12 high school students. Eight
students were African American; five were males, and three
were females. Of the five African American males, there was
one ninth-grade student, two 10th-grade students, one 11th-
grade student, and one 12th-grade student. Of the three African
American females, one was a 10th-grade student, and two were
12th-grade students. The three Latino students were all males
and in the 11th grade. The one Caucasian male student was in
the 11th grade. All of the students were enrolled in the special
day class and were previously diagnosed with emotional
disturbance (ED) or learning disability (LD). The participating
teacher and therapist were Caucasian; the teacher was from the
United States, and the therapist was originally from England.
They were both in their mid-fifties and had over 10 years of
professional experience. The two male paraeducators were
African American and Latino, respectively. (Kendall, 2006)
Intervention and Materials

The fourth and fifth sections are the Intervention and Materials (if
appropriate). In these sections, describe the intervention and instructional
materials that were used in the study and how they were developed.
These sections are necessary only if you included some sort of
intervention (i.e., experiment) in a quantitative study. In writing about the
intervention, you should describe both the independent and dependent
variables. Remember that the independent variable is the cause or
treatment that is expected to influence the dependent variable (i.e., the
outcome or effect). For example, pretend a researcher implemented an
algebra intervention with middle school students to prepare them for a
statewide assessment. In this study, the algebra intervention is the
independent variable and the dependent variable is the students’ scores
on the statewide assessment.
In our cyberbullying example study with two groups, we could compare

the effectiveness of peer mentoring versus adult mentoring on the
depression levels of adolescent targets of cyberbullying. In this study, the
independent variable is the type of mentoring treatment received, and the
two levels (e.g., groups) of the independent variable are peer mentoring
and adult mentoring. The dependent variable is the depression levels of
the adolescent targets of cyberbullying. When describing the intervention,
we would include a detailed description of what peer mentoring and adult
mentoring consisted of (the components) and how the two treatments
differed.
Here is an example of an intervention adapted from a former student’s

master’s thesis:
The independent variable measured by this study consisted of

the intervention program: self-awareness training, social skills
training, and increased transition planning involvement. The
component of self-awareness training was intended to increase
students’ understanding and awareness of their specific
disabilities, including knowledge of their individual strengths and
weaknesses, and ways in which they could compensate for their
disabilities. Social skills training involved the examination of
conflicts frequently encountered by students and the
development of alternative, positive solutions to these conflicts
through direct skill instruction. Lastly, interventions in the area of
transition planning required students to participate in activities
that would prepare them for a smooth transition into adult life
after high school.
The dependent variable consisted of students’ perception of

their own levels of resiliency, as defined by the researcher.
Within the dependent variable there were three categories of
student perceptions: self-awareness, social skills, and transition
planning. (Kornhauser, 2006)
planning. (Kornhauser, 2006)
Here is an example from the single-subject design study:
The independent variable was a peer-mediated shared reading

intervention designed to enhance social interactions among the
students with low-functioning autism (LFA) and their typical
peers. The Reading Buddies intervention had a peer-reading
component and a peer-reinforcement component. Centering the
intervention on shared reading was important because it
incorporated an activity that all of the students with LFA
enjoyed, encouraged social interaction related to the story, and
was an academic activity in which most children would regularly
participate.
The dependent variable in the study was the students’ with LFA
and the typical peers’ initiations and responses towards each
other. Initiations and responses were chosen as a means to
examine social interaction between participants. Initiations were
defined as any appropriate motor or vocal behavior
demonstrated by the students to gain attention or a response
from another student, including verbalizing to another student,
looking at another student’s face, touching the other student
(e.g., tapping shoulder, touching hand), presenting the book to
another student, and pointing to a picture in the book while
looking at the student. Responses were defined as any
appropriate motor or vocal behavior demonstrated by the
students that was preceded by an initiation and occurred within
10 seconds of the initiation including looking at the other
student’s face, verbalizing to the other student, smiling at the
other student, touching the other student, and giving a motor
response such as nodding head or touching a picture in the
book. (Adapted from Simpson and Bui, 2016)
In the Materials section, describe the materials that were used as part of
the intervention. Sometimes these materials are from a commercial
program and sometimes they are developed by the researcher.
Remember to describe the materials in enough detail so that the reader
could replicate or adapt the intervention. A good idea is to include a
sample of the materials in the appendix of the thesis, so be sure to keep
records and clean copies of everything that you used (see Chapter 10 for
APA style).
Here is an example of a description of materials:
Here is an example of a description of materials:
Three main types of instructional materials were used during the

intervention for self-awareness, social skills, and transition
planning. Instructional materials to improve students’ levels of
self-awareness were developed by the researcher. These
lessons focused on the study and understanding of students’
disabilities, including strengths and weaknesses presented by
the disabilities, and ways in which they could compensate for
their weaknesses. In addition, students watched a video and
used Internet resources to help them understand and gain
insight into their disabilities.
Curriculum used in the social skill development lessons was

taken from Skillstreaming the Adolescent (Goldstein &
McGinnis, 1997). Lessons in this area consisted of activities in
which students were required to examine their behaviors in
situations involving conflict and discover positive ways in which
they could approach these situations. Social skills instruction
during these lessons involved components of modeling,
discussion, role-play, and feedback.
The transition planning series of lessons was developed by the

researcher and drawn from the transition planning curriculum
mandated by the school district for all students receiving special
education services. The curriculum involved direct instruction
that focused on services available to individuals and use of the
Internet as a tool to gather information. The curriculum also
focused on career planning and independent living after
graduation from high school (see Appendix B for sample
lessons and materials). (Kornhauser, 2006)
Measurement Instruments
The sixth section is a description of the Measurement Instruments, tools
that the researcher used to collect data. Examples of measurement
instruments include: questionnaire/scale, behavioral checklist, interview,
focus group, observation protocol, public documents or records, tests,
survey, interest inventory, and so on. In this section, there should be a
title and brief description of each measurement instrument and how the
instrument was scored or interpreted. You can decide the order of
presentation of the measurement instruments, although I typically discuss
the instruments in the order they appear within the research questions.
The presentation of the measurement instrument in Chapter Three
represents a ladder, and each rung represents one measurement
instrument (see Figure 7.2 for a depiction of the ladder for Chapter
Three). Keep in mind that you will keep the same order for Chapters Four
and Five. To represent this visually, I use the three parallel ladders
strategy to represent the order of the measurement instruments across
the three chapters (see Figure 7.3 for a depiction of the three parallel
ladders strategy for Chapters Three, Four, and Five). The actual
measurement instruments will be included in the appendix of the thesis,
so be sure to keep clean copies of all the instruments that you use (see
Chapter 10 for APA style).
As mentioned, there are many different kinds of measurement

instruments that can be used, and the one(s) that you select depends on
the research design and research question in your study. For example, in
quantitative studies, researchers commonly use performance measures
(e.g., tests), attitude scales (e.g., surveys), and structured behavior
checklists (especially for studies that measure changes in behaviors). In
qualitative studies, observations, interviews, and focus groups are
commonly used.
Figure 7.2 Ladder for Chapter Three.
Description
Figure 7.3 The three parallel ladders strategy for Chapters

Three, Four, and Five.
There are at least three kinds of measurement instruments that can be
used to collect data. The first kind is those tools that already exist and are
available for public use (there will usually be a fee to use or score the
instrument). An advantage of a standardized instrument is that it has
been used widely in the field and validated for a particular purpose. For
example, in education, the Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Achievement
(Wendling, Schrank, & Schmitt, 2007) is a standardized battery of tests
that measure academic achievement. A disadvantage of using existing
measurement instruments is that they may not measure exactly what you
want to study or need to answer your research questions. The second
kind of measurement instrument is collecting data that are normally
collected. This is helpful for students’ master’s theses because it saves
time and resources since the data are already being collected for other
purposes. For example, in business and management, companies often
keep records of employee absences. A researcher might want to explore
the relationship between the frequency of employee absences and their
level of personal productivity. The third kind of measurement instrument
is a researcher-made instrument. Oftentimes, researchers will modify an
existing instrument or use parts of different instruments. This is very
common in students’ master’s theses and sometimes preferable to
standardized measures because it can be developed to be more
“sensitive” to what is being studied. For example, a marriage and family
therapist might want to develop her own survey to measure clients’
satisfaction around a new communication technique she developed for
family members. Keep in mind that if you are modifying an existing
instrument, you need to receive permission to do so from the original
author of the instrument. You will also have to pilot the modified
instrument to make sure that it is valid and reliable (see more about this
below).
In describing the measurement instruments, provide enough information

so that the reader is able to replicate the study or interpret the results.
For a quantitative measure such as a test or survey, this includes a title
and a description of what the instrument measures, how it is
administered, how many items and format of items, sample items, how it
is scored, and any standardized benchmarks or norms. For a qualitative
measure such as an observation or interview protocol, include a
description of what it measures, how it is administered, type and number
of questions asked, and sample items.
Here is an example description of one standardized test measure:
The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Oral

Reading Fluency (DORF; Good & Kaminski, 2002) assessment
was used to measure students’ fluency scores both before and
after the intervention. The DORF is a standardized test that
measures students’ fluency and accuracy with leveled reading
material. Students are given the test individually, and they read
three passages aloud for one minute each. During this time, the
administrator marks any omissions, substitutions, or hesitations
(longer than three seconds) as errors. Self-corrections that are
made within three seconds are not counted as errors. The
median number of correct words per minute read on all three
passages constitutes the student’s oral reading fluency rate.
The DORF has benchmarks for each grade level. The

benchmark goal for students in spring of first grade is 40 words
per minute, the goal for students in spring of second grade is 90
words per minute, and the goal for students in spring of third
grade is 110 words per minute. Students scoring below 10 in
spring of first grade, below 50 in second grade, and below 70 in
the spring of third grade are considered at-risk and require
intensive instruction. (Irey, 2008)
Here is an example description of an observation checklist:
The researcher used an observation checklist to collect data.

The purpose of the observation checklist was to describe the
students’, therapist’s, teacher’s, and paraeducators’
communicative behaviors. The observations were conducted at
five different times for an hour and a half for each observation,
totaling 7.5 hours of observation. The behaviors observed for
the school staff were yelling, frowning, smiling, laughter,
physical contact, close proximity to student, medium proximity to
student, long-range proximity, fat words, muscle words, negative
comments, positive comments, rejection to requests, positive
ultimatums, negative ultimatums, negative consequences,
positive consequences, directives with no choice, and directives
with a choice. The behaviors observed in the students were
yelling, frowning, smiling, laughter, physical contact, close
proximity to staff, medium proximity to staff, long-range
proximity to staff, fat words (i.e., directives that are low in
contextual cues), muscle words (i.e., directives that are high in
contextual cues), negative comments, positive comments,
posturing, horse play, or physical violence. Physical contact,
rejection to requests, posturing, horse play, and physical
violence all required a detailed description, including antecedent
and subsequent behaviors, to describe the effect and nature of
the behaviors (including verbal/nonverbal, voice tone, laughter,
frowning, etc.). The communicative behaviors were tallied to
produce a frequency count of each type of behavior. In addition,
descriptive and reflective comments with regards to the
communicative behaviors were noted on the observation
checklist. (Kendall, 2006)
Validity and reliability
The last part of this section is a description of the measurement

instrument’s validity and reliability. Validity refers to the extent to which
the instrument measures what it was intended to measure. If a
measurement instrument is not valid for the intended purpose, then it will
be difficult to interpret the results in a meaningful way. A standardized
achievement test such as the Woodcock Johnson III is a good example
of a measure that has strong validity data. Just be sure to follow the
standardized procedures for administration and scoring, as straying from
these procedures will decrease the validity of the results. If you create
your own measurement instrument, two ways to increase the validity is to
pilot it with a small group and have content experts in the field review it
and make any necessary adjustments.
Reliability refers to the extent to which an instrument consistently
measures what it was intended to measure. If the measure (or individuals
scoring the measure) has strong reliability, then you should get similar
results every time it is administered. Reliability is very important when
using two alternate forms of a test or when the scoring or interpretation of
the measure is subjective (e.g., coding observations or open-ended
questions). If you have two or more people scoring or coding the
measures, it is especially critical to have a rubric and do some interrater
reliability training beforehand to increase reliability. When conducting
interrater reliability, two or more individuals independently score the
same observation and then compare their scores with each other to see
how similar or different they are. Keep in mind that a valid measure is
always reliable but a reliable measure is not always valid. In other words,
you could consistently be measuring the wrong thing over and over! In
writing about the validity and reliability of a measurement instrument, be
sure to describe how you considered these two issues and amended the
instruments if necessary.
Here is an example description of the validity and reliability of some

measurement instruments:
The validity and reliability of the DORF and the McLeod

Assessment of Reading Comprehension assessments have
previously been established (Good & Kaminski, 2002; McLeod &
McLeod, 1999), and each measure has been tested to ensure
that the passages are correctly leveled to each grade level. To
establish validity with the prosody checklist, it was used prior to
the intervention with students at different reading levels to
ensure that it measured all of the aspects it was intended to
measure and was appropriate for all reading levels. To check its
reliability, it was administered multiple times with the same
students during a short period of time (so their skill level did not
change) and modified as needed until it yielded similar scores
on multiple trials. The same procedures were completed with
the attitude survey. (Irey, 2008)
Here is an example description of interrater reliability procedures adapted

Here is an example description of interrater reliability procedures adapted
from a former student’s master’s thesis:
Another teacher from the researcher’s school was enlisted to

grade 25% of the reading comprehension tests to ensure
interrater reliability. The teacher was chosen because he had
read all of the graphic novels used in the study, had taught each
of the students, and had a good relationship with the researcher.
The teacher was given one test from each group for each
phase, totaling eight tests, which were chosen at random by the
researcher. He was blind to the conditions of the study. The
teacher was instructed by the researcher to use the rubric to
grade each test. The researcher trained him to use the rubric by
providing him with a sample test and guiding him in using the
rubric to answer each question. He was also instructed to mark
items as correct when the participants’ answers contained
synonyms to the rubric answers. Moreover, he was shown by
the researcher where and how to mark the scores of each test.
Interrater reliability was established using a point-by-point
analysis. The teacher scored eight reading comprehension
assessments using a rubric given to him by the researcher. The
researcher compared her scores of the same eight assessments
to the scores of the teacher. For each question the researcher
and the teacher matched, a percentage point was awarded. A
percentage of agreement was assigned to each assessment.
(Gomes, 2008)
Procedure
The seventh section is the Procedure. In this section, describe the data
collection and procedures used to conduct the study. In other words,
explain how the data were collected and the procedures that were
followed throughout the study. This includes procedures for administering
measurement instruments, details of implementation for any intervention
(e.g., length of treatment, time of day), and difference of conditions in
treatment groups (if there were multiple groups). As mentioned, there are
many different ways to collect data depending on the research design
and research questions. However, detailed descriptions in this section
are extremely important for both credibility and replicability purposes.
For a qualitative study, data collection could involve conducting
observations, interviews, focus groups, or researching documents,
artifacts, and audiovisual materials (Creswell, 2013). In writing this
section, you need to explain exactly how these data collection activities
were conducted. For example, if you conducted observations, describe
the conditions in which you conducted the observations (e.g., time, place,
frequency), your role as the observer (e.g., participant or nonparticipant
observer), and how field notes were recorded.
Here is a description of data collection from a qualitative study:
The data were collected through observations and interviews.

The observations were collected under natural, non-
manipulative settings using an observation checklist (see
Appendix B). The observations of the participants were
conducted in their classroom which was the natural setting. The
researcher was a nonparticipant observer and sat in the back of
the room to avoid any interference to the setting. The data
collection process took place over a five-week time period.
Observations took place once per week for a one and a half
hour time period, totaling five observations (7.5 hours of
observation time). The interviews were conducted at the school
site, and the procedure did not disrupt the participants’ normal,
daily, classroom activities. The interviews were conducted with
the participants individually during their lunch or preparation
period in a different classroom, using the interview protocol (see
Appendix B). Each interview was tape-recorded for accuracy
and lasted between 30 and 45 minutes. (Kendall, 2006)
To describe the data collection procedures in a quantitative study, it is

easiest to describe each phase of the study. For example, in an
experimental study, you could divide the procedures into phases using
the following subheadings: pretest, intervention, and posttest; baseline
and intervention. In the pretest phase, describe any procedures that were
implemented prior to the intervention. This includes any measurement
instruments that were administered as a pretest or pre-intervention
actions such as meeting with the participants or training service
providers.
Here is an example of the pretest phase adapted from a former student’s
master’s thesis:
Each of the measurement instruments was administered to
students two weeks prior to the intervention. The two reading
comprehension measures were administered individually. The
student was given a story to read silently (see Appendix B).
Before the student read, the researcher prompted, “Please read
this story carefully to yourself. As you read try to remember as
much as you can. When you are done, I will ask you to retell the
story back to me in your own words. I will also ask you some
questions about the story.” After the student read the story
silently, he was prompted, “Now, please tell the story back to me
in your own words.” The student’s retelling was tape-recorded,
then transcribed, and used to score the story retelling checklist.
At the conclusion of the retelling, the student was then
prompted, “Now I am going to ask you some questions about
the story.” The researcher completed the story grammar
checklist as the student responded to the questions. All
responses were also tape-recorded in case they needed to be
reviewed by the researcher later.
The motivation survey was administered to the students as a

whole group. Before each administration, the students were
prompted, “This is a survey about reading. Each question will
tell you the way some people feel about reading. Under each
question are five statements: a lot like me, a little like me, not
sure, a little different from me, and very different from me. Fill in
the bubble that shows how you feel about the question. Stop
and think about each question before you answer. You will have
as much time as you need to finish all the questions. This is not
a test and does not count toward your grade. Please take each
question seriously and answer it as honestly as you can.” At the
completion of the administration, surveys were collected and
scored by the researcher. (Nixon, 2004)
In the posttest phase, describe any procedures that were implemented

after the intervention. This includes any measurement instruments that
were administered as a posttest or post-intervention actions such as a
follow-up meeting with the participants. These procedures can be similar
to the pretest phase, although sometimes researchers may implement
additional measures that were not given during the pretest phase.
Here is an example of the description of the posttest phase:

Each of the measurement instruments was administered two
weeks after the completion of the intervention. On the reading
comprehension measures, students were asked to
independently read a different story than the one used on the
pretest but at the same reading level (see Appendix C). Posttest
administration procedures for all these measurements were the
same as those used for the pretest. (Nixon, 2004)
In a single subject design study, you would describe the procedures

during the baseline and intervention phases. This includes the frequency
and duration of the sessions of the intervention and any measurement
instruments that were administered.
Here is an example of a description from the single-subject design study:
To introduce the two classes to each other at the first baseline

session, the teachers and researcher again facilitated a short
discussion about how everyone was both alike and different.
Then the students were told who was in their reading buddy
group, and instructed to find their buddies, choose a book and
go to their assigned place (e.g., small table, floor, desk area) to
read. Students were not given any directions about how to
interact with each other. Classroom teachers and staff
intervened only if students needed to be redirected for
inappropriate behavior. Groups read with each other for 15
minutes over four baseline sessions.
The intervention one phase occurred over six sessions. During

the first intervention session, the researcher and teachers taught
all of the students the three steps of the Reading Buddies
intervention using a picture chart, modeling, role-play, and
discussion. Individual students were called upon to explain the
steps of the intervention to other students, and to roleplay what
it meant to be a good reading buddy. Students were shown how
to use the happy face card to let their peers know they were
doing a good job, and were reminded that they could earn a
sticker for their own appropriate participation. Students then
chose any desired book and read with the other members of
their buddy group for 15 minutes, following a semi-structured
format of 5 minutes for each book. Each subsequent session of
the intervention phase began with a review of the three steps by
the teachers and researcher using modeling, role-play and
the teachers and researcher using modeling, role-play and
discussion. Students were also reminded to use the
reinforcement system (e.g., “Remember to tell your buddy when
they are doing a good job.”). (Adapted from Simpson and Bui,
2016)
Data Analysis
The eighth section is the Data Analysis. In this section, describe the
procedures that were used to analyze the data from the study. The
methods used to analyze the data depend on the research design,
research questions, measurement instruments, and the type of data that
were collected. Just as there are numerous ways to collect data, there
are also many different ways to analyze data. One suggestion that I give
students is to analyze the data so that they can answer the research
questions! For example, if one of the research questions asks whether
the participants changed their behavior before and after the study, then
one of the procedures for data analysis needs to be a comparison of the
pre- and post-data. If the research question asks about the participants’
understanding of a situation, then the data analysis should involve
descriptions from interviews or observations.
In qualitative studies where the data are mostly narrative, data analysis
typically involves a categorizing strategy through coding (Maxwell, 2013).
Coding allows you to label and group the data into meaningful chunks.
“Coding categories are a means of sorting the descriptive data you have
collected . . . so that the material bearing on a given topic can be
physically separated from other data” (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003, p. 161).
This is necessary to interpret the data and draw out the major themes. A
simple analogy would be sorting a pile of clothing to launder by color
(lights or darks) or by temperature (hot or cold water). Throughout the
data analysis process, qualitative researchers also write memos to
themselves, keep reflective journals, and audio record their thoughts on
an ongoing basis. I discuss this in more detail in Chapter 8.
Here is an example of data analysis adapted from a former student’s
master’s thesis:
The collected data were transcribed and categorized in terms of

research questions and emergent themes. Specific interview
questions were matched to answer the five research questions.
A coding method was used to organize interview data into a
limited number of themes and issues around these questions.
limited number of themes and issues around these questions.
Quotations were then selected from the interviews that
illuminated the themes and concepts. Specific survey questions
were also matched to specific research study questions. Data
from the survey were also compared with the data from the
interview to see if they were in corroboration. (Stephens, 2006)
In quantitative studies where the data are numerical, data analysis

typically involves either descriptive or inferential statistics. This includes
identifying the indices that will be used to describe the data (e.g., mean,
standard deviation) or any statistical tests (e.g., t test). In single subject
design studies, the data can be analyzed by visually inspecting the
graphed data. I discuss quantitative data analysis in more detail in
Chapter 8.
Here is an example of quantitative data analysis:
Two methods of quantitative data analysis were used in this

study. The results of the reading comprehension tests were
analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
The participants’ reading comprehension tests were divided into
two subgroups for data analysis purposes: Group 1 was the
students’ mean test score after having read a graphic novel with
illustrations, and Group 2 was the students’ mean test score
after having read a text-version of the stories. Statistical analysis
using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
software was conducted on these two subgroups to identify the
range, mean, and standard deviation for each group. An
independent samples t test was then conducted to compare the
mean scores and to identify if there was a significant difference
between the two subgroups’ mean scores.
The results from the reading motivation survey were analyzed
descriptively. The use of zoomerang.com enabled the
researcher to immediately view compiled results from the
reading motivation survey. The results were reported in three
ways: actual number of respondents, the percentages, and as
bar graphs. The results were reviewed item-by-item by the
researcher. The results could not be looked at by individual
participants since zoomerang.com compiled all the responses
together as a group. Therefore, the researcher had to analyze
the results by looking at the total number of responses to each
individual question on the presurvey and comparing them to the
total number of responses to each individual question on the
total number of responses to each individual question on the
postsurvey. (Gomes, 2008)
Here is an example of single-subject data analysis:
Single-subject data analysis was used to compare the students’

initiations and responses across baseline and intervention
phases, including visual inspection of the data for
nonoverlapping data points and a comparison of means across
conditions. (Adapted from Simpson & Bui, 2016)
Here is an example of mixed methods data analysis:
In this study, the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed

separately and then merged into one database for discussion
purposes. Correlation analyses (Pearson’s r) were used to
determine the relationship between the students’ psychological
and physical health (as measured by scores on the Beck Youth
Inventory and the Child Health Questionnaire). A correlation
analyses was conducted for the entire sample group and also
for separate gender groups. A qualitative content analysis was
conducted on the transcribed interview data to explore how the
students’ perceptions of their cyberbullying experiences had
impacted their psychological and physical health. Finally, the
quantitative and qualitative data were integrated to determine if
there were any common themes and provide possible
explanations for differences across the two gender groups.
(Adapted from Way et al., 1994)
Although you are reporting the results in Chapter Four, it is important to

describe the data analysis procedures in enough detail in Chapter Three
so that the reported results will be meaningful. This means ensuring that
for every data set collected, there is a description of how the data were
analyzed. Many students struggle with this section because of their lack
of familiarity with statistics or qualitative data analysis. If this is the case,
your chairperson and committee members may offer recommendations;
referring to a research methods textbook can also be extremely helpful.
There are some textbooks listed in the Resources.
Summary
Chapter Three is a critical chapter in the thesis because it

explains the research design and research methods that were
used in conducting your study. Chapter Three is also one of the
more enjoyable chapters to write because you are telling the story
of how you conducted your research. However, the essential
aspect of writing this chapter is to be as detailed and
comprehensive in your descriptions as possible. In doing so, you
build credibility for your study by giving the reader the opportunity
to verify, interpret, or replicate the study. In addition, you lay the
groundwork for the focus of the next two chapters in which you
will report and interpret your findings. In the next chapter, I
discuss how to write Chapter Four, Results, for your thesis. Here
is a summary of the most critical points from Chapter 7:
Three broad categories of research designs are quantitative,

qualitative, and mixed methods.
Quantitative research designs include descriptive, survey,
correlational, and experimental designs (including quasi-
experimental and single-subject).
Qualitative research designs include narrative, case study,

ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology.
Mixed methods research designs include three core designs:
convergent, explanatory sequential, and exploratory
sequential.
The Methods chapter describes and explains the research
design and research methods such as the setting,
participants, measurement instruments, procedures, and data
analysis that were used to complete the study.
The Methods chapter needs to be written with sufficient detail
to provide a context for the results and for replicability
purposes.
While conducting the study, keep a log or journal of the dates
and times that you collected data, materials or lessons that
were used, individuals that you met with, and any problems,
surprises, or changes that occurred throughout the study
The main sections are (a) Introduction, (b) Setting, (c)
Participants, (d) Intervention, (e) Materials, (f) Measurement
Instruments, (g) Procedure, and (h) Data Analysis.
You can have a random or nonrandom sample depending on

the research design, questions, and accessibility of
participants.
In writing about the intervention, you should describe the

independent and dependent variables.
There are at least three kinds of measurement instruments

that can be used to collect data: (a) existing instrument
available for public use, (b), data that are normally collected,
and (c) researcher-made instrument.
Examples of measurement instruments include:

questionnaire/scale, behavioral checklist, interview, focus
group, observation protocol, public documents or records,
tests, survey, interest inventory, and so on.
The measurement instruments should be valid and reliable.
Data collection/procedures include how the measurement

instruments were administered, details of implementation for
any intervention (e.g., length of treatment, time of day), and
difference of conditions in treatment groups (if any).
One way to analyze data is to organize the analysis around

the research questions.
Resources

Solutions
1. A common obstacle that students face in writing Chapter
Three is failing to keep adequate records about their study.
Words that come to mind are “I can’t remember everything I
did!” Since it is very likely that you will need to go back to
update and revise Chapter Three after the research has been
conducted, it is important to keep track of all the research
activities. When conducting the study, keep a log or journal of
the research activities throughout the study. There is no set
structure or format for the log, but you should write down
information about the actual procedures that you used
(especially details that you might forget about later). For
example, write down the dates and times that you collected
data, materials or lessons that were used, individuals with
whom you met, and any problems, surprises, or changes that
occurred. This will help ensure that you are implementing the
research design and methods as you described in Chapter
Three. Put dates and times on all field notes, observations,
and transcripts. This will make the process of data analysis
and writing Chapter Three more efficient and less frustrating.
In addition to keeping a log, make sure to collect detailed
information about the research site and the participants (e.g.,
demographic data). This will keep you from having to go back
to the research site to retrieve this information. Remember to
keep all collected data in labeled folders and in a safe place
away from the research site (e.g., locked file cabinet in your
home). You have confidential and personal information
related to your participants, so you need to protect the data
as much as possible. Finally, keep printed copies of any
instructional materials, lessons, measurement instruments,
audiovisual materials, field notes, and transcripts since you
will need to refer back to them. In other words, do not throw
any data away, ever, and always BACK UP YOUR WORK. In
this day and age where computers are prone to viruses and
hard drives crash on a whim, you do not want your master’s
thesis to be the victim of a “fatal system error” (also known as
the “Blue Screen of Death”).
2. Another common obstacle faced by students is data
overload. Often students will enjoy the data collection
process (especially when interacting with participants), but
when the study is over, they end up with piles and piles of
data. Words that come to mind are “What am I going to do
with all these data?” When conducting research, more data
are not always better. What is most important is that you
collect enough accurate data to answer the research
questions. In fact, having an overabundance of data may
diffuse your research, especially when the data are not
related to the research problem or questions. One way to
reduce this problem is to align the measurement instruments
with the research questions from the very beginning. For
example, if you are using an interview protocol, try to identify
which items for the interview will help you answer specific
research questions (of course, you will always have initial
buffer questions to build rapport that may not be related to
the research questions). If you are using tests or surveys,
make sure the items capture the essence of what is being
asked in the research question.
Before you conduct your study, it is important to identify the
measurement instruments for data collection. Then, to write
Chapter Three, you need to be able to “report” how the data were
collected for replicability purposes. The following
reflection/discussion questions will help guide you through these
two processes.
1. What are the different kinds of measurement instruments that

can be used to collect data? Give examples of measurement
instruments that would be appropriate for your type of
research design. Then pick a specific measurement
instrument and discuss how you could use it in your study to
collect data and how to make it valid and reliable.
2. Why is replicability important in research? Give examples of
what information is critical to include in Chapter Three so that
another researcher could replicate your study.
Try It Exercises
Three. In Activity One, you will outline the major sections of
Chapter Three and begin to flesh out the components. In Activity
Two, you will develop or find a measurement instrument that you
could use for data collection.
1. Activity One: For this activity, focus on your research

proposal.
Based on your research design, create an outline of the
major sections that you will include in Chapter Three
(e.g., setting, sample).
For each section, write at least three bullet points (they

do not have to be complete sentences) about what you
will include in the section (or information that you need to
retrieve). For example, what is your sampling plan? Who
will be the participants in your study? What
measurement instruments will you use? How will you
collect data?
2. Activity Two: For this activity, focus on one measurement

instrument that you will use to collect data.
Find an existing measurement instrument or modify one

that you will use to collect data for your study.
If you want to use a survey, develop or find a self-

administered instrument that you can give or send to a
group of people to measure attitudes, perceptions,
behavior, and so on.
If you want to conduct an interview, create a list of
questions to ask the research participant.
If you want to do structured observations, create an

observation checklist that you would use to observe,
assess, tally, or otherwise document an event in a
natural setting (e.g., behavior).
If you want to use a cognitive test, create or find a written
test that you would use to assess knowledge or skills in a
subject area related to your research problem.
Discuss the issues related to the measurement
instrument’s validity and reliability with your chairperson.
Key Terms
convenience sample 145
generalizability 146
interrater reliability 154

purposive sample 145
random assignment 145
random sample 145

reliability 153
replicability 139
sampling 145
validity 153
Suggested Readings
Babbie, E. (2016). The practice of social research (14th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design

(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2015). Educational research: Planning,

conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research
(5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design:

Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
CA: Sage.
Decuir-Gunby, J. T., & Schutz, P. A. (2017). Developing a mixed
methods proposal: A practical guide for beginning researchers.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive
approach (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Plano Clark, V. L., & Creswell, J. W. (2008). The mixed methods

reader. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Simpson, L. A., & Bui, Y. N. (2016). Effects of a peer-mediated
intervention on social interactions of students with low-functioning
autism and perceptions of typical peers. Education and Training in
Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 51(2), 162–178.
Web Links
Basic Business Research Methods
https://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/index.htm
Organization Your Social Sciences Research Paper (University of

Southern California Research Guide)
http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide
SAGE Research Methods
http://methods.sagepub.com/
Web Center for Social Research Methods
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net

Back to Figure
The eight squares read:
Introduction.
Setting.
Participants.
Participants.
Intervention.
Materials.
Measurement instruments.
Procedure.
Data analysis.
Back to Figure
The table below shows the titled and text on each of the rungs of the
three parallel ladders seen in this image:
Chapter three: Chapter four: Chapter five:

Rungs
Methods. Results. Discussion.
Rung Instrument 1 Instrument 2 Instrument 3

1

2

2
An arrow from each of the rungs on the first ladder, points to the
respective rung on the second ladder.
An arrow from each of the rungs on the second ladder, points to the
respective rung on the third ladder.
8 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER FOUR,
RESULTS AND FINDINGS

Chapter Four Sections 169
Quantitative Data 169
Descriptive Statistics 171
Measures of Central Tendency 171
Measures of Variability 173
Additional Ways to Report Data Descriptively 176
Inferential Statistics 178
Tests of Significance 178
Independent-Samples t Test 178
Paired-Samples t Test 181
Qualitative Data 183
Major Themes and Patterns 183

Validity of Findings 189
Mixed Methods Data 190
Summary 190
Resources 191
Key Terms 194
Web Links 194
However beautiful the strategy, you should occasionally look at

the results.
—Sir Winston Churchill
If you have completed Chapter Three and are ready to write Chapter
Four, this means that you have finished collecting all your research data
—bravo! You are more than halfway finished with the thesis, so keep the
momentum going (and the coffee brewing). This chapter will focus on
how to write Chapter Four, Results and Findings, of the thesis. In
Chapter Four, you will report the study’s results (for quantitative studies)
or findings (for qualitative studies) or a combination of both (for mixed
methods); in doing so, you will apply what you have learned from your
data collection and analysis. In essence, this is the meat of your thesis.
After all the blood, sweat, tears, eye strain, and hair pulling, what did you
find out?
Chapter Four, Results, is an essential component of the master’s thesis
because you will report the outcomes of the study. This means reporting
the results of the data analysis for each variable, data collection method,
or measurement instrument that was used in the study (always keeping
in mind the research questions). Therefore, you should have already
in mind the research questions). Therefore, you should have already
consulted with your chairperson for the data analysis methodology. On
occasion, you may need to make adjustments to the analysis or do
additional analysis due to participants dropping out, and so on, before
reporting the results. Depending on the research design and questions,
the presentation of the results can be in narrative, numerical,
tabular/graphic format, or a mixture of them all. For example, if you
collected quantitative (i.e., numerical) data, the results will be reported in
statistical or tabular/graphic format. These results are reported in a
straightforward manner, the writing style is technical, and they can be
monotonous. If you collected qualitative (i.e., nonnumerical) data, the
findings will be reported in narrative and sometimes tabular and/or
graphic format. You will provide thick descriptions of the data to paint a
narrative “picture” for the reader. Chapter Four needs to be written with
sufficient detail for replicability purposes in case someone wants to verify
the results. In addition, how you report and organize the results here will
determine how you interpret and discuss them in Chapter Five.

There are several tasks that need to be completed before you begin to
write. First, Chapter Four will be organized parallel to Chapter Three.
Thus, I highly recommend that you make any final revisions to Chapter
Three before writing Chapter Four. Second, make sure that all the data
have been organized and analyzed according to the research questions.
This will make the writing process go much faster. Typically, I advise
students to analyze data collected from every measurement instrument
(e.g., survey, test, interview, observation) to ensure nothing is
overlooked. Depending on the data collected, this can involve simple
scoring procedures and applying statistical tests or coding data and
finding emerging themes. Third, if you are still struggling with data
analysis, seek help from your chairperson. She can show you the best
way to analyze the data or refer you to someone else. Your program or
institution may also offer help with data analysis using a statistical
software program for quantitative data (e.g., SPSS, SAS, R) or software
computer programs to help code and analyze qualitative data (e.g.,
NVivo, Altas.ti, QDA Miner Lite). There are often free trial periods and
tutorials available; definitely check with your library first before you
purchase anything.
CHAPTER FOUR SECTIONS
Once you have analyzed all the data, you can start to write Chapter Four.
Chapter Four starts on a new page in the thesis. Remember that writing a
master’s thesis is like telling the “story” of your research study. In Chapter
Four, you are telling the main events (in this case, main findings) of the
research study. However, unlike the first three chapters, there are no
predetermined sections except for a brief introduction. This is because
the sections in Chapter Four are dependent on the research design,
research questions, and the specific data that were collected. These will
vary from study to study. Although there are no predetermined sections,
there are common organizational strategies that are used to report the
results. Keep in mind that although the sections are written and
discussed separately, they are intertwined, and collectively they form the
results or findings of the study. Check with your chairperson for how he
or she wants you to organize the sections in Chapter Four.
To guide you in writing Chapter Four, I discuss how to report results for
quantitative and qualitative data separately. The rationale for discussing
them separately is that the data analysis and reporting procedures are
very distinct. However, for mixed methods studies, your data analysis
and reporting may actually be integrated together. I also provide
examples from different types of studies adapted from former students’
completed master’s theses. You will notice that the examples are written
in the past tense to indicate that the data have already been collected
and analyzed.
QUANTITATIVE DATA
If you collected quantitative data, I recommend that you organize Chapter
Four by reporting the results from each research question or
measurement instrument into separate sections. For example, if you had
three research questions that used three measurement instruments, such
as a test, survey, and an observation checklist, you would report the
results in three separate sections with a subheading for each. You also
want to report the results in the same order that the research question or
measurement instruments appeared in Chapter Three. Remember to use
the three parallel ladders strategy from Chapter 7 (see Figure 8.1 for a
depiction of the parallel ladders strategy for Chapters Three and Four).
This will make it easier for you to write and less confusing for the reader.
Description
Figure 8.1 The parallel ladders strategy for Chapters Three

and Four.
When faced with a quantitative data set, researchers need a way to
organize the data and display the results to others. Otherwise, the
process of reporting the raw data would be overwhelming. There are two
main ways to analyze and report quantitative data collected from a
sample group—using descriptive or inferential statistics. The type of data
collected and the research questions will determine how you should
analyze and report the data from each measurement instrument. For
example, if the data were collected from a survey, you would likely report
the data using descriptive statistics. If the data were collected from an
experimental study, you would likely report the data using descriptive and
inferential statistics. As part of your master’s program, I assume that you
have already taken a research methods course with an introduction to
statistics. Now is a good time to review those class notes! This
discussion is a review to focus on the statistical procedures that are
commonly used in a master’s thesis. I discuss each type of statistical
discussion is a review to focus on the statistical procedures that are
commonly used in a master’s thesis. I discuss each type of statistical
analysis and reporting separately and share some examples from
students’ completed theses.
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics refers to “a set of concepts and methods used in
organizing, summarizing, tabulating, depicting, and describing collections
of data” (Shavelson, 1996, p. 8). As the definition implies, researchers
use this type of statistical analysis to describe the data set that was
collected from the sample. Think of descriptive statistics as describing a
picture of the quantitative results in a way that is comprehensible and
meaningful for the reader.
Measures of central tendency
One major type of descriptive statistics is the measure of central

tendency. The measure of central tendency is the “typical” or “average”
score in a distribution. This is important because when you are looking at
a large set of scores, there is too much information to digest. Knowing
the typical or average score gives you a general sense of how the
sample group fared. Usually, when someone says “average,” I tend to
think of the arithmetic mean. The mean is one type of measure of central
tendency. The mode and the median are also measures of central
tendency.
To help clarify and apply these concepts, I use a basketball example (I’m
sure football would work, too). I select my favorite team, the Golden State
Warriors, and my all-time favorite point guard, Stephen Curry (when it is
your turn, you can pick your own team and player). From the 2009–2010
season through the 2017–2018 season (and hopefully for 10 more
years), Curry was the starting point guard for the Warriors. Knowing his
total career points gives an overall picture of him as a Hall of Fame point
guard, but they do not show the pattern or trends of his nine seasons with
the Warriors. It also doesn’t show his wizardry as a three-point shooter.
Using Curry’s basketball statistics (rounded to the nearest whole number)
on the chart as a sample group, I apply some basic descriptive statistical
measures, explain how to calculate them, and discuss what these
measures tell us about the data set.
Games Total Points per 3-Point Field Goals per

Season
Games Total Points per 3-Point Field Goals per
Season
Played Game Game
2009– 80 18 5
2010
2010– 74 19 5
2011
2011– 26 (injury) 15 5
2012
2012– 78 23 8
2013
2013– 78 24 8
2014
2014– 80 24 8
2015
2015– 79 30 (Wow!) 11 (Yowsers!)

2016
2016– 79 25 10
2017
2017– 51 (injury) 26 10
2018
The first measure of central tendency I address is the mode. The mode
is the most common or most frequently occurring score in the distribution.
To obtain the mode, simply go through the column and see which
number appeared most frequently. For example, if I look at the total
points per game from 2009 to 2018, 24 is the mode because it appeared
two times, whereas all the other numbers appeared only once. Keep in
mind that you can have more than one mode (bimodal), and the mode is
not always the largest value.
Another measure of central tendency is the median. The median is the

middle score in the distribution or the score that divides the distribution in
half (50% above and 50% below). To obtain the median, I put the scores
in order of magnitude from least to greatest. If there is an even number of
scores, the median is the score value in the middle of the group. If there
is an odd number of scores, the median is the score value halfway
between the two middle scores. For example, to find the median number
of Curry’s 3-point field goals per game, I first need to put the numbers in
order from least to greatest:
5 5 5 8 8 8 10 10 11
Since there is an odd number of scores, I can simply find the number in
the middle, which is 8. This means that 50% of the numbers of 3-point
shots are above and below 8. If there was an even number of scores, I
would use the “magic finger trick,” where I point two fingers at the outer
ends and go in toward the center. Then I would find the value that is
halfway by adding the two middle numbers and dividing by two.
Finally, the most commonly used measure of central tendency is the

mean. The mean is the arithmetic average and calculated by the sum of
the scores divided by the number of scores in the distribution. For
example, to find the mean number of games that Curry played, I add up
all the games and then divide the sum by the number of seasons.
(80 + 74 + 26 + 78 + 78 + 80 + 79 + 79 + 51)/9 = 69.4
This tells me that throughout his career with the Golden State Warriors,
Stephen Curry had a mean of 69.4 games played per season. Now that
you know how to calculate measures of central tendency to confirm what
a spectacular basketball player guard Curry is, how would you apply
them to data from your master’s thesis? Basically, when you have a set
of scores, you should report a measure of central tendency as part of
your results to inform the reader about the average score. The scores
can be for any variable (e.g., height, weight, achievement level, self-
esteem, heart rates) and from a variety of sources such as tests, surveys,
observation checklists, and so on. Typically, for the master’s thesis, I
recommend that students report the mean score because it is the most
commonly used and takes into account every score in the data set.
However, the mode and the median can also be appropriate (depending
on the type of data that were collected) if the distribution is positively or
negatively skewed.
Measures of variability
Knowing the measure of central tendency is important, but it does not

give enough information about the data. For example, calculate the mean
for each of the two groups of students’ math test scores below.
Group A: 5 8 7 10 5
Group B: 8 1 5 14 7
The mean score for each group is 7. Based on this information, I could
assume that the two groups of students did similarly well on the math test
since they have the same mean score. Now, put the scores in order of
magnitude:
Group A: 5 5 7 8 10
Group B: 1 5 7 8 14
If the maximum test score is 15, notice how the scores in Group A are
closer together while the scores in Group B are more spread apart. There
is not a huge difference in performance between the students in Group A,
and they cluster closer to the mean; however, for Group B, there was one
student who received a score of 1 and one student who received almost
a perfect test score. These scores are farther from the mean. With this
information, I can see that the two groups are not very similar even
though they have the same mean. Thus, knowing only the measure of
though they have the same mean. Thus, knowing only the measure of
central tendency (e.g., mean) is only part of the picture and can be
misleading.
If you are describing a set of scores, you also need to report the measure
of variability. A measure of variability indicates how close or spread
apart (i.e., dispersed) the scores are in a distribution. In other words, how
much do the scores differ from themselves and/or the mean of the
distribution? If they differ quite a bit (scores are scattered), then there is a
lot of variability. If they are pretty similar (scores are clustered), then
there is less variability. There are many different kinds of measures of
variability, but for the purpose of the thesis, I discuss only the range and
standard deviation since they are the most relevant.
The range is one measure of variability that you are probably already
familiar with. The range is the difference between the largest and
smallest scores in a distribution. You can calculate the range by
subtracting the smallest score from the largest score. For Group A, the
range is 10 – 5 = 5. What is the range for Group B? That’s right. The
range for Group B is 14 – 1 = 13. In comparing the two groups, Group B
has a larger range, and the scores are more spread apart than Group A’s
scores. However, the range is of limited use because it only looks at two
scores, the largest and smallest scores, and does not take into
consideration the other scores in the distribution.
A more commonly used measure of variability is the elusive standard

deviation. The standard deviation indicates how much the scores vary
from the mean in a distribution. The formula for the standard deviation is
the square root of the variance, which is the average squared deviation of
each number from its mean. Huh? Don’t worry—it is not critical for you to
calculate the standard deviation by hand because most computer
programs or calculators will do it for you (although I think you would enjoy
it). However, it is important to understand what it means in interpreting
the results. Basically, if the standard deviation is small, then the scores
are closer to the mean. If the standard deviation is large, then the scores
are more spread apart from the mean. For example, look at the two
normal distributions on the graph in Figure 8.2. They both have a mean
of 50, but Distribution A is tall and skinny with a standard deviation of 5
whereas Distribution B is short and wide with a standard deviation of 10.
This means that the scores in the Distribution A are closer to the mean,
and the scores in the Distribution B are more spread apart from the
mean. If I had graphed the two earlier datasets of Groups A and B, it
would be a similar picture with Group A as Distribution A and Group B as
Distribution B.
Since the standard deviation is in relation to the mean, it is critical to
report them together (you should also include the sample size). Within
APA format, this can be done in several ways (Kahn, n.d.). If you want to
use abbreviations, they would be italicized, within parentheses, or at the
end of the sentence. Here are the appropriate abbreviations to use: mean
= M and standard deviation = SD. For example, “The 10 students in
Group A had a higher mean score at the end of the intervention, M = 18,
SD = 2.3.” If there are two groups, then you can write, “The 10 students
in Group A had a higher mean score (M = 18, SD = 2.3) than the 10
students in Group B (M = 14, SD = 1.7).” You can also write statistics
spelled out as the subject of a sentence. For example, “The mean score
on the math test for the 10 students in Group A was 18, and the standard
deviation was 2.3.” No matter which format you choose, remember to
always report the sample size, mean score, and the standard deviation
whenever possible.
Description
Figure 8.2 Normal distributions with different standard

deviations.
Adapted from David Lane, “Measures of Variability.” Connexions, July 7, 2003
<http://cnx.org/content/m10947/2.3/>. CC-BY 4.0 License,
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Here is an example of results using descriptive statistics adapted from a

former student’s master’s thesis:
The two measurement tools for social skill levels assessed
students on their ability to perform 23 social skill tasks. These
tasks ranged from making eye contact when speaking to
someone to asking appropriately for help from an adult when
needed. The first measurement tool was the teacher ranking
survey in which the students’ two teachers ranked the students
individually on how well they were able to perform on each of
the 23 social skill tasks. The only score generated from this
survey was a total score. The range of scores for the teacher
ranking survey was 36 (minimum 33, maximum 69). The mean
total score of the teacher ranking survey was 52.29 points with a
standard deviation of 10.13.
The second measurement tool for social skill levels was the
student self-rating questionnaire. Similar to the teacher ranking
survey, the student self-rating questionnaire also assessed how
well students could perform social skill tasks. However, the
student self-rating questionnaire relied on the 14 students to
rate their own ability to perform the tasks. The range of scores
for the student self-rating questionnaire was 50 (minimum 64,
maximum 114). The mean total score of the student self-rating
questionnaire was 88.50 with a standard deviation of 13.24.
(Henderson, 2007)
Additional ways to report data descriptively
In addition to measures of central tendency and variability, there are

other ways to report quantitative data descriptively. This depends on the
research questions and design as well as the intended message you
want to convey to the reader. For example, you could report individual
scores, percentages, frequency counts, and so on. I recommend that you
include tables, charts, and figures as a graphical representation of the
results to supplement the narrative explanation (see Chapter 10 for APA
style).
If you have a study in which the sample group has only one participant,
you would report the individual’s scores. Here is an example of results for
one participant adapted from a former student’s master’s thesis:
Throughout the fluency intervention, Amber steadily increased
the number of correct words per minute (CWPM) from baseline
to phase III. During the baseline phase, Amber read 55, 60, 65,
63, and 58 CWPM, respectively (M = 60) (see Figure 1). During
phase I, Repeated Reading, she read 64, 84, 73, 89, 89, and 84
CWPM, respectively (M = 81) (see Figure 2). During phase II,
Error Correction, she read 85, 82, 74, 85, 78, 84, and 83
CWPM, respectively (M = 82) (see Figure 3). During phase III,
Corrective Feedback, she read 76, 82, 83, 90, 87, 88, and 85
CWPM, respectively (M = 84) (see Figure 4). As indicated by
the CWPM, Amber’s mean reading rate greatly increased when
she began Repeated Reading and increased slightly with the
introduction of Error Correction and Corrective Feedback. (Irey,
2008)
If you utilized a survey as a measurement instrument, you could report

the frequency of responses in percentages across participants or for
specific items. Here is an example of survey results adapted from a
former student’s master’s thesis. In this study, the student administered
the survey before and after the intervention. Therefore, she also reported
the change in responses from her participants.
The first survey item asked students about primary language

instruction, “Being taught in Spanish at school makes me feel
good about myself.” On the preintervention survey, the mean
was 4.09 (SD = 1.37). The frequency of the responses from the
preintervention survey was: 9.1% chose “(4) A little like me,” and
63.6% chose “(5) Totally like me.” The postintervention survey
results had a mean of 4.81 (SD = 0.40). The frequency of the
responses from the postintervention survey included: 18.2% of
the students chose “(4) A little like me,” and 81.8% of the
students chose “(5) Totally like me.” The mean difference from
pre- to postintervention survey was 0.72 and the response of
“(5) Totally like me” increased by 18.2 percentage points.
(Iniguez, 2007)
If you observed participants’ behaviors across multiple phases, you could

report the individual or group data for each phase separately. Here is an
example of frequency counts from a behavior intervention study adapted
from a former student’s master’s thesis. In this study, the student had a
baseline, treatment, and withdrawal phase. Therefore, he was able to
baseline, treatment, and withdrawal phase. Therefore, he was able to
compare the behaviors among the different phases and report changes in
behaviors.
Each type of off-task behavior was observed and recorded for

the treatment phase. This information was used to determine
whether there was an increase or decrease in behaviors from
the baseline phase after the introduction of the Student Choice
treatment.
Incidents of cross-talking were observed and recorded for the

treatment phase. Data indicated that there was a decrease in
the range, total, and mean of cross-talking incidents from the
baseline phase to the treatment phase. The range was eight,
which was a decrease from 15. The total was 90, which was a
decrease of 54 incidents. The mean number of incidents was
15, which was a decrease of nine incidents.
Total number of off-task behaviors was observed and recorded

for the independent work time of the treatment phase. Data
indicated a decrease in the range, total, and mean number of
total off-task behaviors observed during independent work time
between the baseline phase and the treatment phase. The
range of observed off-task behaviors during independent work
time decreased from 21 in the baseline phase to seven in the
treatment phase. The total number of incidents decreased from
204 to 117. The mean number of incidents decreased from 34 to
19.5. (Rau, 2006)
Descriptive statistics are very useful to summarize, simplify, and describe

the data in a study. However, they are also limiting because you cannot
make any conclusions beyond the present data. For that I need to
journey into inferential statistics. This would be a good time for that coffee
and donut break.
Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics refers to “a set of methods to draw inferences
about a large group of people from data available on only a
representative subset of the group” (Shavelson, 1996, p. 8). In other
words, researchers use sample group data to make assumptions or
conclusions about the general population. This is very useful because
most of the time researchers do not have access or the resources to
collect data from the population. For example, consider how statistics are
reported on presidential elections—how do they know that 46% will vote
for Candidate A, 44% will vote for Candidate B, and 10% are undecided?
Obviously, pollsters cannot ask every single person whom he will vote for
in the next election. Instead, they ask a representative sample, apply
statistical tests, and then make inferences about the rest of the country
(remember, there is always a margin of error). Keep in mind that the
sample must be representative (best done through random sampling);
otherwise, the conclusions may be skewed toward one segment of the
population or another. Basically, it is more realistic and efficient to collect
data from a representative sample of the population to make inferences
about the population rather than include the entire population in the
study.
Tests of significance
Inferential statistics are also used in experimental studies. In these

studies, tests of significance are conducted to determine if observed
mean differences between groups or conditions represent a real
difference or are due to chance. There are many different kinds of tests
of significance, but for the purposes of the master’s thesis, you would
most likely not be required to go beyond applying a t test. A t test is a
statistical test that is used to determine whether the observed difference
between two mean scores represents a true difference or is due to
chance. There are two different types of t tests: (a) independent-samples
t test, and (b) nonindependent-samples t test (also referred to as
dependent-samples t test or paired-samples t test). I discuss each one
separately.
Independent-samples t test
In a basic experimental study where one independent variable (cause) is
manipulated to see its effect on one dependent variable (effect), the
independent-samples t test is used to determine whether the difference
in mean scores on the dependent variable between two independent
groups is a real difference or one that is due to chance. In other words, is
the mean score difference for the dependent variable due to the
independent variable (treatment) or the result of some other chance
factor such as sampling error? To use the independent-samples t test,
the participants and their scores from the two groups must be completely
independent and separate from each other.
For example, a researcher wants to determine if a math intervention

(independent variable) will improve students’ performance on the
statewide math assessment (dependent variable). If the new math
intervention results in significantly higher scores on the statewide math
assessment, she will make a recommendation to the state education
board to adopt the new math curriculum, so there is a lot at stake. The
researcher randomly assigns 60 students into two groups: Group A gets
the new math curriculum, and Group B gets the traditional math
curriculum. The students are exposed to the two treatments daily for 8
weeks. At the end of the 8 weeks, they all take the statewide
assessment. The mean score on the statewide assessment for Group A
was 90, and the mean score for Group B was 85. Since there is a five-
point difference in favor of Group A, can the researcher make the
recommendation to the state education board to adopt the new math
curriculum? Not so fast. Unfortunately, researchers cannot simply eyeball
the test scores and say, “Yes, five points seems like a big enough
difference so let’s adopt that new curriculum.” You see, in statistics (and
life in general), there is always room for error. Therefore, the researcher
does not know whether the five-point difference represents a real
difference (due to the new math treatment) or one that is due to chance.
This is where the independent-samples t test comes in handy.
With this test, the researcher can determine the probability of whether the
observed five-point mean difference between the two groups is
statistically significant (i.e., represents a real difference). First, she needs
to set up a null hypothesis (sorry, I was hoping to avoid this). The null
hypothesis, H0, represents the “chance” theory, meaning any observed
differences are due to chance, and the treatment has no significant effect
on the dependent variable. For example, the null hypothesis for the study
would be as follows:
H0: There is no significant difference on the statewide math

assessment scores between students who received the new
math curriculum and the students who received the traditional
math curriculum.
She can either reject or retain the H0; typically, researchers want to reject
the H0 to “support” their new intervention. However, retaining the H0 may
be as valuable to the research literature as rejecting it (you may have
discovered what treatment is not effective!). Remember that as the
researcher, you are committed to reporting the findings objectively and
accurately whether or not the data support your hypothesis.
Next, to determine whether or not to reject or retain the H0, the

researcher needs to set the probability or significance level (referred to
as alpha, or α). The setting of the probability level is a bit like gambling,
where the researcher gets to decide how much risk of making an error
she is willing to accept. In social science studies, most researchers set
the significance level at .05 (α = .05), which means they are willing to
take a 5% chance of making a Type I error. A Type I error is when you
reject the H0 when it is true. In other words, there is a 5% probability that
the researcher concludes that the mean difference was due to the
treatment when it was really due to chance. The good news is that she
has a 95% of being correct (rejecting the H0 when it is false)! After setting
the significance level, the researcher conducts the independent-samples
t test and compares the probability value (p value) with the preset
significance level. If the probability value is less than or equal to the
significance level (p ≤ .05, then she can reject the H0. By rejecting the H0,
she can conclude that the treatment did have a significant effect on the
dependent variable. In other words, the mean score difference was
statistically significant and not due to chance.
In the math example, this means that the five-point difference between
the two groups was due to the treatment of the new math curriculum. The
researcher could then make the recommendation to the state education
board to adopt the new math curriculum. If the probability value is greater
than the significance level (p ≥ .05), then she retains the H0. By retaining
the H0, she concludes that the new math curriculum treatment did not
have a significant effect on the statewide assessment scores, and the
five-point mean difference was due to chance. The researcher should not
recommend the new math curriculum to the state education board.
While it is not important for you to be able to conduct the independent-
samples t test by hand (and this is not a statistics book), it is critical for
you to understand its importance in determining cause-effect
relationships in research studies and how to report these results. If you
would like more information about the independent-samples t test or
other significance tests, I highly recommend taking an introductory
statistics course or perusing a statistics textbook.
There are several variations of how you can report the results of an
independent-samples t test in APA format. Be sure to include the two
mean scores with standard deviations, t value with degrees of freedom,
and the probability value. You also have to report an effect size (usually
in the form of Cohen’s d), which represents the magnitude of the mean
difference. If you have a small effect size, the two group’s mean scores
are not that different. If you have a large effect size, then the mean
scores are very different from each other. Here is one example:
To test the efficacy of the new math curriculum, an independent

samples t test was conducted. This test was found to be
statistically significant, t(58) = 4.15, p <.001, d = .4. The results
indicated that on average, the students in the new math
curriculum group (M = 90, SD = 4.92) performed better than the
traditional math curriculum group (M = 85, SD = 4.41) on the
statewide math assessment.
The independent-samples t test is the most common and simplest test to

use when comparing mean differences between two independent groups.
However, for a master’s-level research study, it may be difficult to have
access to a large sample with two separate and independent groups.
More commonly, you may have access to only one group. For this type of
research design, you need to utilize the nonindependent-samples t test. I
refer to this as the paired-samples t test since this is what is used in the
SPSS computer software program.
Paired-samples t test
In a basic experimental study where one independent variable (cause) is

manipulated to see its effect on one dependent variable (effect), the
paired-samples t test is used to determine whether the difference in
mean scores on the dependent variable between two sets of related
scores is a real difference or one that is due to chance. This analysis is
similar to the independent-samples t test except that with the paired-
samples t test, there is no control group, and the scores are
systematically related to each other. There are different ways for scores
to be related, but typically the two sets of scores are from one group of
participants. For example, a researcher wants to determine if a new
reading intervention that uses bilingual high school students’ primary
language will enhance their vocabulary performance in English. He
randomly selects one class of 30 high school students who are bilingual.
The students are given a pretest to measure their vocabulary level before
the intervention begins. Then they receive the new reading intervention
daily for 10 weeks. At the end of the 10 weeks, he administers the same
test to measure their vocabulary level as a posttest. The pretest mean
score on the vocabulary measure was 86 (SD = 3.86), and the posttest
mean score on the vocabulary measure was 88 (SD = 3.04). Since the
two sets of scores (pretest and posttest) are from the same set of
students, they are in fact related.
In this scenario, the researcher needs to determine whether the two-point
mean score difference between the pretest and posttest indicates a
statistically significant difference (related to the vocabulary intervention)
or one that is due to chance. The null hypothesis for the study would be
as follows:
H0: There is no significant difference between the bilingual high

school students’ pretest and posttest English vocabulary mean
scores.
To determine whether to reject or retain the H0, he must set the

significance level (α = .05) and conduct a paired-samples t test. If the
probability is equal to or less than α = .05 (p ≤ .05), I can reject the H0
and conclude that there is a significant difference between the pretest
and posttest mean scores, and it was not due to chance. If the probability
is greater than .05 (p > .05), then I retain the H0 and conclude that there
is not a significant difference.
To report this in APA format, be sure to include the two mean scores with
standard deviations, t value with degrees of freedom, the probability
value, and an effect size. Here is one example:
To test the efficacy of the vocabulary intervention for bilingual

high school students, a paired samples t test was conducted.
This test was found to be statistically significant, t(29) = –3.846,
p = .001, d = .5. The results indicated that on average, the
bilingual high school students scored significantly greater on the
posttest English vocabulary test (M = 88.23, SD = 3.03) than on
the pretest vocabulary test (M = 86.07, SD = 3.86).
Here is an example of the results of a paired-samples t test adapted from

a former student’s master’s thesis:
To analyze the results of the Arc’s Self-Determination Scale

(ASDS), first descriptive statistics were calculated for the pretest
and posttest scores for each subgroup of the ASDS domains.
The pretest mean scores and standard deviations for each
subgroup of the ASDS domains were as follows: Autonomy (M =
.51, SD = .20), Psychological Empowerment (M = .73, SD =
.15), Self-Realization (M = .75, SD = .16), and Self-
Determination Total (M = .57, SD = .15). The posttest means
and standard deviations for each subgroup of the ASDS
domains were as follows: Autonomy (M = .63, SD = .18),
Psychological Empowerment (M = .88, SD = .10), Self-
Realization (M = .81, SD = .18), and Self-Determination Total (M
= .68, SD = .14). There were mean gains of .12 in Autonomy,
.15 in Psychological Empowerment, .06 in Self-Realization, and
.11 in the Self-Determination Total from pretest to posttest
results.
Next, a paired-samples t test was conducted to determine if

there was a significant difference between the pretest and
posttest mean scores for each domain. There was a significant
difference between the Psychological Empowerment pretest
mean of .73 (SD = .15) and posttest mean of .88 (SD = .10),
t(10) = –3.16, p = .01, d = .3, in favor of the posttest. There were
no significant differences between the pretest and posttest
mean scores for the other domains or total score. (Williams,
2006)
In summary, the t tests for independent-samples and paired-samples are

essential statistical tests to conduct when trying to determine whether the
difference between two mean scores is statistically significant. They are
easy to conduct using a statistical software program (or even by hand),
and the output is straightforward for interpreting and reporting the results
in APA format. In addition to the narrative explanation, it is also helpful to
include tables or figures as part of the results. Now that I have discussed
how to report the results of quantitative data, for you adventurous types, I
trek into our discussion on how to report the findings from qualitative
data.
QUALITATIVE DATA
There is often a misconception among graduate students that interpreting
and reporting data from qualitative studies is easier or faster than
quantitative studies since there are no scary statistics involved. However,
this is typically not the case. At the end of a qualitative study, a
researcher may be faced with piles of data in the form of field notes from
observations, transcripts from interviews, documents, memos, audio or
video files, and so on. Therefore, there needs to be a way to organize
and analyze the raw data to answer the research questions and provide a
deeper understanding of the phenomenon being studied that is
meaningful to the reader. This process often includes countless hours to
read, organize, and prepare field notes, transcribe data, code data,
categorize data, and identify supporting data. As mentioned, there are
many different types of qualitative research designs and ways to analyze
and report the narrative data. For more detailed information on qualitative
data analysis and reporting, I strongly recommend taking a course in
qualitative research or examining textbooks on this topic. However, from
my experience advising graduate students, the three most commonly
used data collection methods are interviews, focus groups, and
observations. Therefore, I focus my discussion on how to report these
types of narrative data according to (a) major themes and patterns and
(b) research questions. I also discuss how to enhance the validity of the
findings.
Major Themes and Patterns

One of the common ways to report findings from narrative data is to
organize them around the major themes and patterns. Where do these
major themes and patterns come from? Unlike quantitative studies where
the researcher has a preset hypothesis that he tests, in qualitative
research, you do not start with preset themes and patterns. Instead, the
major themes and patterns emerge during the data analysis process. For
you chefs out there, think of this process as reducing sauces, where you
are producing a thicker, more flavorful, and concentrated sauce. Let us
use the example of a case study where a researcher wants to examine
business managers’ communication styles. She spends 6 weeks audio
recording and taking field notes as a nonparticipant observing the
communication interactions between managers and their employees
during weekly 1-hour staff meetings. At the end of the data collection
period, she is ready to start analyzing her data. Like a true chef, she must
first prepare the ingredients! This requires organizing and transcribing all
the field notes and audio recordings, which can be very time consuming,
so allow yourself an appropriate amount of time. At this point you also
need to decide whether to use a qualitative computer software program
(e.g., Nvivo, Atlas.ti) to help analyze the data or do it manually by hand.
Whatever you decide, make sure you have multiple back-up copies of
your files!
In our example, the researcher decides to analyze her data by hand. She
rereads all the transcribed data and codes the data by labeling different
topics that seemed important. She puts a code for “interaction” every time
there was a communicative interaction between the manager and the
employee and noted it in her codebook with a number and definition.
Next, she analyzed all the interaction codes to see how they were related
across participants and meeting times. She categorized or grouped the
similar interaction codes into larger meaningful chunks with a new label.
For example, perhaps there was a clear distinction in managers who
used verbal versus nonverbal interactions or collaborative versus
coercive interactions. These larger chunks indicate a potential theme or
pattern in the findings. Thus, by coding and recoding the data, the
research identified the major themes or patterns that emerged from the
data. An average of five to six major themes is reasonable. However, be
sure the major themes and patterns are related to the research questions
and purpose of the study. Remember that it is critical to leave your
desires, judgments, and expectations of what you want the data to look
like outside of the analysis and reporting process. Although it is inevitable
that some personal bias will slip through, you want to minimize this as
much as possible.
After the major themes or patterns are identified, each one represents a
separate heading and section in the results chapter. Then for each
theme, it is critical to paint a picture of the findings for the reader by
providing a rich and thick description. A thick description is an
explanation that includes both the behavior and the context in which the
behavior was displayed. The concept of thick description was originally
derived from the writings of British philosopher Gilbert Ryle and
anthropologist Clifford Geertz (Ponterotto & Grieger, 2007). Then
sociologist Norman Denzin expanded the definition of thick description in
his work:
Thick description evokes emotionality and self-feelings. It inserts

history into experience. It establishes the significance of an
experience, or the sequence of events, for the person or
persons in question. In thick description, the voices, feelings,
actions, and meanings of interacting individuals are heard.
(Denzin, 1989, p. 83, as cited in Ponterotto & Grieger, 2007)
As part of the thick description, key pieces of evidence from multiple

As part of the thick description, key pieces of evidence from multiple
sources that support the major theme should be included. One major
piece of support is in the form of the participants’ quotations. This brings
the participants’ perspective into the study (Creswell, 2013). Keep in
mind that you do not want to include everything that was said; instead,
quotations should be selected carefully to represent the major theme.
This will require you to interpret or infer the participants’ true meaning
while trying to stay as unbiased as possible. The descriptions could also
involve the setting and participants, and the use of visuals in the form of
tables or figures should be used to supplement the narrative description.
Here is an example of findings reported around major themes adapted
The informal group discussion provided a wealth of knowledge

to the researcher with regards to the elementary students’
perceptions around their disabilities. During the discussion, the
researcher read from the preselected text. At the end of each
subtopic, the following questions were addressed: Can you
relate to anything in the passage or can you make a personal
connection? The discussions were then left purposely
unstructured to allow the students to speak freely and openly
but with the guarantee of confidentiality. Four patterns of
responses emerged from the discussion group: feelings about
learning, disappointing others, how learning disabilities make
you feel, and types of learning problems.
Feelings about learning. The students were asked if they could

relate to the statement: For some kids, school is not fun
because they have trouble succeeding, and they just do not feel
good about learning. All six students were able to verbalize that
they do not always feel good about learning. Some students
gave concrete examples such as Cesar saying, “I don’t feel
good when I can’t do my work in class.”
Disappointing others. The students were asked to make a
personal connection to the provided statement: Some kids feel
like they let down their loved ones. All six students stated that
they could relate to disappointing their parents, teachers, or
themselves. Cesar stated, “I disappoint my parents and
teachers every day when I don’t do my work and I act out in
class.” At first Jessica and Charlie were both reluctant to state
that they disappointed anyone. Then Jessica said, “I know that
my parents don’t get mad when I do things wrong. But I know
that I disappoint myself because there are things that I can’t do.
I try and try but I can’t. Someone always tells me that I am
wrong. This is why I sometimes don’t want to come to school.”
Charlie stated that he knows he disappoints his teachers
because, “I just don’t get things, especially math. Even when
things are explained over and over, I still have trouble.”
How learning disabilities make you feel. This section provided a

lot of opportunity for discussion. When the students heard the
word “dumb” in the text, some students verbalized that they felt
dumb at times. However, Jessica was also able to express that
having a type of learning disability does not mean that you are
dumb. She made the personal connection that her father also
had a learning disability, and he too had difficulty in school.
Types of learning problems. In this section, the students had the

opportunity to relate to the difficulties faced by students with
learning disabilities. The text discussed difficulties such as
memory, concentration, and the ability to make friends, and so
on. Kenny, Cesar, and Jessica could all relate to the difficulty
with concentration. In response to memory problems, Sam
stated, “I just get so frustrated because I don’t know my
multiplication facts. I try and I try but I just don’t know. I am
never going to learn them so I just have to add.” There were not
many students who reported difficulty making friends or
maintaining friendships, which appeared to be a sensitive topic.
(Mireles, 2004)
Research Questions
Another way to organize the narrative findings is around the research
questions. Here, the researcher is also reporting the major themes and
patterns that emerge from the data. However, in this type of
organizational format, the data collection methods (e.g., interview
questions, observational strategies) should help you gain an
understanding to answer the research question(s) (Maxwell, 2013). For
example, a researcher wants to explore the leadership styles of school
administrators at high-performing schools. The research questions are,
1. What are the leadership characteristics of administrators at high-

performing schools?
2. How do these administrators overcome barriers to success?
She conducts 1-hour interviews with four administrators from high-

performing schools. There are four main questions that she asks at each
interview:
1. What is your leadership style?
2. What makes you an effective leader?
3. What are the barriers that you face as a school administrator?
4. How do you get faculty and staff to support your leadership style?
In this study, the four interview questions are designed to help answer
the research questions; Interview Questions 1 and 2 help answer the first
research question, and Interview Questions 3 and 4 help answer the
second research question. These four questions are just a start; other
questions or follow-up questions may be necessary as the interview
proceeds. If possible, you should always pilot test your data collection
methods with a similar sample group and setting to see if any revisions
are necessary.
After conducting the interviews, the researcher must still follow a process
for data analysis. First, she reads through and transcribes all the
interview data. Next, she codes the data from the transcripts by labeling
different topics. Then, she categorizes or groups the codes into larger
meaningful chunks with a new label. However, the key difference with
this organizational format is that she pulls out major themes only from
Interview Questions 1 and 2 to answer the first research question. For
example, perhaps there was a clear pattern that leaders believed
collaboration was a key component of their effective leadership style.
Then she pulls out major themes from Interview Questions 3 and 4 to
answer the second research question. After the major themes are
identified, then rich, thick descriptions with supporting evidence and
quotations are reported.
Here is an example of findings reported around research questions

adapted from a former student’s master’s thesis:
An analysis of the data yielded from the student and staff

questionnaires revealed findings within the areas of the
research questions. Student and staff participants’ responses to
the questionnaires were grouped to correspond to the research
questions and then categorized for major themes or patterns.
Research question 1 asked what factors of communication

Research question 1 asked what factors of communication
(whether verbal or nonverbal) triggered negative behavioral
outbursts or promoted positive and effective communication in
classrooms serving students with emotional disturbances (ED)
and learning disabilities (LD). The data revealed that the verbal
factors of communication that triggered students’ behavioral
outbursts were yelling, especially once the student was already
upset. Other factors included students feeling like they were not
being understood or listened to, not getting help with their
assignments, and negative peer interactions in the classroom.
The nonverbal factors of communication that triggered students’
negative behavioral outbursts were slamming books down and
making angry faces.
The data revealed various verbal factors that promoted positive

behavior and effective communication in classrooms serving
students with ED and LD. Some of these factors were taking the
time to discuss classroom issues with the students in a calm
voice, giving the students some extra chances, the
implementation of classroom reward systems, explaining the
lessons thoroughly when needed, and positive peer interactions.
The nonverbal factors that promoted positive behavior and
effective communication were allowing the students space when
their behaviors were escalating.
The questions on the students’ questionnaires that
corresponded to this research question were questions 1, 4, 7,
8, and 10.
Question 1 asked what the staff should or should not do to help

when the students were having a particularly rough day. Most
students responded that yelling would only escalate their
behavior, and that the teachers should either speak to them
about whatever the problem was in a calm voice or give them
some extra chances. For example, one male Caucasian student
in the 11th grade said, “They should tell me to cool down or give
me a break outside. They shouldn’t get on my back when I am
mad.” A few students felt the need to be left alone when they
were having rough days. For example, one female African
American student in the 12th grade said, “[If I am having a bad
day] they shouldn’t do anything because I will still get mad.”
Question 4 asked for the reasons behind the students’ best and
worst behaviors. Most students attributed their best behavior to
factors outside of the classroom such as having a good night
sleep, a good breakfast, good weather, or positive experiences
sleep, a good breakfast, good weather, or positive experiences
with friends prior to class. For example, one male Caucasian
student in the 11th grade said, “I woke up on the right side of the
bed and played with my brother. That made me happy.” Other
participants reported that on days when their behaviors were at
their best, they were connected to factors inside the classroom
such as classroom rewards, having lessons explained to them
well, or positive student interactions. For example, one male
African American student in the ninth grade said, “[The day my
behavior was at its best] was the day I hit level 5.”
With regard to negative behavior, a few students attributed the

behavior to factors outside of the classroom such as showing up
in a bad mood. Most attributed their negative behavior to factors
inside the classroom such as the teacher yelling at them, not
being understood or listened to, not getting help with
assignments, or negative peer interactions. For example, one
male Caucasian student in the 11th grade responded, “When
my teacher always yells and gets in my face and I get mad and
punch the walls.” Another male Latino student in the 11th grade
reported, “They don’t even listen to me, and they act like I
wasn’t even there. That’s why I had the worst behavior in Mrs.
C.’s class because I don’t get any help with my work.” (Kendall,
2006)
Validity of Findings
Regardless of the format that is chosen to report findings, an important
component of reporting qualitative data is to ensure their validity. Validity
in this context is about the quality of the findings, which is different than
the validity with regard to quantitative measures that was mentioned in
Chapter 7. For qualitative studies, validity refers to the accuracy and
credibility of the findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In other words, are
the findings plausible and trustworthy? You increase the validity of a
qualitative study by applying strategies to reduce factors that threaten the
credibility of your conclusions. For example, personal bias (subjectivity) is
a validity threat because your own experiences, assumptions, goals, and
beliefs will influence how you analyze, interpret, and present the data.
There are many strategies available to increase validity, and you should
apply those that are specific to the validity threats in your study. Some
recommended strategies include being upfront and honest about your
own personal biases, having extensive time and opportunities for data
collection, checking back with participants for accuracy (i.e., member
checking), and providing rich and thick descriptions (Creswell, 2013). A
commonly used method to increase validity is triangulation. Triangulation
is “the combination of methodologies in the study of the same
phenomenon” (Denzin, 1978, p. 291, as cited by Onwuegbuzie, 2002).
Data triangulation is one form of triangulation where multiple methods of
data collection are used to study one phenomenon. The different
methods act as a “check” on the others to support a single conclusion or
provide new information from different angles (Maxwell, 2013). For
example, a researcher could use multiple data collection methods such
as observations, interviews, and written documents. The point is not to
combine the data but rather to find the intersections, conflicts, or
connections among them. In doing so, the researcher is able to confirm,
dispute, or corroborate findings between data sources and have a holistic
picture of the phenomenon.
Mixed Methods Data

For mixed methods research studies, the researcher collects both
quantitative and qualitative data. Therefore the data analysis procedures
will depend on the specific mixed methods research design and the
research questions. For example, in some mixed methods designs, the
quantitative and qualitative data analyzed separately because the data
collection was done in different phases. There are also separate research
questions for the quantitative and qualitative data. In the convergent
design, the quantitative and qualitative data may be merged together for
data analysis. The results are reported in a single joint display, which
combines both quantitative and qualitative data. This integration allows
for a richer understanding of the research problem and response to the
research question than separate quantitative and qualitative results
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018).
Summary
Chapter Four is a significant chapter in the thesis because it
reports the major results and findings of the study to the reader.
Chapter Four may also be one of the most satisfying chapters to
write because after all the months of data collection and data
analysis, you finally get to share all that was discovered. Whether
you are reporting quantitative, qualitative, or both types of data, it
is critical to be as detailed and comprehensive in your
descriptions as possible. This will enhance the validity, quality,
generalizability, or transferability of the results. In this chapter, you
are also laying the foundation for the final discussion and
conclusions, which are the focus of Chapter Five, Discussion, of
your thesis. This will be the topic of the next chapter of the book.
Here is a summary of the most critical points from Chapter 8:
Depending on the research questions and design, the

presentation of the results can be in narrative, numerical,
tabular and/or graphic format, or a joint display.
Before reporting the results, make sure that all your data
have been organized and analyzed.
In descriptive statistics, measures of central tendency, such

as the mean, median, and mode, tell you the “average” score
in a distribution.
Measures of variability, such as the range or standard
deviation, tell you how close or spread apart (i.e., dispersed)
the scores are in a distribution.
Inferential statistics use sample group data to make

assumptions about the general population.
In experimental studies, tests of significance are used to
determine if observed mean differences between groups or
conditions represent a real difference or were due to chance.
The null hypothesis, H0, represents the “chance” theory,

meaning any observed differences are due to chance, and
the treatment has no significant effect on the dependent
variable.
One of the ways to report findings from narrative data is to
organize them around the major themes and patterns that
emerge during data analysis.
Another way to organize the narrative findings is around the
research questions where items from the data collection
instruments help to answer the research question(s).
There are several ways to increase the validity of a qualitative

study, such as being upfront and honest about your own
personal biases, having extensive time and opportunities for
data collection, member checking, providing thick
descriptions, and data triangulation.
Resources

Solutions
1. A common obstacle that students face in writing Chapter
Four is being overwhelmed with the amount of results to
report. Words that come to mind are “How do I make sense
of all these data?” If you have quantitative data, the best way
to overcome this obstacle is to report the results in chunks.
First, look at the total data set. Then examine the data to see
which method would make the most sense to report in terms
of organization (usually by each measurement instrument or
research question). Next, decide whether you should report
the data with descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, or
with visual representation such as figures and graphs.
Definitely get help from your chairperson if you do not
understand the results from the data analysis. Then report
the results from one measurement instrument or research
question, and have your chairperson review it before you go
on to do the rest.
2. Another common obstacle faced by students is finding the
major themes and patterns in the qualitative data. Although
the major themes and patterns do emerge from the data,
sometimes it is not obvious as to what they are. Words that
come to mind are “How do I tie all these together?” After
coding the data for specific topics, you need to step back and
look at the data from a broader perspective. Sometimes, you
have to recode the data into larger categories. Using multiple
highlighting colors to code or physically cutting and grouping
“like data” together may also help find the themes and
patterns. You may also want to invest in a computer software
program to help you with the data analysis. One thing to
always keep in mind is the purpose of the study and the
research questions. If you use these as your guiding
principles, this will help make sure you do not get lost in all
the trees.
When you report your data in Chapter Four, it is important to
understand the differences in how to organize the results
(depending on the type of data collected) so that it is meaningful
to the reader. This is also important for replicability purposes in
case someone is interested in confirming or corroborating the
results. The following reflection/discussion questions will help
guide you through the reporting process.
1. Pick one quantitative measurement instrument that you used

in data collection and discuss what type of statistics you
would use to report the results. Will you analyze data using
descriptive or inferential statistics? Which measures of
central tendency and variability will you report? Does your
study require an independent-samples t test, a paired-
samples t test, or another statistical test?
2. Pick one qualitative measurement instrument that you used in
data collection and discuss how you are going to analyze the
narrative data. Are you going to select a software program
and if so, which one? What is the definition of a “thick
description”? Give examples of what information you could
provide in the thick description to increase validity.
Try It Exercises
Four. In Activity One, you will calculate the descriptive statistics
for a given data set. In Activity Two, you will identify the inferential
statistics that will be used to report the data. In Activity Three, you
will report the findings from one measurement instrument that you
used to collect data.
1. Activity One: For this activity, use your knowledge of

descriptive statistics.
A researcher conducted a study on the effects of an

A researcher conducted a study on the effects of an
online course to teach nursing students how to
provide proper drug dosage calculations for their
critical care patients. The students were randomly
assigned into two groups: online course (Group A)
or traditional course with instructor (Group B). The
following data set represents their posttest scores
on a drug dosage calculation test. With a partner,
identify the descriptive statistics for each set of
scores.
Group A: 3 4 4 9 1 15

Group B: 3 17 12 4 3 3
What are the mode scores for Groups A and B?
What are the median scores for Groups A and

B?
What are the mean scores for Groups A and B?
What are the range scores for Groups A and B?
Which group do you think has a larger standard

deviation?
Report the findings for each group in APA
format.
2. Activity Two: For this activity, use your knowledge of

inferential statistics.
Now the researcher wants to know if there was a

statistically significant mean difference between the
two groups. With a partner, identify the inferential
statistics using the scores from Activity One.
What test of significance should the researcher

use to analyze the mean difference?
Write a null hypothesis for the research study.
What should the researcher set the significance

(alpha) level at, and what does this mean?
If the t score is 4.52 and the probability value is

.03, should the researcher reject or retain the
null hypothesis?
What is the researcher’s final conclusion about

the online course?
Report the findings in APA format.
3. Activity Three: For this activity, focus on the data from one
measurement instrument that was used during the study.
Pick one measurement instrument that you used to

collect data such as a test, survey, interview questions,
and so on.
Decide the best way to report the data. If you collected

numerical data, decide whether to report descriptive or
inferential statistics. If you collected nonnumerical data,
decide whether you want to report the major
themes/patterns from the entire data set or want to
connect specific items to corresponding research
questions.
Prepare a draft report of the results and have a partner
or your chairperson review it before proceeding with the
other data.
Key Terms
data triangulation 189

descriptive statistics 171
independent-samples t test 179
inferential statistics 178

mean 172
measure of central tendency 171
measure of variability 173

median 172
mode 172
null hypothesis 179
paired-samples t test 181
range 174
standard deviation 174

t test 178
thick description 184
Type I error 180
Suggested Readings
Ali, Z., & Bhaskar, S. B. (2016). Basic statistical tools in research
and data analysis. Indian Journal of Anaesthesia, 60(9), 662–669.
Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5049.190623
Bazeley, P. (2011). Integrative analysis strategies for mixed data
sources. American Behavioral Scientist, 56, 814–828. Retrieved
from https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764211426330
Bazeley, P. (2013). Qualitative data analysis: Practical strategies.
London, UK: Sage.
CA: Sage.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2018). The SAGE handbook of

qualitative research (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Guetterman, T. C., Fetters, M. D., & Creswell, J. W. (2015).

Integrating quantitative and qualitative results in health science
mixed methods research through joint displays. Annals of Family
Medicine, 13(6), 554–561. doi:10.1370/afm.1865
Moseholm, E., Rydahl-Hansen, S., Lindhardt, B. O., & Fetters, M.
D. (2016). Health-related quality of life in patients with serious
non-specific symptoms undergoing evaluation for possible cancer
and their experience during the process: A mixed methods study.
Quality of Life Research, 1–14. doi:10.1007/s11136-016-1423-2
Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed

methods research: Integrating quantitative and qualitative
approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Web Links
Atlas.ti
https://atlasti.com/qualitative-data-analysis-software/
https://atlasti.com/quantitative-software/
MAXQDA
https://www.maxqda.com/
MSU Library
https://libguides.lib.msu.edu/c.php?g=96626&p=626739
NVivo
https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo/home
OxfordLipGuides
OxfordLipGuides
https://ox.libguides.com/c.php?g=422947&p=2888387
QDA Miner
https://provalisresearch.com/products/qualitative-data-analysis-
software/freeware/
References
https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/c/curryst01.html
Reporting Statistics in APA Style
http://www.ilstu.edu/~jhkahn/apastats.html
Reporting Statistics in APA Style: A Short Guide to Handling

Numbers and Statistics in APA Format
http://my.ilstu.edu/~mshesso/apa_stats.htm
SPSS
https://www.ibm.com/analytics/spss-statistics-software
https://www.spss-tutorials.com/spss-data-analysis/
Top 16 Qualitative Data Analysis Software
https://www.predictiveanalyticstoday.com/top-qualitative-data-
analysis-software/
Top 52 Free Statistical Software
https://www.predictiveanalyticstoday.com/top-free-statistical-
software/
Using SPSS to Understand Research and Data Analysis
http://wwwstage.valpo.edu/other/dabook/home.htm

Back to Figure
The first three rungs of the chapter three ladder are labeled:
Instrument 1: test, Instrument 2: survey and Instrument 3: observation

checklist.
The first three rungs of the chapter four ladder are labeled:
RQ 1: test, RQ 2: survey and RQ 3: observation checklist.
An arrow from each of the instrument rungs on the left under chapter
three, points to the respective RQ rung on the right, under chapter four.
Back to Figure
The x axis below has values from 0 to 100, in intervals of 10.
The narrower distribution seen in this figure is labeled distribution A and

starts from the value 30 and ends at the value 70.
The wider distribution seen in this figure is labeled distribution B and

starts from the value 10 and ends at the value 90.
The highest point on both curves is seen over the value 50 on the x axis.
9 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER FIVE,
DISCUSSION

Chapter Five Sections 199
Introduction 199
Discussion 200
Limitations 204
Recommendations for Future Research 206
Conclusion 207
Summary 211
Resources 212
Web Links 214
Say not, “I have found the truth,” but rather, “I have found a
truth.”
—Kahlil Gibran
—Kahlil Gibran
If you have completed Chapter Four and are ready to write Chapter Five,
this means that you have finished reporting all your results and findings—
fantastic! Conducting research and writing the master’s thesis have been
like running a marathon. You now realize how much work is involved in
conducting research and how tedious (and rewarding) it can be at times.
In addition, you have learned about the ethics involved throughout the
research process. Chapter Five is the last chapter of the thesis. Like the
last 6.2 miles of a marathon, it may be the most difficult chapter to write.
Chapter Five requires you to think differently about your study than in
previous chapters. You are called on to use all your research skills, and
in addition, you need to use the skills of reflection and interpretation.
Sometimes readers will read Chapter One and then skip to Chapter Five
for a quick check on the conclusions. Thus, you will need to demonstrate
what you have learned as a researcher as well as what you learned in
your research.
This chapter will focus on how to write the Discussion chapter of the
thesis. Chapter Five is a vital component of the master’s thesis. This is
where you will make the final interpretation of the results that were
reported in the previous chapter. However, this is more complex than
writing a summary. This chapter needs to be written so that the results
are interpreted in a meaningful way, and the implications are made clear
to the reader. As you prepare to write Chapter Five, ask yourself, “So
what? What do these findings really mean, and how do they help me
understand the research problem?” Remember that in conducting your
research, the end goal was not to collect data and report the results.
Rather, the goal was to identify a research problem (reflecting personal
and professional interests) and explore solutions and in the process to
increase understanding of a particular phenomenon. Keep in mind that
your readers share your interest in the research questions.
As you write this chapter, keep in mind who will be your intended
audience. Who will be reading the completed thesis? Will it be your thesis
committee and family members? Will you be presenting the thesis to a
larger group of faculty and students? Will you be presenting the thesis at
a local or national conference and perhaps preparing it for publication in
a peer-review journal? Depending on your intended audience, you may
need to tweak or add some parts to the chapter so that it is meaningful
and comprehensible. For example, if you will be presenting to a group or
at a conference, find out what the presentation guidelines are so that you
can organize your chapter in the same way. If you are planning to publish
the thesis, find out the journal’s criteria now so you can align your chapter
with their guidelines. It is easier to do this now as you write the chapter
rather than go back and revise it later.
with their guidelines. It is easier to do this now as you write the chapter
rather than go back and revise it later.

There are several tasks that need to be completed before you begin to
write. First, make sure that all the results and findings have been edited
and clearly reported in Chapter Four. This will make the writing process
go much faster since you will be following the organizational structure of
Chapter Four. Once all the results are in final form, make an appointment
with your chairperson. Although you have already discussed the findings,
you will need another meeting to help you with the interpretation and
conclusions of the findings. Aside from yourself (and some unsuspecting
friend or partner), your chairperson is the person most familiar with your
research study. With this knowledge, she will be able to ask you guiding
questions to “draw out” the interpretations and conclusions related to the
results. Think of it as a friendly Vulcan “mind-meld.” However, before
meeting with your chairperson, review Chapter Four and frame in your
mind what you believe to be the key findings.
CHAPTER FIVE SECTIONS
Once you have met with your chairperson and discussed the final
interpretations, you can start to write Chapter Five. Chapter Five starts on
a new page in the thesis and is divided into five main sections: (a)
Introduction, (b) Discussion, (c) Limitations, (d) Recommendations for
Future Research, and (e) Conclusions (see Figure 9.1 for major sections
in Chapter Five). Check with your chairperson before you start writing for
how he wants you to organize the sections in Chapter Five. If you
remember the research synthesis structure from the literature review, the
sections in Chapter Five are very similar to the discussion section of a
research article. Although they are written and discussed separately, the
sections may be intertwined. Collectively, they form the discussion of the
study. If writing a master’s thesis is like telling the “story” of your research
study, this is the resolution or conclusion of the story. As most narrative
stories go, there are usually “lessons learned” embedded in the
conclusions. To guide you in writing Chapter Five, I first discuss how to
write each section in general. Then I provide examples of written work
adapted from former students’ completed master’s theses.
Introduction
Like every chapter of the thesis, this one begins with an introduction (this
section usually does not have a level heading). In the Introduction,
remember to use purposeful redundancy to connect this chapter
seamlessly to the previous ones. The Introduction should include a broad
statement of the general problem. This is similar to a recap of the issues
raised in Chapter One of the thesis. Then include a reminder of the
purpose and design of the study. The Introduction should be concise and
can be short.
Description
Figure 9.1 Major sections in Chapter Five, Discussion.

Here is an example Introduction section adapted from a former student’s
master’s thesis:
Students with Asperger Syndrome (AS) typically have

challenges that primarily affect reading comprehension. Children
with AS tend to exhibit high vocabulary and decoding skills but
have low reading comprehension (Gillberg, 1991). This
challenge, coupled with an increased emphasis on standardized
testing, has put pressure on educators to identify strategies to
aid in the development of reading comprehension for students
with AS.
Various studies have sought to identify the causes behind this

reading comprehension deficit. One theory is that children with
AS have difficulty creating gestalt imagery when they are
reading (Bell, 1991). Research has also shown that a correlation
may exist between reading comprehension and one’s motivation
to read. Since children with AS tend to have circumscribed
interests surrounding one or two topics, they are less likely to be
motivated to read outside of their limited interests. This could
also possibly contribute to their lower reading comprehension
skills.
The purpose of this quantitative study was to increase the
reading comprehension of students with AS by using graphic
novels that incorporate both words and images. The researcher
also sought to determine whether the students’ motivation to
read was influenced by reading the graphic novels. (Gomes,
2008)
Discussion
The second section in Chapter Five is the Discussion (this section usually
does not have a level heading). One way to organize this section is to
use the three parallel ladders strategy. Write the discussion of the results
or findings in the same order they were reported in Chapter Four. For
example, if you reported quantitative data for various measurement
instruments in Chapter Four, then the discussion for each measurement
instrument would be written as a subsection in Chapter Five (see Figure
9.2 for the parallel ladders strategy for Chapters Four and Five).
Similarly, if you reported qualitative data by major themes or patterns,
then the discussion for each major theme or pattern would be a
subsection in Chapter Five. Finally, if you reported qualitative or mixed
methods data by research questions, then the discussion for each
research question would be a subsection in Chapter Five.
Description
Figure 9.2 The parallel ladders strategy for Chapters Four

and Five.
In the discussion for each subsection, include a summary of the major
findings and a brief interpretation of the findings. This section is usually
difficult for students because for the last four chapters, you were asked to
minimize your personal interpretations of the findings. I usually receive
first drafts of this section that look exactly like what was reported in
Chapter Four because students do not feel like they have anything new
to add or permission to discuss their interpretation of the results.
Remember, you have already reported the results in Chapter Four, so
Remember, you have already reported the results in Chapter Four, so
you do not need to repeat verbatim that information here. Instead, report
a brief summary or synthesis of the major results. The summary should
help answer the research questions.
After the brief summary of the major results, provide an interpretation of
the results. For this process, ask yourself, “What factors from the study
could have contributed or influenced these results?” This is where the
interpretation part comes in except that the interpretation is not based on
pure conjecture. Instead, it is based on your knowledge of what occurred
during the research study or supported by previous research. As the
primary researcher, you have more information about the study than
anyone else because you have spent a considerable amount of time and
energy at the research site interacting with or observing the participants.
Therefore, your interpretations should help explain, increase
understanding, or add a different perspective to the results. However,
since they are still considered personal interpretations of the results, be
careful not to use strong or definitive language such as “A was a direct
cause of B”; instead, use softer forms such as “A may have been related
to B” or “A could have been a result of B.” In addition, provide evidence
from the study or previous research to support your interpretation of the
results.
For example, in a study with a quantitative math intervention, the results

indicated that there was no significant difference between the pretest and
posttest mean scores (this would be a major result to include in the
discussion section). However, the lack of significant differences could
have been due to certain aspects related to the intervention that only the
researcher knew about. Perhaps there were certain parts of the
intervention that were not sensitive to the measurement instrument.
Maybe certain parts of the intervention were not implemented with 100%
fidelity. Oftentimes there are confounding factors that are outside of the
researcher’s control (e.g., weather conditions, school closures, illness,
absence). The interpretation can also provide an explanation of positive
results. Perhaps there were certain parts of the intervention that were
engaging and motivating to the participants that increased their math
scores, but unfortunately this was a small part of the intervention. By
providing additional information about the study, you are providing a
context for the reader that will help her understand and interpret the
results. However, be sure that the interpretations are supported by data
from the study or previous research. This is where it is helpful to refer
back to any field notes or journals and/or logs that you kept during the
study.
Here is an example of the Discussion section from a quantitative study

The Teaching Each other About Meaning (TEAM) intervention

was designed to assess the effects of peer-mediated instruction
on the inferential reading comprehension of elementary school
students with emotional disturbance who are performing at a
variety of reading levels. While the students were
chronologically in the 3rd through 7th grades, they were
performing approximately at the 1st- and 2nd-grade reading
levels. After working together in their peer-mediated-instruction
teams, students demonstrated some improvements in the areas
of Basic Skills (decoding) and Reading Comprehension skills on
the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised (WRMT-R).
Mean gains in grade equivalency and percentile rank were

statistically significant from pretest to posttest. The mean gain in
standard scores was not statistically significant. Through the
TEAM intervention, students were exposed to interesting and
varied grade-level passages, articles, and stories that were read
aloud by the researcher. Students then had to refer back to the
text to extract information for the various skills taught to them
during Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR). Documenting this
information on the CSR learning logs may have helped them
learn and remember new words. However, as the intervention
took about three months to complete (and was not focused on
decoding), it is difficult to determine whether the gain on the
Basic Skills subtest was due to the intervention or to the
increased language arts instruction that was conducted over the
intervention period.
On the Reading Comprehension subtest, four of seven students

made gains in grade equivalency, percentile rank, and standard
scores for reading comprehension. This may have been related
to the CSR tasks. The Preview task not only helped the students
generate interest in the text but also allowed them to connect to
their previous knowledge about the subject matter. The Click
and Clunk task helped the students break down and interpret
the meaning of unfamiliar words they encountered. The Get the
Gist task helped the students determine the main idea of what
they read. However, there were no statistically significant results
for grade equivalencies, percentile ranks, and standard scores
for the Reading Comprehension cluster. The WRMT-R
questions may not have assessed the specific types of reading
comprehension skills taught through CSR. In addition, the
comprehension skills taught through CSR. In addition, the
reading comprehension subtests required that the students read
the information independently (as opposed to having it read to
them). They may have been difficult for the students since the
items were read aloud to them during the TEAM intervention.
(Hess, 2008)
Here is an example of the Discussion section of major themes from a

qualitative study from a former student’s master’s thesis:
The major communicative factors that triggered negative

behaviors were peer “put-downs” and “horse play.” Based on
the observations, the “put-downs” and “horse play” started off as
playful and friendly. However, they may have been the
antecedent behavior to verbal and physical altercations between
students. For example, two African American male students,
both in the 9th grade, were observed using verbal put-downs
and laughing until one student said something about the other
student’s mother. That was when one of the students stood up
and began posturing at the other, threatening the student with
bodily harm. In another instance, two African American male
students, one in the 9th grade and the other in the 11th, were
observed “horse playing.” Another student who was observing
(a female African American student in the 12th grade) began
laughing and said to the 11th-grade student, “He just dipped
you!” The 11th-grade student then began to get rough with the
9th-grade student, and as the situation escalated, the two
students needed to be separated from each other.
The communicative factors that promoted positive behavior and

effective communication were using clear language, helping
students with their work, and one-on-one interaction. This could
possibly be due to an increase in clarity of expectations. Clear
communication and direct instruction may have been more
successful in promoting positive behavior than ambiguous or
negatively affective language because students were observed
engaging in more positive behaviors during
structured/supervised times. For example, the psychologist
never reported having behavior problems when conducting
assessments with students in a one-on-one situation.
Furthermore, negative behaviors were not observed when the
students were given clear instructions during the one-on-one
interviews for the data collection of this study. Conversely, when
the class was observed returning from lunch, only two out of five
the class was observed returning from lunch, only two out of five
students were given an assignment. The three students who did
not receive an assignment began to engage in verbal put-
downs, and the two students who did receive assignments
stopped working after five minutes and began to observe the
other three students. (Kendall, 2006)
Limitations
The third section is Limitations (this section typically has a level heading).
In this section, you will discuss the limitations and weaknesses of the
study. In Chapter One, there was a section on limitations; however, those
were the limitations based on the design of the study. Now that you have
completed the study, you are aware of additional limitations that occurred
during the study. Remember that all research studies have limitations or
weaknesses; as you become a more experienced researcher, you will
find ways to reduce the limitations, but you can never get rid of them
altogether. Thus, having limitations or weaknesses does not mean that
you did a bad job on your study. This just means that in research you are
rarely able to control all the variables or situations. What you are unable
to control becomes the focus of your limitations. The best way to handle
limitations and weaknesses in a study is to be honest and upfront about
them. Concealing, falsely reporting, or not reporting the limitations would
be considered unethical.
There are several benefits to discussing the limitations of the study. First,
you can learn from them. One way to prepare for this section is to ask, “If
I had to do the study again, what would I do differently?” This could be a
variety of things including changing the sampling plan, adapting the
measurement instruments, using different materials, changing the
timeline, taking more detailed notes, having more or fewer research sites,
asking different questions, and so on. By reflecting on the things that you
would do differently, this helps you grow as a researcher and ensures
you will not make the same mistakes on your next study! This also helps
you become a “critical consumer” of the research literature as you begin
to identify similar limitations/weaknesses in other studies.
Another benefit of the limitations section is that other researchers will

learn from them. By sharing the dos and don’ts, this will allow the next
researcher to modify his study before it is conducted to correct for these
limitations. For example, perhaps for a quantitative study, the next
researcher should plan for a longer intervention period. Perhaps for a
qualitative study, the next researcher should allow for more time and
fewer interview questions to obtain more in-depth responses from the
fewer interview questions to obtain more in-depth responses from the
participants.
In addition, the limitations may also help provide possible explanations
for disappointing or unexpected results. For example, perhaps many
students were unexpectedly absent or pulled out of class during an
intervention, or there were substantial behavioral problems that interfered
with the teaching. Perhaps there were an inordinate number of weather-
related issues that interfered with data collection (this has actually
happened to me!). These would be limitations that could affect the
study’s results. However, do not use the limitations section as a
justification or excuse for conducting unethical or low-quality research.
There is no tolerance for blaming participants or covering up unwanted
results.
Finally, when describing the limitations of the study, it is not sufficient to

list them. The purpose of the limitations section is to allow the reader to
make a judgment on how the limitations impacted the research. Thus,
you need to explain what the limitation was and why it was a limitation. In
other words, how did the limitations affect the validity of the results?
Remember that there are many different kinds of validity; there is the
validity or trustworthiness of the results for qualitative studies and internal
validity (variables within the study) and external validity (applicability
outside the study) for quantitative studies. Consider limitations as little
caution signs for the reader when extrapolating from the results.
Here is an example from the Limitations section of a former student’s
master’s thesis:
Although the TEAM intervention helped the students improve

their inferential reading comprehension skills and their social
skills, there were several limitations to the study. The first
limitation was related to the sample and sample size. The
sample size was very small—the self-contained classroom in
the nonpublic school consisted of 10 students at the beginning
of the intervention. During the study, three students were
discharged from the school due to extreme behaviors. A second
limitation was that the students were generally placed at this
school because they were unsuccessful in public school. The
students were all diagnosed with emotional disturbance (ED),
but some had dual diagnoses of learning disability or mild
mental retardation, while others had minimal issues with
learning. Therefore, both of these limitations have an impact on
external validity and make the results difficult to generalize to
other students with disabilities in special education settings.
Other limitations were related to the implementation of the

intervention. First, there were problems with the scheduling.
There were typically only two sessions per week; therefore,
there was a lot of time between lessons, and the students may
not have been able to retain information during the gaps in
lessons. Furthermore some of the students with ED displayed
extreme behaviors such as disruptions, tantrums, and crises
during several of the lessons, which caused some students to
be removed from the classroom by staff escort. This also meant
less staff was present in the classroom to monitor and assist the
peer tutoring teams. In addition, due to behavioral issues such
as extreme tantrums, pullouts due to therapy sessions, or
classroom disruptions, the researcher was not able to maintain
the same student teams throughout the program. Therefore,
partners were reassigned on a regular basis. The above
limitations affect the internal validity of the results—with a
greater number of sessions in a more condensed time frame,
consistency of partners within a team, and the appropriate
number of staff present, the results may have more accurately
reflected the impact of the intervention. (Hess, 2008)
Recommendations for Future Research

The fourth section is the Recommendations for Future Research (this
section typically has a level heading). There are several methods that
you can use to write this section. First, you can tie the recommendations
for future research to the issues that were identified in the limitations
section. In other words, which procedures should be changed by the next
researcher? With this method, the recommendations are based on the
weaknesses from your study. For example, perhaps you would
recommend adding another measurement instrument such as an
observation protocol for data triangulation. This will help the next
researcher modify her study to strengthen it. Another method to consider
is to suggest recommendations on how your study could be continued or
expanded. Remember that your study added to an existing body of
research, so your suggestions should also build from the previous
research. In other words, what are the next steps to extend the findings
that were produced in the study? This will help the next researcher
identify gaps that still exist in the literature. For example, perhaps you
would recommend implementing the intervention with a different sample
group such as adults or a more diverse sample. By including these two
types of recommendations, you are making a major contribution to your
field in terms of moving the research base forward and launching the next
line of studies.
Here is an example of Recommendations for Future Research section
Based on the results of the study, there are several

recommendations for future research. First, some of the
limitations outlined in this study may be minimized or eliminated
in a revised implementation of the Student Choice treatment. To
improve or verify the accuracy of the data collection, interrater
reliability could be used to cross check the number of off-task
behaviors exhibited and verify the portion of the instruction in
which they occurred. Second, to identify which of the
components of the Student Choice treatment had the largest
impact on the decrease or increase of off-task behaviors, each
of the components could be introduced separately. In addition,
to determine whether the number of exhibited off-task behaviors
remains consistent for longer than three weeks, the treatment
phase should be extended. Third, this study did not measure
student satisfaction and perceptions toward the increase in
choices and decision-making opportunities. Future studies
should employ a student survey or interviewing procedure to
measure student perceptions toward the Student Choice
treatment. Finally, this study only measured the impact of the
Student Choice treatment on the off-task behavior of students
with learning disabilities. Future studies could implement the
treatment and measure the impact on students with other
disabilities such as emotional/behavioral disorders or attention
deficit disorders. (Rau, 2006)
Conclusion
The last section of the chapter is the Conclusion (this section typically
has a level heading). In this section, you will identify at least three critical
conclusions based on the results of the study. One way to think about
this is to ask, “What are the three main lessons learned from the study?”
Your conclusions are like a synthesis of the major findings. For example,
perhaps one of the major conclusions from a study on cyberbullying was
that the middle school students’ level of psychological health was
positively related to time spent with adult mentors and caretakers. The
conclusions may also include unintended but significant discoveries that
were made as a result of the study. However, base the conclusions on
the findings of the study, and avoid overstating or overgeneralizing the
findings (i.e., do not claim that you discovered the fountain of youth). If
appropriate, you may also reference previous research that either
substantiates or contradicts your conclusions.
After you have identified each major conclusion, discuss the implications
of the conclusion. The implications are recommendations for how to
bridge the “research to practice” and can be in the form of actions,
policies, or procedures. For example, one implication from the study
above would be for adult mentors and caretakers to set aside a period of
“sacred” time during the week to spend with the middle school students.
These implications are critical because the reader has some guidance for
how to actualize and benefit from the conclusions.
Here are four different examples of Conclusion sections from various

students’ master’s theses. For each example, there is an advance
organizer, which states the major conclusions, and then a discussion
around one of the conclusions with implications.
1. Three major conclusions can be made from this study (Gomes,

2008). The first conclusion is that using the graphic novels may have
improved the reading comprehension of some students with
Asperger’s (AS) because they provided the students with visual
images. The second conclusion is that using graphic novels may not
be effective for students who have very low levels of reading
comprehension. The third conclusion is that the students’ motivation
and amount of time spent reading was increased after reading the
graphic novels, possibly translating to increased reading
comprehension.
The first conclusion is that reading graphic novels improved the

reading comprehension of some students who had low reading
comprehension and high decoding skills. Other studies have
noted the correlation between reading comprehension and
decoding but have not yet identified the root cause of poor
reading comprehension skills for students who have high
decoding skills. In schools with students with AS and other
autism spectrum disorders, using graphic novels may help
bridge the gap between high decoding and low reading
comprehension, allowing these students to be successful in an
comprehension, allowing these students to be successful in an
academic environment. On a broader scale, similar results may
be found for students exhibiting like characteristics in a general
education setting.
If this gap exists because these students are not creating visual
images when reading, graphic novels may provide students with
the visualizations needed to comprehend the text. Though this
may not be universally effective for all students with AS, using
graphic novels in a Language Arts class could be a strategy that
teachers can use to help some students with AS. Teachers may
also want to consider incorporating visual images into other
aspects of teaching outside of Language Arts. Using visual
images to correspond with written directions may help with a
student’s comprehension of the directions. Additionally, visual
images could be used to illustrate historical events or to explain
a scientific process rather than just relying on text.
2. The results of this intervention led to four major conclusions (Irey,

2008). The first conclusion is repeated reading was an effective
strategy in terms of improving reading pace although not for
decreasing errors for students with learning disabilities (LD) or who
are English learners (EL). Error correction with corrective feedback
was effective in decreasing errors although its effect on reading pace
was minimal, and prosody instruction appears to have had a minimal
effect on rate and a moderate effect on decreasing errors. The
second conclusion is that the intervention was successful in
increasing the student’s reading comprehension. The third
conclusion is that the students’ prosody skill levels improved through
fluency instruction. The fourth conclusion is that students’ attitudes
toward reading improved after the intervention.
Several fluency strategies were used in this study. Each

appears to have strengths and weaknesses in terms of student
achievement. Repeated readings were found to have a
significant effect on reading rate but not for error correction.
However, error correction and corrective feedback can be added
to repeated readings to strengthen the intervention. The addition
of prosodic instruction did not greatly affect reading rate, but it
did serve to decrease the number of errors made.
Students will be well served by teachers who select the most
appropriate strategy for the needs of each student. The time and
effort required by implementing error correction and corrective
effort required by implementing error correction and corrective
feedback would not serve the needs of a student who makes
minimal errors but needs to increase his rate of reading.
Conversely, a student who reads at an appropriate pace but
makes multiple errors would not benefit from an intervention of
only repeated reading. By determining the appropriate strategy
to address each individual’s needs, educators will be able to
provide all students the opportunity to reach his or her full
academic potential.
3. Several conclusions can be made based on the results of this study

(Hess, 2008). One of the conclusions is that students with emotional
disturbance (ED) benefit from direct instruction in social skills.
Another conclusion is that peer-mediated instruction is an engaging
and effective method for delivering reading comprehension
instruction. A third conclusion is that students with ED appeared to
perform better in the program when staff was facilitating the team’s
activities.
The results of this study indicated that students with ED

benefited from explicit instruction and modeling of social skills.
When a new social skill was introduced through the TEAM
intervention, the students listened to an explanation of the skill
and how to use it, discussed the skill and how it was relevant to
them, watched and participated in teacher modeling of
examples (and non-examples) of the skill, practiced with a peer,
and then implemented the skill in the program. Many programs
designed to incorporate cooperative learning relating to reading
skills do not have a sufficient emphasis on the social skills
involved in working together as a team. As students with ED
often have difficulty with peer interactions, they need explicit
instruction in how to teach, learn from, and cooperate with their
peers. The results of this study indicated that student behaviors
did improve as a result of the TEAM intervention. Therefore,
students with ED would benefit from direct instruction in social
skills prior to (and during) peer-mediated instruction or
cooperative grouping. Explicit social skills instruction in the
classroom could help educators minimize disruptive behaviors
and foster more positive communication between peers.
4. The present study illuminated some salient findings within the area
of effective communication in classrooms serving students with
emotional disturbance (ED) and learning disabilities (LD) (Kendall,
2006). First, the power of verbal and nonverbal communication in a
classroom setting to influence behavior either positively or negatively
by specific means was revealed. The greater implication of this
finding is that classrooms serving students with ED/LD often place
the fault and blame of students’ negative behaviors on the student
rather than considering factors such as tone of voice, levels of
ambiguity, body tension, and other forms of communicative intent of
the educators. On the other hand, the root of all conflicts cannot
rightfully be placed on the communication styles of the educator. A
deeper awareness of the way educators come across within a
cultural framework of the population they serve could only benefit in
preventing the conflicts and misunderstandings between both
educators and students that often invariably lead to negative
behavior blowouts. Teachers and educators may consider getting
additional training in cultural sensitivity to avoid these
misunderstandings with the populations that they serve.
Second, it was revealed by the student and staff participants in

the study that students with ED and LD wanted more
individualized assistance with academic tasks, and furthermore,
students’ behavior was positively impacted by prolonged,
individualized help. Currently, in high school special education
classrooms for students with ED, teachers may often focus
more on students’ behavior than academics. This may not be
that irrational being that recurring negative behavior can be a
major impediment to student learning. However, it could be
argued that when students do not receive academic instruction
at their instructional level combined with individualized help, this
could be a causal factor for frustration, acting out, and
incomplete assignments. The greater implication for this finding
was that behavior needed to be analyzed on a deeper level than
prevalence. Understanding the causal factors of negative
behaviors may be a more effective tool for analysis than simply
recording the occurrence of negative behaviors. Therefore,
when students act inappropriately, teachers should be aware of
the antecedent events and consider a causal framework for the
negative behavior.
After you have completed the conclusion section, it is typical to have one
last closing paragraph. You are probably thinking, “She’s not seriously
expecting me to write one more sentence! What more could I possibly
say?” The closing paragraph is typically your final thoughts and reflection
say?” The closing paragraph is typically your final thoughts and reflection
on the entire study. As these will be the last sentences in the thesis, they
should leave a lasting and profound impression on the reader.
Summary
Chapter Five is perhaps the most significant chapter in the thesis
because it provides interpretations and conclusions of the major
findings from the study. Chapter Five may also be one of the most
difficult chapters to write because it involves synthesizing the
results to draw out the “lessons learned.” In this chapter, you are
also providing the implications or applications of the findings for
the reader. In the next chapter, I discuss the APA editorial style
and other formatting issues to help you complete the master’s
thesis and get it ready for printing and binding. Here is a summary
of the most critical points from Chapter 9:
Chapter Five can be divided into five main sections: (a)

Introduction, (b) Discussion, (c) Limitations, (d)
Recommendations for Future Research, and (e) Conclusions.
One way to organize the discussion section is to use the

three parallel ladders strategy and write the discussion of the
results in the same order they were reported in Chapter Four.
The interpretations of the results should help explain,

increase understanding, or add a different perspective to the
results.
All research studies have limitations or weaknesses. As you

become a more experienced researcher, you will find ways to
reduce the limitations, but you can never get rid of them
altogether.
There are several benefits to discussing the limitations of the
study: (a) learn from your mistakes, (b) help other
researchers learn from your mistakes, and (c) provide
possible explanations for disappointing or unexpected results.
When describing the limitations of the study, explain what the
limitation was and why it was a limitation.
One method to write the recommendations for future
research section is to connect the recommendations to the
issues that were identified in the limitations section.
Another method to write the recommendations for future

research section is to offer suggestions on how your study
could be continued or expanded based on previous research.
Base the conclusions on the findings in the study; avoid

overstating or over-generalizing the findings.
The implications of the conclusions are recommendations for

how to bridge the “research to practice” and can be in the
form of actions, policies, or procedures.
Resources

Solutions
1. A common obstacle that students face in writing Chapter Five
is interpreting the findings. Words that come to mind are
“What does this really mean?” The best way to overcome this
obstacle is to review your journal notes (I hope you kept
those updated!). The notes will remind you of the procedures
that were used during the study and perhaps shed light on
situations or events that were irregular or unexpected. In
addition, definitely meet with your chairperson. You have
been so immersed in reporting the minute details that
sometimes it is difficult to tie them back to the research
questions and purpose of the study. Speaking with your
chairperson or someone familiar with your study will help you
make these connections.
2. Another common obstacle faced by students is finding the
major conclusions from the study. Although you have
reported a summary of the major findings and interpretations,
sometimes the overall conclusions are not so obvious. Words
that come to mind are “What is the bigger lesson here?” One
thing to always keep in mind is the original purpose of the
study and the research questions—ultimately, did you find
what you were looking for? The major conclusions could be
related to one of the research questions or focus of the study.
However, sometimes a major conclusion could be something
that you found but were not looking for at all. These
unanticipated conclusions are sometimes even more
beneficial than confirming preset hypotheses because they
expand your perspective and knowledge about the research
topic beyond what was expected or indicated in the research
literature.
When you discuss your study’s findings in Chapter Five, it is
important to understand the differences in reporting results versus
making interpretations about the results. The following
reflection/discussion questions will help guide you through the
discussion process.
1. What are different kinds of limitations and weaknesses that

could exist in a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods
study? Give examples of limitations that may have occurred
in your study. Discuss how these limitations affect the
internal/external validity or quality of the results.
2. What are the differences among making interpretations,
conclusions, and implications about a study’s findings? Give
one example of each and discuss how they are interrelated.
Try It Exercises
Five. In Activity One, you will outline the first four major sections
of Chapter Five and begin to flesh out the components. In Activity
Two, you will write an outline of the conclusions section.
1. Activity One: For this activity, focus on the results or findings
that were reported in Chapter Four.
Based on your research design, you will create an

outline of three major sections in Chapter Five (e.g.,
discussion, limitations, and recommendations).
For each section, write at least three bullet points (they

do not have to be complete sentences) of what you will
include to answer these questions:
A. Summarize the major findings. What interpretations

could be made around these findings?
B. What were some of the limitations? How do the

limitations affect the internal/external validity or
quality of the findings?
C. What recommendations do you have for future

research?
Meet with your chairperson to discuss the bullet points
before writing each section.
2. Activity Two: For this activity, focus on the synthesis of the

major findings.
Write one conclusion (one paragraph) based on a

synthesis of the major findings.
Write one implication of the conclusion (one paragraph).
Meet with your chairperson to discuss the conclusion

and implication before moving on to the next two
conclusions.
Key Terms
external validity 205
internal validity 205

purposeful redundancy 199
Suggested Readings
American Educational Research Association. (n.d.). Standards for
reporting empirical social science research in AERA publications.
Retrieved from
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0013189X035006033
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2018). The SAGE handbook of

qualitative research (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Plano Clark, V. L., & Creswell, J. W. (2008). The mixed methods

reader. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Şanlı, Ö., Erdem, S., & Tefik, T. (2013). How to write a discussion
section? Turkish Journal of Urology, 39(Suppl. 1), 20–24.
Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.5152/tud.2013.049
Web Links
American Psychological Association (Discussing Your Findings)
http://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2006/01/findings.aspx
Free Management Library: Analyzing, Interpreting and Reporting

Basic Research Results
http://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/analysis.htm
USC Research Guides: The Discussion

https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/discussion

Back to Figure
The three boxes on the first row are labeled introduction, discussion and
limitations respectively. The two on the second row are labeled
recommendations for future research and conclusions respectively.
Back to Figure
The first three rungs of both ladders are labeled:
The first three rungs of both ladders are labeled:
Major Theme 1, Major Theme 2 and Major Theme 3.
An arrow from each of the major theme rungs on the left under chapter
four, points to the respective major theme rung on the right, under
chapter five.
10 WRAPPING IT ALL UP
APA Style 217
Levels of Heading 218
Citations in Text 221
Direct Quotes 222
Paraphrasing 222
One Work, One Author 222
One Work, Multiple Authors 222
Two or More Works 223
Reference List 224
Order and Format 224
Tables 226
Tables in Text 229
Placement and Spacing 229

Title 231
Headings and Body 231
Notes 232
Figures 232
Figures in Text 233
Placement, Size, and Font 233
Captions and Legends 233
Graphs 234
Final Formatting 235
Appendixes 235
Appendixes in Text 235
Placement and Cover Pages 235
Front Pages 236
Title Page 236
Signature Page 237
Acknowledgments 237
Abstract 237
Table of Contents 239
Lists of Tables and Figures 239
Final Tips and Checklist 239

Copying and Binding 241
Next Steps: Presenting at Conferences and Getting Published 241

Summary 243
Resources 244
Key Terms 245
Web Links 246
There are three rules for writing the novel. Unfortunately, no one
knows what they are.
—W. Somerset Maugham
A hearty congratulations for completing the text of your master’s thesis!

You should feel really proud of yourself. Now that you have completed
the bulk of the work, we will focus on putting on the final touches and
wrapping it all up! Yes, every muscle and joint in your back aches from all
the sitting, and you have blisters on your fingertips from all the typing.
Your vision is fuzzy, and you feel light-headed from staring at the
computer screen. But wait! What is that sound you hear? No, those are
not voices in your head; those are the screams from your loved ones on
the sidelines cheering you on! In fact, if you wipe away the sweat, you
can actually see the finish line! Now is not the time to slow down but
rather to regroup and reenergize for the last leg of the race. Depending
on how much formatting you have completed up to this point, this may
take a bit of time, so keep the momentum going knowing there are loved
ones waiting for you on the other side of the finish line!
This chapter includes the style and format of the thesis using the sixth
edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (APA, 2010). As mentioned, the APA style is commonly used
in various social science disciplines such as education, psychology,
sociology, business, economics, nursing, and social work. The American
Psychological Association uses the APA style to publish all its books and
journals. Two other common style forms are the Modern Language
Association (MLA) style and the University of Chicago style. Check with
your institution or department to find out which style form is required for
your thesis. Typically, the style form requirements are included in
documents made available from the graduate school or your department.
However, confirm with your chairperson that you are following the correct
form.
When referring to a particular style such as APA, publishers are focusing

on the editorial style in addition to the writing style. This includes rules
and guidelines on how to format level headings, citations, references,
tables, figures, statistics, and so on. By following a particular style, the
publisher ensures that the printed material is consistent and uniform
(think of it like a common language). While this common language is
important to publishers, it is of equal importance to academic disciplines
and institutions of higher education for many of the same reasons. Keep
in mind that style forms do change. When this occurs, the changes are
published through revisions or addendums of the APA manual (check to
make sure you are using the most current version). Updates and
electronic resources are also posted on the APA website
(http://apastyle.apa.org).
There is quite a bit of information in the publication manual, which can be

overwhelming at first glance. However, much of it may not apply to the
master’s thesis. Therefore, in this chapter, I focus on only those sections
that are most relevant to the typical thesis. Depending on your discipline,
you may have some rather unique formatting needs and will need to refer
to the APA manual for specific queries. At the end of this chapter, I also
make suggestions on other formatting issues that are not in the APA
manual that I have found to be useful for the master’s thesis.

There are several tasks that need to be completed in preparation for the
final formatting process. First, make sure you have all the sources that
were cited in the text or know where to find them (we discuss how to
format the citations and references later). This is often the task that
requires the most work if you have not been keeping track of the sources
requires the most work if you have not been keeping track of the sources
throughout the writing process or using a reference management
software program. Second, make sure that you have all the data
available in an easy-to-read format. These will be needed to prepare
tables and figures. Third, make sure that all the text has been edited in
Chapters One through Five. Since you will be developing a table of
contents based on the existing document, the text needs to be in its final
draft to determine the appropriate level headings and page numbers.
Finally, prepare clean blank photocopies of all the materials and
measurement instruments that were used, including the Institutional
Review Board (IRB) cover letter, consent forms, intervention materials,
surveys, tests, interview questions, observation protocols, and so on (see
Appendixes A, B, and C of this volume for samples). These will be
included as the appendixes in the thesis. Doing these preparation and
organizational tasks first will make the formatting process much quicker
and less stressful for you in the end.
APA STYLE
Once you have completed all the necessary preparation tasks, you can
start the final editorial process in APA style. I highly recommend that you
have a copy of the most recent APA publication manual (or the electronic
version) handy at all times. The manual has over 200 pages of rules,
guidelines, and examples. However, I do not recommend reading the
manual from cover to cover (unless you are having trouble sleeping).
Instead, it is a great tool that you can refer to for specific style elements.
The sixth edition manual is divided into eight chapters. Chapter 1 focuses
on different types of articles and ethical considerations for publishing.
Chapters 2 and 8 focus on preparing manuscripts and the publication
process for academic journals. I highly recommend reading these
chapters when you are ready to submit your thesis for publication to a
journal in your field. Chapters 3 and 4 focus on the writing style aspects
such as the style, grammar, and mechanics. I do not focus on these two
chapters as much (except for the APA heading style), but I do
recommend that you read them because there are some very good
writing strategies and examples for language usage and grammar (see
Appendix D in this volume for additional writing tips). Chapter 3 also has
suggestions on how to reduce bias in your writing. Chapters 5 and 6 of
the APA manual focus on the editorial style aspects such as formatting
tables and figures, citations, and references. There are numerous
examples of reference examples in Chapter 7.
In this chapter, I focus on specific editorial style sections of the APA
manual. I discuss briefly how to format the following elements since these
are most relevant to the master’s thesis and often confusing to students:
(a) headings, (b) citations, (c) references, (d) tables, and (e) figures.
Since presenting statistics was covered in Chapter 8 of this volume (see
Chapter 4 in the APA manual), I do not review that information here. To
guide you in this process, I first discuss the APA style rules in general.
Then I provide examples. I have also listed numerous resources at the
end of the chapter to assist you with applying APA style.
In addition to covering APA style, I discuss the final format sections of the
master’s thesis that I have used with my graduate students. These are
not necessarily in APA style. These include the appendixes and a section
that I call the front pages. The front pages include the title and signature
pages, acknowledgments, abstract, table of contents, and lists of tables
and figures. Check with your chairperson or program to see if there are
formatting rules and guidelines for the appendixes and front pages.
Levels of Heading
One element of APA style is determining the levels of heading to use in
the thesis. This is like solving a Rubik’s cube—very difficult to solve
initially, but once you are proficient, it becomes routine. The levels of
heading refer to the organizational structure or hierarchy of the sections.
They inform the reader of the importance of the sections and whether
they are main sections or subsections. Sections that are of equal
importance are on the same number level heading, while subsections
would be on a different number level heading. In the sixth edition of the
APA manual, the heading style was immensely simplified, so now it is
much easier to determine how many levels of headings you need and
how to format them.
In APA style, there are five possible levels of heading (see Figure 10.1).
Keep in mind that the number of level headings is different from the
number level heading. Huh? The number of level headings refers to the
quantity of level headings you use. The maximum number of level
headings is five. The number level heading refers to a specific heading
location. There are five different locations, and the headings can be at
Level 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. Note in Figure 10.1 that the number level headings
are in numerical order; the top level heading is Level 1, then Level 2, and
so on. A good way to determine how many levels will be required in your
thesis is to look at your initial outline. How many sections and
subsections are there in each chapter? Are there larger sections that
could be divided into smaller subsections?
In Figure 10.2, there is an example with five levels of heading from
Chapter One of a sample thesis. As you read down the levels, each
descending level acts as a subheading for the previous level (i.e., Level 2
is a subheading for Level 1, Level 3 is a subheading for Level 2, and so
on). Note that even though Levels 3, 4, and 5 headings end with a period,
the heading does not have to be a complete sentence. When you have
multiple levels of heading, you can have as many of the same number
level headings as necessary. These show that the sections are of equal
importance. For example, you can have three Level 4 headings as
subheadings to one Level 3 heading. In Figure 10.3, there is an example
with four levels of heading from Chapter One of a sample thesis that also
has multiple subheadings at the same number level. Note how the Level
3 heading, Students with disabilities, has two subheadings at Level 4,
and the same is true for the Level 3 heading, Bilingual learners. In this
figure, I have also indicated where you would start to write the text.
Obviously, you would not include the labels of each level in your thesis—
those are included here to help you see the different levels and how they
relate to one other.
Description
Figure 10.1 Five levels of heading in APA style.
Description
Figure 10.2 Five levels of heading from sample Chapter

One.
Description
Figure 10.3 Four levels of heading from Chapter One with

multiple subheadings.
For the master’s thesis, it is rare that you would need five levels of
headings; three or four levels are more common. Check with your
chairperson regarding how many levels of headings is recommended. I
typically advise students to use three levels of heading because large
sections can be divided into smaller subsections, which makes the text
more reader friendly. In addition, with three levels, you can use the three
parallel ladders strategy. For example, the title of the chapter is at Level 1
(e.g., Chapter One, Chapter Two), the main sections in the chapter are at
Level 2 (e.g., Statement of the Problem, Purpose of the Study,
Procedures), and the subsections for each main section are at Level 3
(e.g., Problem area number one). In Figure 10.4, there is an example
with three levels of heading from Chapter One of a sample thesis. Note
that both the Statement of the Problem and Background and Need
sections have multiple Level 3 subheadings. These would be the three
subsections for the three parallel ladders strategy.
Citations in Text
The next element in APA style is how to cite sources (referred to as
works) in the text of the thesis. This is extremely important for several
reasons. First, readers may want to read the source document, and they
will need an accurate citation. Second, including citations from the
research literature adds credibility to support your claims. Third, you
should give appropriate credit to the work that you are citing. If you do not
give appropriate credit to the original work, this is considered a form of
plagiarism, which is a very serious offense akin to stealing. Citations of
works are necessary when you use a direct quote or paraphrase
someone else’s words, ideas, or research findings. Be very careful when
paraphrasing, because simply changing the order of the words or
substituting a few words can still be considered plagiarism (see the
website on plagiarism, http://www.plagiarism.org). Academic institutions
have a zero tolerance for any form of plagiarism, and this can result in
not receiving your degree or having it revoked (not to mention any legal
or monetary penalties).
Description
Figure 10.4 Three levels of heading from sample Chapter

One.
Direct quotes
One of the items that you must cite is a direct quote. However, I would
recommend using direct quotes sparingly and only if paraphrasing the
original work would not capture the essence of the message. Since a
page number is required for direct quotes, it is always preferable to have
a PDF reproduction of the written material if possible. If you are quoting a
lengthy passage (e.g., more than 500 words) from copyrighted material,
you may need to get permission from the copyright holder. If you cite a
direct quote, put the exact words in quotation marks and write the
author’s last name, year of publication, and page number of where the
quote is located in parentheses at the end of the quote. Here is an
example:
“I am only using this direct quote because I could not

paraphrase it” (Bui, 2020, p. 14).
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing
Another case in which items must be cited in the text is when you
paraphrase ideas, words, or findings. There are multiple ways to do this,
depending on the number of authors, type of author, number of works,
source of the material, and so on. I give common examples of how to
reference a citation in the text for different numbers of authors or works.
For specific queries or other circumstances, please refer to the APA
manual or website.
One Work, One Author

A common citation is one work by one author. This consists of the
author’s last name and the year of publication. There are two different
formats. The first format is when the author is the subject of the
sentence. When this is the case, the year of publication is put in
parentheses. Note that the verb “argued” is in the past tense to indicate
that the research has already been conducted. Here is an example:
Bui (2020) argued that having a dog as a companion extended

people’s life spans.
The second format is used when the citation is at the end of the
paraphrased sentence or paragraph to support the text. When this is the
case, the author’s last name and year of publication are separated by a
comma and put in parentheses. Here is an example of the second
format:
Having a dog as a companion may extend a person’s life span

(Bui, 2020).
One Work, Multiple Authors
If there are multiple authors (between two and five) for one work, they are
listed similarly with their last names and year of publication. If the authors
are listed as subjects in the sentence, separate the names with commas
and spell out the word “and” between the second to last and last author.
The year of publication is in parentheses after the listing of the authors. If
The year of publication is in parentheses after the listing of the authors. If
the citation is at the end of the sentence, put the authors’ names in
parentheses, separate them with commas, and use an ampersand (&)
between the second to last and last author. After the last author, put a
comma and the year of publication. Here are examples of multiple
authors in both formats:
Bui and Meyen (2020) argued that having a dog as a companion

extended people’s life spans. Having a dog as a companion
may extend a person’s life span (Bui, Rodriguez, & Meyen,
2020). [three authors]
Keep the listing of the authors in their original order from the article even
if it is not in alphabetical order. This is critical because authors are
usually listed in a particular order based on their contribution to the
manuscript. If there are three, four, or five authors, you can shorten the
citation to reduce space (after the first full citation) by using “et al.” (which
means “and others”) after the first author’s last name and then the
publication date. If there are six or more authors for one work, you would
automatically use the “et al.” format. For example,
Bui et al. (2020) argued that having a dog as a companion

extended people’s life spans. Having a dog as a companion
may extend a person’s life span (Bui et al., 2020).
Two or More Works

There will be times when you need to cite two or more works with a
variety of single or multiple authorships for the same idea. In this case,
you would keep the individual authors in the order that they appear in the
work and then list the works in alphabetical order by the first author’s last
name. The works are separated with semicolons. Here is an example:
Several studies have indicated that having a dog as a

companion may extend the life span (Bui, 2020; Garcia, 2017;
Meyen & Brewster, 2018; Nguyen, Edwards, Alia, & Jackson,
2019).
Note how the works are listed in alphabetical order, but within each work,
the authors are listed as they would appear in a separate citation.
Reference List
All the works that are cited in the text (excluding a few exceptions) will be
included in the reference list at the end of the thesis. Therefore, it is
imperative that they match! In other words, if the work is cited in the text,
it must be in the reference list, and vice versa. In addition, the citation in
the text (e.g., spelling and order of the authors, year of publication) will be
exactly the same as the citation in the reference list. Thus, be very
careful not to miss any references in either location, and you should also
compare them to make sure they are identical. The reference list is
intended to give credit to the source and allow readers to retrieve the
sources that were cited in your thesis. This means providing as much
specific information as possible about the author, year, title, source, and
retrieval location (for online sources). Include the digital object identifier
(DOI) if one is assigned. The DOI is a unique code of letters and
numbers that provide a link to the article’s location on the Internet (think
of it as a tracking device). Typically, the DOI can be found on the first
page of the article and should be copied exactly as it is written. If you
retrieved the periodical online and there is no DOI, you can list the URL
home page for the journal. If the URL is very long and you need to
continue the address on the next line, do not put in a hyphen; separate
before a punctuation mark such as a slash or period. After you have
listed the URL in the reference list, test it to make sure that it works! The
different ways to list references are so numerous that Chapter 7 (30
pages!) in the APA manual is devoted to this cause. Thus, it would be
impractical to discuss every possible configuration you might encounter.
Please refer to the APA manual for specific queries. If you have been
using a reference manager software program, most of the hard work is
done for you!
Order and format
APA has strict rules about how to order and format the reference list. The
references are listed in alphabetical order by the last name of the first
author, name of the group, or title of the work when there is no author
provided. In general, the listing follows typical rules for alphabetical order
(see APA manual for exceptional cases). For example, the
author/group/title starting with A would precede those starting with B, and
so on. The APA manual recommends double spacing in the reference list
for a journal manuscript, but single spacing is allowed within references
(use a double space between references) for the thesis. Check with your
chairperson to see if single or double spacing is preferred for your thesis.
There are a few general formatting rules. First, list each reference using a
hanging indent. A hanging indent is when the first line is flushed all the
way to the left margin and the rest of the lines in the reference are
indented one-half inch. This makes it easier to read down the list to find
specific references and helps separate the references from each other.
Second, in addition to listing the last name, always include the first and
middle initials (if given) of the author’s full name. This helps distinguish
between authors with the same last name. Third, list the publication year
in parentheses or “n.d.” if no date is provided. Finally, use sentence
capitalization to write the title of the work. Sentence capitalization is
when only the first word of the title and proper nouns are capitalized (like
in a regular sentence). Unlike the citations in the text, the titles do not
have quotation marks around them in the reference list.
In Figures 10.5–10.9 there are many examples of different types of

references that you could use in a master’s thesis. In Figure 10.5, there is
a sample reference list. Notice how there are many different types of
references, including a journal article, book, book chapter, and online
source. In Figure 10.6, there are different examples of journal articles
from a reference list. Notice how they are listed in alphabetical order by
the author’s last name. In Figure 10.7, there are different examples of
books and book chapters from a reference list in alphabetical order.
Notice when it is an edited book or when there are different editions of
the books. In Figure 10.8, there are examples of different online journal
articles and documents from a reference list in alphabetical order. Notice
how the citation leads to the specific URL web address. In Figure 10.9,
there are examples of different websites and webpages from a reference
list in alphabetical order. Notice how some of the web pages do not have
publication dates listed. These are just a sampling of possible references;
if you have some that do not fit into these categories, be sure to check
the APA manual or website.
Description
Figure 10.5 Condensed sample reference list.
Tables
Tables are another element of APA style that students often have
difficulty with in the thesis. Since there are 42 pages devoted to how to
format tables in the APA manual (Chapter 5), I can definitely sympathize!
A table is an alternative method to communicate ideas, words, or findings
in the thesis. Number tables are typically used to portray data from a
quantitative study (e.g., results in Chapter Four), and word tables are
sometimes necessary for findings from a qualitative study. Researchers
will also sometimes include a table to describe participants’ demographic
data (e.g., methods in Chapter Three). When considering whether or not
to include a table in the thesis, you should first decide if it is necessary.
Sometimes it is more effective to present information in text format (and
will save you a lot of time and effort). However, there are a few occasions
when it is recommended to use a table. First, the table should increase
efficiency for the reader. Sometimes presenting information in the text,
especially when there are a lot of data, can be dense or rambling, and
the reader can get lost in all the words. A table is a great way to convey
information in a more efficient manner. Second, the table should
supplement the text rather than duplicate it. In other words, the
information in the table should extend or enhance the information that is
in the text. If the table matches exactly what is in the text, then decide
which is more efficient and select only one approach. Third, the table
should allow for easy comparison between groups or participants. For
example, in quantitative studies, sometimes you will have pre- and
posttest scores or scores from different groups. In qualitative studies, you
might have quotes to support a major theme. Presenting this information
in the text might be too cumbersome and confusing for readers to keep
track of which group performed better or who said what, so a table is a
great way to show comparative data between participants and groups.
Description
Figure 10.6 Examples of journal articles in a reference list.

Description
Figure 10.7 Examples of books, reference books, and book

chapters in a reference list.
Description
Figure 10.8 Examples of different online journal articles

and documents in a reference list.
Description
Figure 10.9 Examples of websites and webpages in

reference list.
If you have decided to include a table, follow the three “C” rules for
design: comprehensibility, clarity, and consistency. The first rule is
comprehensibility. Since a table is a communicative tool, the reader
should be able to understand it instantly. In other words, the table should
be able to stand on its own. The reader should not have to guess what
table headings or data in the body represent or refer back to the text to
understand the table. The second rule is clarity. For the table to stand on
its own, it is critical that the title, headings (e.g., for rows and columns),
and data clearly convey the information. All uncommon abbreviations
should be spelled out in the title or explained in the notes. The table
should be easy to read and not distracting with superfluous information.
Finally, the last rule is consistency. The presentation of the table needs to
be consistent within and between tables. This means using similar
formatting for titles and headings, being consistent with terminology, and
expressing values in the same manner (e.g., decimal points, unit of
measurement).
Formatting a table in APA style is like measuring happiness: There are
many different ways to do it, and it depends on the message that you
want to convey. There is no one best way, but if you follow the three Cs
you will create a table that is organized and efficient for the reader. In the
next few sections, I provide a few general tips on how to refer to and
format a table. For queries on specific types of tables, please refer to the
APA manual (there are many different sample tables in Chapter 5).
Tables in text
When discussing a table in the text, number the table in the order that it
appears. For example, the first table that you refer to in the text would be
Table 1, then Table 2, and so on. Then give a brief description of what
the table entails. Here are two examples:
The participants in the study were very diverse. Table 1 displays

the participants’ demographic data.
The participants in the study were very diverse (see Table 1 for
participants’ demographic data).
You can also highlight some of the major findings of the table, but
remember that the text and table should not be redundant.
Placement and spacing

APA has recommendations for where to place tables and what type of
spacing to use in the body of tables. In a manuscript for publication for a
journal, the table is placed at the end of the manuscript text. However, for
student theses and dissertations, APA allows the table to be included
within the text close to where it was first mentioned. A short table can
share the page where it was mentioned, while a long table would be on
the next page by itself. I prefer students to put tables at the end of the
thesis for readability purposes; check with your chairperson to see where
you should place the tables.
Table 1 Students’ Mean Scores by Ethnicity on the Arc’s Self-Determination Scale
Psych.
Psych.
Autonomy Self-Regulation
Empowerment
Ethnicity Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest
African 59 59 29 62 62 75
American
Boys 49 59 40 60 58 77
Girls 69 73 29 75* 65 79
American 40 30 43 43 75 75
Indian
Boys 49 59 40 60 58 77
Girls
Asian 50 66 33 33 75 81
American
Boys 49 59 40 60 __ __
Girls 69 73 24 75* 65 79
Caucasian 46 67 95 71 94 94
Boys 49 59 40 60 58 77
Girls 69 73 29 75 65 79
Latino/Hispanic 92 83 52 81* 88 88
Boys 49 59 40 60 58 77
Girls 69 73 34 75* 40a 79*
Note. Psych. = Psychological. Maximum score = 100. A dash indicates that the score was not
available. Adapted from “Transition from School to Work,” by Y. N. Bui, 2006, Journal for
Educators, 84, p. 81. Copyright 2006 by the American Association of Educators.
a
Three students did not complete the entire subscale.
* p <.05
Regarding spacing for a manuscript for publication, everything in the

table is double-spaced. Again, APA makes some adjustments for student
papers and allows single-spacing for table titles and headings. I prefer
students to use double spacing because it makes the table easier to
read. I also want students to use the regular APA rules so that they will
be prepared to publish their work! Ask your chairperson if you should use
single- or double-spacing in tables.
Title
Regarding selecting a title, it should be evident from the title what data
are being presented in the table; this follows the rule of comprehensibility.
However, the title should not be too general or detailed. For example, the
title “Participants’ Responses” is too vague because it does not tell the
reader what the responses were from. The title, “Participants’ Responses
to the Online Qualtrix Survey to Measure Employees’ Satisfaction With
Changes in Their Health Plan, Manager’s Leadership Style, and Growth
Opportunities” is too long and detailed. The title, “Participants’
Responses to Satisfaction Survey” is just right.
Responses to Satisfaction Survey” is just right.
Headings and body

The way to format headings within a table is probably the most difficult
part to master; these follow the rule of clarity. Remember to organize the
table to minimize distractions and maximize comprehension. In addition,
if the purpose of the table is to compare data, align the two sets of data
closely together. In a table, there are columns and rows. The column is
vertical (up and down), and the row is horizontal (left to right). However,
there are no visible vertical lines in the table. Every column and row must
have a heading, and they are written in sentence capitalization. While it is
not important for you to memorize APA’s names of headings, it is
important to understand how the headings help organize the table and
facilitate comprehension.
Table 1 presents an example of an APA table. Notice a few important

details of this table. The stub head is Ethnicity, but it can be any
category that can be broken into groups such as grade, political party,
gender, and so on. The stubs are the row headings, which are the major
independent variables (groups) under the stub head. You can also have
a subordinated stub, such as gender (a subgroup of the independent
variable). There are also headings to identify the items that are listed
vertically in each column. In this example, the column spanners are
Autonomy, Self-Regulation, and Psychological Empowerment, which are
the subscales within the Arc’s Self-determination Scale (Wehmeyer &
Kelchner, 1995). The column head identifies the items in just one
column (Pretest and Posttest). Note that the pretest and posttest scores
are placed next to each other for easy comparison.
Next let’s discuss the cells, the points of interaction between a row and a
column. The data in the cells make up the body of the table. There are
several rules to follow for the cells. The key rule is consistency. However
you decide to display the data, it should be consistent within the columns.
For example, if you round a score in one item to two decimal points
(which is usually recommended), then all the scores in that column
should be rounded to two decimal points. In addition you cannot change
the unit of measurement within a column. If there is a cell where the data
are not applicable, then leave the cell blank. For example, the cells for
American Indian girls for the “Autonomy Pretest and Posttest Scores” are
left blank because there were only American Indian boys in the study. If
there is a cell where the data were not obtained or reported, then insert a
dash in the cell and write an explanation in the notes. For example, this
table has dashes in the cells for the “Psychological Empowerment
Pretest and Posttest Scores” for Asian American boys because they did
not complete that particular subscale.
Notes
APA allows you to write notes to explain certain items within the table.
There are three kinds of notes, and they are listed in this order at the
bottom of the table: (a) general, (b) specific, and (c) probability. General
notes are those that explain information relating to the entire table such
as abbreviations or symbols. To include a general note, write the
italicized word “Note.” at the bottom of the table followed by the notes.
The notes are written in a slightly smaller font size than the rest of the
table and do not have to be in complete sentences. If the table was
adapted or reprinted from another source, this also needs to be indicated
in the general notes. If you are reprinting a table or adapting parts of a
table from a copyrighted source, you must first obtain permission from
the copyright holder. The original source is then cited in the general note.
After the general notes, you can list specific notes. Specific notes are
those pertaining to an individual column, row, or cell. These are labeled
with a lowercase letter superscript in the cell and explained in the specific
notes (after the general notes). Finally, the probability notes are listed
after the specific notes. The probability notes indicate the results of
statistical tests for hypothesis testing. An asterisk (*) is placed in the cell,
and *p < .05 or **p < .01 is written in the probability note to identify the
alpha level. In Table 1, there are examples of the three different kinds of
notes at the bottom of the table, although it is not required to have all
types of notes in one table.
Figures
In addition to tables, it is sometimes helpful to include figures in the
thesis. A figure can be a chart, graph, map, photograph, or drawing.
Figures are a great way to show nonlinear relations, patterns of results,
concepts, or ideas that are difficult for the reader to “see” from text
descriptions. As mentioned, there are many different kinds of figures, and
each one serves a different purpose. However, before including a figure,
make sure that it is necessary. The decision rules for whether or not to
include a figure are similar to those for a table regarding efficiency over
text format and text enhancement. If you decide to include a figure in the
thesis, be sure to follow the three Cs of comprehensibility, clarity, and
consistency. The figure should be easy to understand (stand on its own),
easy to read, and consistent in appearance. Since there are many
different types of figures you could include, I provide a few general rules.
They are very similar to those for tables. For queries on specific types of
figures, please refer to the APA manual.
Figures in text
When discussing a figure in the text, number the figure in the order that it
appears. For example, the first figure you refer to in the text would be
Figure 1, then Figure 2, and so on. Then give a brief description of what
the figure entails. Here are two examples:
Figure 1 displays the pattern of students’ off-task behaviors in

minutes during the 2-week program.
The students’ off-task behaviors steadily decreased over the 2-

week program (see Figure 1).
You can also refer to some of the major highlights in the figure, but
remember that the text and figure should not be redundant.
Placement, size, and font

In a manuscript for publication, the figures are placed at the end of the
manuscript after the tables with a separate page listing the captions.
However, for student theses and dissertations, APA allows the figure to
be included on the next page after it was first mentioned in the text. I
prefer students to put figures at the end of the thesis; however, check
with your chairperson to see where you should place the figures.
Regarding size and font, all the elements of the figure must be legible.
The smallest font size is 8 point, and the largest is 14 point. The figure
should also fit on the page (landscape or portrait) although APA has
dimension rules for publication purposes. APA also recommends a sans
serif font (without serifs) like Arial. Serifs are the small features added to
strokes (which can clutter up the figure). Another thing to consider is the
shapes that are used in the figure. APA recommends using circles and
triangles (open and solid) because other combinations of shapes, such
as squares and diamonds, can look too similar. If there is a legend to
help explain the lines and points in a graph, this must be included within
the margins of the graph.
the margins of the graph.
Captions and legends
For a thesis, the figure caption, or title, is placed below the figure itself.
The caption is labeled Figure 1 (or whatever number figure it is), italicized
with a period, and flushed to the left margin. The description of the figure
follows this label using sentence capitalization. The caption should be
detailed enough (but not overly detailed) so that the reader can
understand the figure without having to refer to the text. The caption does
not have to be a complete sentence, although it ends with a period.
Following the description, you can add any necessary notes such as
explaining symbols, abbreviations, and reprints from other sources. Use
the same notes format APA recommends for tables.
Graphs
One common type of figure used in the master’s thesis is graphs. Graphs
are typically used to show relationships between two variables,
comparisons of data, percentages/proportions, or patterns over time.
There are many different types of graphs including scatter plots, line
graphs, bar graphs, pictorial graphs, and circle (pie) graphs. A legend is
located within the graph and explains any symbols used in the graph. In
many graphs, there is an x axis (horizontal line) and a y axis (vertical
line). The independent variable is represented on the x axis, and the
dependent variable is represented on the y axis. Most computer
spreadsheet programs (e.g., Microsoft Excel) can generate the graphs for
you. In Figure 10.10, there is an example of a graph in APA style.
Description
Figure 10.10 Example graph in APA style.
FINAL FORMATTING
Appendixes
Appendixes are a critical part of the thesis because they allow you to
include detailed information about the study and procedures that would
not be appropriate to include in the five chapters. Some items that I
require students to include in the appendixes are the Institutional Review
Board (IRB) cover letter and blank consent form(s), sample lessons
and/or intervention materials, and measurement instruments. I require
these items because they are critical to understanding the design and
results of the thesis. An advantage of putting these items in the appendix
is that they do not have to be computer-generated by you. For instance, if
you used a commercial assessment tool or instructional materials, you
could photocopy parts of these (with permission from the copyright
holder) as examples.
APA does have rules to follow for appendixes in a manuscript for

APA does have rules to follow for appendixes in a manuscript for
publication, but I do not follow them all because I want to allow for greater
flexibility in the thesis. Check with your chairperson for how she wants
you to include appendixes in the thesis.
Appendixes in text
The APA rule for referring to appendixes in the text is similar to tables
and figures. When mentioning an appendix in the text, label the appendix
in the order that it appears; however, use capital letters instead of
numbers. For example, the first appendix you refer to would be Appendix
A, then Appendix B, and so on. Then give a brief description of what the
appendix entails. Here is an example:
The researcher obtained parental consent prior to contacting the

students for participation in the study (see Appendix A for
informed parent consent forms).
Placement and cover pages
The appendixes are typically placed at the very end of the thesis after the
tables and figures. For a manuscript for publication, APA requires that
page numbers extend into the appendixes. I do not require students to
continue the page numbers for the appendixes in the thesis. This allows
for flexibility in photocopying items from other sources. However, since
the individual items do not have page numbers, make sure that each item
has an appropriate heading for easy identification.
To identify and label the appendixes, each one begins with a cover page
on a separate page. The cover page lists the title of the appendix and the
items within the appendix (i.e., you can have more than one item in a
single appendix). On the cover page, use a larger font for the title of the
appendix and then list the items in a smaller font. The title is centered
near the top of the page and the items are below the title, flushed left with
bullet points. In Figure 10.11, there is an example of a cover page. Note
that there are four different measurement instruments included in this
appendix. These items would be inserted after the cover page in the
order that they are listed.
Description
Figure 10.11 Sample cover page for appendix.
Front Pages
Remember when I promised in Chapter 1 that I would pull you through
the finish line if I had to? Well, look at where you are today! If you are
ready to prepare the front pages of the thesis, this is like the last 385
yards of the marathon. You can almost touch the finish line, and your
loved ones are on the other side taking pictures and chanting your name!
Savor this moment. As soon as you complete the front pages, you are
truly done. I promise. The front pages include the title and signature
pages, acknowledgments, abstract, and table of contents. These are not
in APA style, so check with your chairperson for how he wants you to
proceed with these items. Each institution will have its own formatting
requirements for these front pages.
Title page
The title page is the cover page for the entire thesis. On this page, you
need to identify the title of the thesis, institution, name of the degree, your
name, and date. The title of your thesis should be between 10 and 12
words and encompass the essence of your study. There is a sample title
page in Figure 10.12 (adjust the spacing on your page to make it look
aesthetically pleasing).
Description
Figure 10.12 Sample title page for thesis.
Signature page
The next page is the signature page; this is where your chairperson and
committee members will sign the thesis. Remember, the thesis is not
official until it has been approved and signed by your chairperson and
committee members. On this page, leave space and lines for your
chairperson and committee members to sign (add more lines if
necessary). There is a sample signature page in Figure 10.13 (adjust the
spacing on your page to make it look aesthetically pleasing).
Acknowledgments
The next page is the Acknowledgments. This is really the best page in
the entire thesis because you get to acknowledge and thank every
person who supported you along the way. Do not forget to acknowledge
your chairperson and committee members, family, friends, pets, the local
coffee barista, me, and so on. The title of this page is “Acknowledgments”
(in British spelling, it is “Acknowledgements”), and it is centered at the top
of the page. This page is also where you begin the page numbers in
roman numerals (e.g., i, ii, iii, iv). I prefer page numbers at the bottom of
the page in the center. However, APA style is upper right-hand corner for
manuscripts, so check with your chairperson to see if she has a
manuscripts, so check with your chairperson to see if she has a
preference.
Abstract
The next page is the abstract. The abstract is a brief (usually between
150 to 250 words) summary of the thesis. While it is brief, the abstract
should also be comprehensive in describing the purpose, participants,
methods, and major findings/results/conclusions. The title “Abstract” is
centered, but the text is flushed to the left margin. There is an example of
an abstract in Figure 10.14.
Description
Figure 10.13 Sample signature page for thesis.

Description
Figure 10.14 Sample abstract that summarizes the study.
Table of contents
The next few pages are the table of contents. The table of contents is
extremely critical because it is a road map to the entire thesis. Therefore,
make sure the page numbers and headings match exactly what is in the
text of the thesis. I typically advise students to create the table of
contents at the end after all the final, final, final edits are completed (in
case things shift around). The title of your thesis is at the top center and
every letter should be capitalized. Then the front pages are listed on
separate lines starting with the Acknowledgments, Abstract, and Table of
Contents.
Lists of tables and figures
The next items in the table of contents are List of Tables, List of Figures,
and List of Appendixes. These are recommended if you have more than
one table, figure, or appendix, because it makes it easier for the reader to
find the information embedded in the text or at the end of the thesis. The
List of Tables and List of Figures are lists of the titles and page numbers
of individual tables and figures. The List of Appendixes lists the titles of
the appendixes but there are no page numbers.
The next page is the first page of Chapter One. This page starts the
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) that extend into the references, tables, and
figures. After each chapter heading, list all the Level 2 and Level 3
headings with their corresponding page numbers. Slightly indent each
subheading within the chapter. Do not list Level 4 headings. After the
chapters, the last item on the table of contents is “References” with the
corresponding page. Figure 10.15 is a sample of a condensed Table of
Contents.
Final Tips and Checklist

The final tips and checklist are to ensure that everything is in place
before you copy and bind the thesis forever. They are not in any
particular order. Some of them may not apply to your situation, so when
in doubt, check with your chairperson.
Do a final grammar and spell check for all chapters.

Match citations in text with reference list.
Set left-hand margin at 1.5 (4 cm) for binding purposes.
Copy thesis on heavyweight high-quality white paper.
Start each chapter on a new page.
Use Roman numerals (i, ii, iii) for the front pages (e.g.,
Acknowledgments, Abstract).
Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) on the first page of Chapter One and
continue into the references, tables, and figures.
Keep at least one signed copy for yourself (your chairperson and
institution/program usually also get a copy).
All text, references, and tables should be double-spaced (unless
your chairperson says otherwise).
Check the levels of heading to make sure they are correct.
Spell out all abbreviations at first mention and put in notes in the
tables and figures.
Check that all table columns have headings.
Obtain written permission for all copyrighted material for quotes,
tables, and figures from the copyright holder.
Cite all direct quotations with page numbers.

List a retrieval location for online sources.
Check all URLs to ensure they work.
Description
Figure 10.15 Sample condensed table of contents.
Copying and Binding

Copying and Binding
After you are done with the front pages, thesis text, references, tables,
figures, appendixes, and final check, you can bring it all to get copied and
bound (see Final Tips and Checklist on p . 239). Check with your
chairperson for the guidelines for copying and binding. At some
institutions, they may ask only for an electronic copy. However, you can
make as many copies as you want (they make great gifts!). If you choose
a professional copy center, you should not have problems. Allow the
center a few days to have the copies made, since they are usually very
busy at the beginning and end of semesters. After you have the bounded
(or electronic) copies signed by your chairperson and committee
members, you are truly done.
CONGRATULATIONS!!! Bravo! Hooray! Yippee! Yahoo! I don’t have the

words to express how happy I am for you and how relieved you must be.
Thank you for taking this journey with me. Now sprint across the finish
line with your head held high, arms waving in the air. Then reward
yourself with a nice long vacation.
NEXT STEPS: PRESENTING AT

CONFERENCES AND GETTING PUBLISHED
Wait! There’s more? Now that you are well-rested from your long
vacation (I know you wore a hat and plenty of sunscreen), it is time to
present and publish your master’s thesis! You have spent months
(years?) researching and writing the thesis, so why not put in a bit more
effort and present your thesis and publish it in an academic journal. I
promise you will love the way your name looks in print. Plus since your
study is filling a gap in the existing research, it is important that you
disseminate your work! Chapters 2 and 8 in the APA manual are
completely devoted to the publication process (with a great checklist at
the end of the chapter), so I give you a few tips and a lot of
encouragement.
The first step is to submit a proposal to present your research at a

professional conference in your field. This is critical because it will allow
you to get feedback from the peers in your discipline. You cannot go back
and change your methodology, but perhaps there were data that could
have been analyzed differently or critical implications that you missed. By
presenting your study first, you have the opportunity to review the study
with fresh, critical eyes. Remember that when you are presenting at a
conference, you want to make sure that you are not reading from a script
or verbatim from your thesis. You want to give an overview of the study,
background, and methodology, and highlight the critical findings and
results. Visuals or participant quotes are very helpful to help illustrate
main points. Your attendees will want to know how your study impacts
their work, so be sure to share some key takeaways or lessons learned.
The second step is to find the perfect journal to submit your manuscript.
The perfect journal will be one that is in your field/discipline and is related
to the research topic of your thesis. The journal should also be at the
research level of your study, most likely at a scholarly practitioner level.
You do not want to submit your manuscript to a top tiered journal unless
your research methodology was very rigorous (which is really hard to do
at the master’s level). Once you have selected a journal that you think is
appropriate, review the manuscript guidelines and read several articles
so that you have a sense of the writing style and whether your study will
be a good fit. Finding a good fit is critical—you can have a fantastic study
but if the editor and reviewers do not believe it is good fit for their
audience, they will reject it.
The third step is to read and follow directions carefully. The manuscript
guidelines for author submission will be posted on the journal’s webpage,
and you need to follow them step-by-step. If you do not follow their exact
instructions, there is a good chance that your manuscript will not be
reviewed. Most journals want manuscripts submitted through an
electronic portal (with all identifiable information removed) so that the
review process is confidential.
The fourth step is to edit your thesis very carefully. Submitting sloppy
work with grammatical or spelling errors (or not following APA style) will
only upset the editor and reviewers and will reduce any chances of the
manuscript being accepted. Do not simply cut and paste chunks of your
thesis. You will need to rewrite the manuscript by following the journal’s
guidelines. Remember that you can submit your manuscript to only one
journal at a time. This is partly why it takes so long for research to
become published. You have to wait until the entire review process is
completed before you can submit your study to another journal.
Finally, do not give up. Based on the peer reviews, the editor has the
choice to accept, accept with revisions, or reject the manuscript. I will not
tell you how many times my manuscripts have been rejected and about
how every manuscript that has been accepted was with revisions. The
positive part about being rejected is that you can read the reviewers’
comments (after you give yourself a pity party) and revise your
manuscript to make it stronger. Then you can submit the manuscript to
another journal that might be a better fit. The key to getting published
(like everything else in life) is perseverance. Do not give up if you are
rejected! I know it is difficult to keep it separate, but a manuscript
rejection is not a personal rejection of you! Simply find a journal that
might be a better match and go through the submission process again. It
can take several tries before you are successful. Obviously you know a
thing or two about perseverance because you have just completed a
master’s thesis! Just think, after you present and publish your thesis, you
can take another long vacation. You will need the energy to get ready for
your next big study. . . . Did I hear you say “doctoral dissertation”?
Summary
In this chapter, I discussed the editorial style rules and guidelines
established by APA (2010) for citations, references, tables,
figures, and other issues to help you finalize the master’s thesis. I
hope they helped you complete the final product. Congratulations
again on completing your master’s thesis, a major feat! Here is a
summary of the most critical points from Chapter 10:
The APA editorial style is commonly used in various social

science disciplines such as education, psychology, sociology,
business, economics, nursing, and social work.
The number of level headings refers to the quantity of

headings you use. The total maximum number of level
headings is five. The number level heading refers to a
specific heading location.
Citations of works are necessary when you use a direct quote

(which needs a page number) or paraphrase someone else’s
words, ideas, or research findings.
Keep the listing of the authors in their original order from the
source even if it is not in alphabetical order.
If the work is cited in the text, it must be in the reference list
and vice versa. In addition, the citation in the text (e.g.,
spelling and order of the authors, year of publication) must be
exactly the same as the citation in the reference list.
For online sources, provide the retrieval location (or DOI) in
addition to information required for printed material.
Follow the three “C” rules for table and figure design:
comprehensibility, clarity, and consistency.
Figures are a great way to show nonlinear relations, patterns
of results, concepts, or ideas that are difficult for the reader to
“see” from text descriptions.
Items that may be included in the appendixes are the IRB

cover letter and blank consent form(s), sample
lessons/intervention materials, and measurement
instruments.
The front pages include the title and signature pages,

acknowledgments, abstract, and table of contents.
Resources

Solutions
1. A common obstacle that students face in final editing is
keeping track of the citations and references. Words that
come to mind are “Where do I find all these references?” The
best way to overcome this obstacle is to cite and reference as
you write (rather than wait until the very end). Put the citation
in the text immediately when you paraphrase or quote with
the year and page numbers. Then keep a list of all the
sources, even if it is not in the correct APA format. You can
format the references at the end, but this will save you time
searching for the references. Investing in a reference
management software program will really pay off in the end!
2. Another common obstacle is preparing tables. Words that
come to mind are “Do I really need this table?” First, you
should decide if the table really is necessary. If it is, then
keep it as simple as possible. Have a few columns (no more
than three) and rows. Since printing cost and spacing is not
as much of an issue in the thesis (like it is for manuscripts for
publication), you can spread out your data over several
tables. This will help you in terms of formatting and may
make it easier for your reader to decipher the tables.
When you are doing the final formatting for the thesis, it is
important to understand the APA style editorial rules and
guidelines. The following reflection/discussion questions will help
guide you through the editorial process.
1. What is the difference between the number of level headings

and a number level heading? Looking through an outline,
how would you use different levels of heading in your thesis
to help organize the topics and subtopics for the reader?
2. Why is it important to provide citations and references for the
sources that you use? What are the different types of sources
(print and online) that you used in your thesis? Do you have
all the information that is required to provide a complete
citation?
3. After you have completed the master’s thesis, it is time to
think about how to present it at a professional conference and
have it published in a peer-reviewed journal. Think about
possible conferences and peer-reviewed journals in your
discipline that would be a good fit to submit a manuscript.
Try It Exercises
The following exercises are designed to help you edit and format
the thesis. In Activity One, you will create a reference list for
various sources. In Activity Two, you will create a table using
demographic data from the participants in your study.
1. Activity One: For this activity, create a condensed reference
list from five of your in-text citations (try to list a variety). Be
sure to identify the type of work and then include all
necessary information in your reference. Have a partner
check them to make sure they are correct!
2. Activity Two: For this activity, create a table based on your
participants (e.g., demographic data, test scores, qualitative
quotes). Have a partner check it to make sure it is
comprehensible, clear, and consistent.
Include the stub column, one column spanner, and two

column heads.
Include at least one stub (row header).
Insert data for at least five participants.
Key Terms
column head 231
column spanner 231
digital object identifier (DOI) 224
general notes 232

hanging indent 225
levels of heading 218
probability notes 232

sentence capitalization 225
specific notes 232

stub head 231
stubs 231
Suggested Readings
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual
of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington,
DC: Author.
Schwartz, B. M., Landrum, R. E., & Gurung, A. A. R. (2012). An

easy guide to APA style. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Web Links
APA Style
APA Style Resources
https://www.apa.org/pubs/apastyle/index.aspx
BibMe
http://www.bibme.org/citation-guide/apa/
Citation Machine
http://www.citationmachine.net/apa/cite-a-book
Penn State: APA Quick Citation Guide
http://guides.libraries.psu.edu/apaquickguide
Plagiarism.org
http://www.plagiarism.org/
Purdue Online Writing Lab: APA Style
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_style_introduction

Back to Figure
The text in the figure reads:
(Level 1) Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 2) Flush left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 3) Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph ending with a

period.
(Level 4) Indented, boldface, italicized lowercase paragraph ending

with a period.
(Level 5) Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending

with a period.
Back to Figure
The text in the figure reads:
(Level 1) Chapter One, Introduction
(Level 2) Statement of the Problem
(Level 3) Students with disabilities.

(Level 4) Students with learning disabilities.
(Level 5) Reading comprehension difficulties.
Back to Figure
The text in this figure reads:
Chapter One, Introduction (Level 1) (in bold font)

You would indent and start writing the text on the next line. Notice how
the heading is centered and boldface with upper and lowercase font (like
a book title).
Statement of the Problem (Level 2) (in bold font)

You would indent and start writing the text on the next line. Notice how
the heading is flushed left and boldface with upper and lowercase font
(like a book title).
(like a book title).
Students with disabilities (Level 3) (in bold font). You would start writing
the text here after the period and keep wrapping around underneath the
subheading like this. Notice how the heading is indented and boldface
with upper and lowercase font (like at the beginning of a sentence).
Students with learning disabilities (in bold font) (Level 4) (in bold and
italics font). You would start writing the text here after the period and
keep wrapping around underneath the subheading like this. Notice how
the heading is indented, italicized, and boldface with upper and
lowercase font (like at the beginning of a sentence).
Students with autism (in bold and italics font) (Level 4). Notice how this is
on the same (equal) level as the previous Level 4 heading.
Bilingual learners (Level 3) (in bold font). Notice how this is on the same
(equal) level as the previous Level 3 heading.
Spanish-speaking bilingual learners (in bold and italics font) (Level 4) (in
bold font). Notice how this is on the same (equal) level as the previous
Level 4 heading.
Other-language bilingual learners (in bold and italics font) (Level 4) (in
bold font). Notice how this is on the same (equal) level as the previous
Level 4 heading.
Background and Need (Level 2) (in bold font)
Notice how this is on the same (equal) level as the previous Level 2
heading.
Back to Figure
Chapter One, Introduction (in bold font) (Level 1)

Statement of the Problem (in bold font) (Level 2)
Reading difficulties. (in bold font) (Level 3)

Math difficulties. (in bold font) (Level 3)
Behavioral difficulties. (in bold font) (Level 3)

Behavioral difficulties. (in bold font) (Level 3)
Background and Need (in bold font) (Level 2)

Reading strategies. (in bold font) (Level 3)
Math strategies. (in bold font) (Level 3)
Behavioral interventions. (in bold font) (Level 3)
Back to Figure
Becker, L. B., Vlad, T., Huh, J., & Prine, J. (2001). Annual enrollment
report: Number of students studying journalism and mass communication
at all-time high. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator (text in
italics), 56(3), 28–60. Retrieved from
http://www.grady.uga.edu/annualsurveys/Enrollment_Survey/Enrollment_2000/Enrollm
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design (text in

italics) (3rd ed.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ethical principles: The Belmont Report. (n.d.). Retrieved from Duke

University, Office of Research Support website:
http://www.ors.duke.edu/irb/regpolicy/ethical.html
Gillberg, C. (1991). Clinical and neurobiological aspects of Asperger

syndrome in six family studies. In U. Frith (Ed.), Autism and Asperger
syndrome (text in italics) (pp. 122–146).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Niolin, R. (2001). Families and substance abuse (text in italics). Retrieved
from http://www.psychpage.com/family/library/familysubstanceabuse.htm
Ponterotto, J. G., & Grieger, I. (2007). Effectively communicating

qualitative research. The Counseling Psychologist (text in italics), 35(3),
404–430. doi:10.1177/0011000006287443
Back to Figure
The text in this figure is seen below:
Hallinger, P., & Snidvongs, K. (2008). Educating leaders: Is there

Hallinger, P., & Snidvongs, K. (2008). Educating leaders: Is there
anything to learn from business management? Educational Management,
Administration, & Leadership (text in italics), 36(1), 9–31.
doi:10.1177/1741143207084058 [two authors with DOI] (text in bold).
O’Mahony, S., Blank, A., Simpson, J., Persaud, J., Huvane, B., McAllen,
S., et al. (2008). Preliminary report of a palliative care and case
management project in an emergency department for chronically ill
elderly patients. Journal of Urban Health (text in italics), 85(3), 443–451.
Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2329741/?
tool=pubmed/ [more than six authors with URL] (text in bold).
Proctor, E. K. (2008). Notation of depression in case records of older

adults in community. Social Work (text in italics), 53(3), 243–253.
doi:10.1093/sw/53.3.243 [one author with DOI] (text in bold).
Smith, L., Foley, P. F., & Chaney, M. P. (2008). Addressing classism,

ableism, and heterosexism in counselor education. Journal of Counseling
& Development (text in italics), 86(3), 303–309. doi:10.1002/j.1556-
6678.2008.tb00513.x [three authors with DOI] (text in bold).
Back to Figure
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the

American Psychological Association (text in italics) (6th ed.). Washington,
DC: Author. [association as author, sixth edition] (text in bold).
Borgatta, E. F., & Montgomery, R. (Eds.). (2001). Encyclopedia of

sociology (text in italics) (2nd ed., Vols. 1–5). New York, NY: Macmillan
Reference. [edited reference book, second edition] (text in bold).
Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2009). How to design and evaluate
research in education (text in italics) (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill. [two authors, seventh edition] (text in bold).
Heer, D. M. (2001). International migration. In E. F. Borgatta & R.

Montgomery (Eds.), Encyclopedia of sociology (text in italics) (2nd ed.,
Vol. 2, pp. 1431–1438). New York, NY: Macmillan Reference. [chapter in
edited reference book, second edition] (text in bold).
Kemmis, S., & Wilkinson, M. (1998). Participatory action research and
the study of practice. In B. Atweh, S. Kemmis, & P. Weeks (Eds.), Action
research in practice: Partnerships for social justice in education (text in
italics) (pp. 21–36). New York, NY: Routledge. [chapter in edited book]
italics) (pp. 21–36). New York, NY: Routledge. [chapter in edited book]
(text in bold).
Back to Figure
Davidson, G., Devaney, J., & Spratt, T. (2010). The impact of adversity in
childhood outcomes in adulthood: Research lessons and limitations.
Journal of Social Work (text in italics), 10(4) 369–390. Retrieved from
http://jsw.sagepub.com/content/10/4/369.refs [URL directly to article] (text
in bold).
Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects manual.
(2008). Retrieved from University of San Francisco website:
http://www.usfca.edu/uploadedFiles/Destinations/School_of_Education/documents/IR
[no author, document on university website] (text in bold).
Neighborhood. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster (text in italics) online

dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/neighborhood [online reference material, no
author, no date, URL to source’s home page] (text in bold).
Sleeter, C. (2008). An invitation to support diverse students through

teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 59, 212–219. Retrieved
from https://journals.sagepub.com/home/jte [URL to journal home
page] (text in bold).
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1979). The Belmont

Report. Retrieved from
http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.htm
[government report, organization as author, URL directly to report] (text in
bold)
Back to Figure

About graduate education in the U.S. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.educationusa.info/pages/students/researchgrad.php#.UCXnUZH4LB1
unknown author, no date] (text in bold).
Criminological transition in Russia. (n.d.). Retrieved from Indiana
University website: http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/3876.html
[webpage on university website, author unknown, no date]
Niolin, R. (2001). Families and substance abuse (text in italics). Retrieved
from http://www.psychpage.com/family/library/familysubstanceabuse.htm
[webpage, author and date provided] (text in bold).
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). U.S. public

health service syphilis study at Tuskegee (text in italics). Retrieved from
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website:
http://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm [webpage on government
agency website, organization as author, no date] (text in bold).
Back to Figure
The x axis on this graph shows four ranges of students’ scores: 1.00 –
1.99, 2.00 – 2.99, 3.00 – 3.99 and 4.00 – 4.99.
The y axis is labeled percentage of students. The values on this axis start
at 0 and end at 60, in intervals of 10.
Each range of scores has three bar labeled group A, group B and group
C respectively.
The table below shows the approximate percentage of students in each

group, for each score range:
Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of

Score
students in group students in group students in group
Range
A B C
1.00 – 13 2 21
1.99
2.00 – 55 43 44
2.99
3.00 – 30 43 32
3.99
4.00 – 0 11 3
4.99
Back to Figure
Appendix B: Measurement Instruments (text in bold).
Student satisfaction survey
Student observation protocol
Teacher interview protocol

Caregiver interview protocol
Back to Figure
The text on this figure reads:

Title in Heading Capitalization [Centered and Bold]
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the College of Education [Name of

College]
San Francisco State University [Name of University]

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS [DEGREE TITLE]

in
SPECIAL EDUCATION [DEGREE AREA]

by
Yvonne N. Bui [Your Name]
May 15, 2020 [Date thesis will be signed]

May 15, 2020 [Date thesis will be signed]
Back to Figure
The text on this figure reads:
Title in Heading Capitalization (text in bold)

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the
MASTER OF ARTS
in
SPECIAL EDUCATION
By
Yvonne N. Bui
SAN FRANCISCO STATE UNIVERSITY
May 15, 2020
Under the guidance and approval of the committee, and approved by all
its members, this thesis has been accepted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree.
Approved:
(Blank for chairperson) (blank for date)
(Blank for committee member) (blank for date)

Back to Figure
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to measure the effects of a
comprehensive writing program for students with and without
learning disabilities (LD) in inclusive general education
learning disabilities (LD) in inclusive general education
classrooms. The program included prewriting, narrative text
structure, writing strategies, and process writing. The study was
conducted in five 5th-grade classrooms with 113 students (14
students with LD). A quasi-experimental comparison-group
design was used; three experimental classes received the
intervention, and two comparison classes received traditional
writing instruction. Measures included writing indicators as well
as state writing competency test scores. The students in the
experimental group made significant gains from pretest to
posttest on most writing measures. Students in the comparison
group made gains on some measures, but the effect sizes were
smaller.
Back to Figure
TITLE [ALL LETTERS ARE CAPITALIZED]
Acknowledgments i
Abstract ii
Table of Contents iii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
List of Appendixes vii
Chapter 1 1
Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Background and Need 10

Purpose of the Study 13
Educational Significance 14
Definition of Terms 14
Limitations 17
Chapter 2 19
Literature Review 19
References 66
APPENDIX A SAMPLE INSTITUTIONAL
REVIEW BOARD INITIAL APPLICATION
Project Title: Bridging Cultural Themes in Educational Practices:
Increasing Students’ Math Performance
(1) Background and Rationale

With today’s changes in demographics, there is evidence to suggest that
the United States is becoming more culturally and linguistically diverse.
Unlike 50 years ago when schools and classrooms were primarily
composed of a homogeneous student population, today’s schools and
teachers are increasingly challenged with educating students from
diverse cultural, linguistic, and economic backgrounds. By the year 2020,
it is estimated that nearly 50% of school-age students in the United
States will represent African American, Asian, Hispanic, or some other
non-European ethnic group (Woolfolk, 2001).
The recent demographic changes have serious implications for the
nation’s public education system. In addition to adjusting to differences in
cultural values and behaviors, classroom educators are faced with the
additional challenge of teaching students who may come from cultural
and linguistic backgrounds that differ from their own. Moreover, as the
student population in the United States continues to become more
heterogeneous, the demographics of school staff have become more
homogeneous (Taylor, 2000). In other words, although most teachers are
middle class and monocultural, and many are also monolingual,
depending on the geographic region and type of district (e.g., rural,
urban, suburban) they teach in, the students they serve may be from
diverse cultural, economic, and linguistic backgrounds. Thus, teachers
are less likely than in the 1950s to be from the same cultural and
language backgrounds as their students (Santos, Fowler, Corso, &
Bruns, 2000). This is even more apparent in states and regions where
students from different cultures and languages are disproportionately
represented in certain disability categories (Meese, 2001). For example,
African American, Hispanic, and Native American students tend to be
overidentified with emotional disturbances, learning disabilities, and
speech/language impairments, and underidentified for gifted and talented
placements (Artiles & Trent, 1994; Artiles & Zamora-Duran, 1997;
Gollnick & Chinn, 1990).
Gollnick & Chinn, 1990).
Students of color also tend to perform lower on national and state

standardized assessments than White students. For example, on the
National Assessment of Educational Performance (NAEP) math tests, at
both Grades 4 and 8, White and Asian/Pacific Islander students scored
higher, on average, than Black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska
Native students. Black students scored lower than both Hispanic and
American Indian/Alaska Native students (NAEP, 2006). On average,
students with disabilities scored 23 points lower at Grade 4 and 40 points
lower at Grade 8 than students without disabilities.
Considering the disproportionate rates with which minority students are

placed in special education and identified with learning disabilities (LD),
there is a tiny database of empirical articles on ethnic minority students in
special education journals (Artiles, Trent, & Kuan, 1997). The lack of
empirical research on math instruction for minority students with
disabilities over the past two decades has serious implications for
researchers and educators. By not providing special educators with
information and training in effective math practices for minority students
with LD that are empirically supported, we are only increasing the
probability of cultural dissonance and academic frustration and failure for
these students. Thus, the purpose of this study is to increase the
mathematics performance of students with disabilities from culturally and
linguistically diverse backgrounds. This will be accomplished by
integrating African American cultural themes of communalism,
movement, and orality into the math instruction as a means to align the
students’ home and school cultures.
(2) Description of Sample

The research study will examine and measure the effectiveness of an
intervention, Bridging Cultural Themes in Educational Practices, in an
elementary classroom in an urban school district. The research will be
conducted at one public elementary school in (name of city) in the (name
of district) School District. This district was targeted because of its urban
climate and high proportion of low-income students with disabilities
representing culturally diverse populations. One fourth- through sixth-
grade class (special education day class) in a school where the principal
and teacher have shown significant interest and support for the project
will be selected for participation. The class is made up of 12 boys with
emotional disturbance or learning disabilities. Ten of the students are
African American, and two are Latino. Two of the students are fourth
graders, six of the students are fifth graders, and four of the students are
sixth graders.
sixth graders.
(3) Recruitment Procedure

Once the district and principal have given their permission to conduct the
study, the researcher will then ask the classroom teacher to send home
consent forms to the students’ parents, informing them about the study
and the benefits that the knowledge obtained might have for the students,
and requesting that their children participate. The classroom teacher will
also make follow-up phone calls to the students’ parents to answer any
questions that they might have. The students’ parents will be informed
that their consent to participate in the study is voluntary and may be
rescinded at any time.
(4) Subject Consent Process

To obtain consent from the subjects, the researcher (through the
classroom teacher) will send the students’ parents a consent form that
describes the study, procedures, and expected outcomes. In the consent
form, the parents will be assured that their child’s identity will remain
confidential, including test scores and responses to any measurement
instruments. The consent form will also inform parents that whether or
not they give consent, the quality of their child’s education will not be
affected. The researcher will send home three separate consent forms
through the classroom teacher. If consent is not achieved after three
attempts, the researcher will no longer pursue the student for
participation.
(5) Procedures
The intervention, Bridging Cultural Themes in Educational Practices
(BCTEP), integrates the African American cultural themes of
communalism, movement, and orality (Boykin, 1983) with standards-
based mathematics instruction for students with disabilities. For example,
students will work in interdependent groups (i.e., communalism) to solve
math problems together.
Movement during math instruction will be integrated through dance,
rhythm, and music. Orality will provide the opportunity for students to
participate in the mathematics instruction through various forms of
spoken language (e.g., call and response). The study goes beyond
addressing superficial cultural differences and the need to be culturally
sensitive toward minority groups. Instead, the premise of the study is
based on the cultural compatibility hypothesis, which states that when
classroom instruction is designed to be compatible with the students’
natal culture, improvements in students’ academic learning can be
expected (Deyhle, 1983; Jordan, 1985; Jordan & Tharp, 1979; Vogt,
Jordan, & Tharp, 1987). Thus, the intent of this intervention is to match
the classroom environment and teaching practices with the students’
natal or home culture to minimize conflicts and maximize achievement for
students with disabilities from culturally diverse backgrounds.
The intervention study will use a single-group case design. Before

instruction begins, an informal math test based on fractions and a student
satisfaction survey will be administered to all the students. Then
instruction will be presented daily, for a 50-minute time period, over 8
weeks by the classroom teacher (who will be trained and observed by the
researcher on a weekly basis) for a total of 30 lessons over six phases.
The length of each phase will be randomly selected and will last between
seven and 10 days. The math curriculum is based on the district-
mandated standards and textbooks for each grade level. During the
baseline phase, students will receive traditional instruction. Curriculum-
based measurement probes will be administered at the end of each
lesson. During the intervention phases, students will receive research-
based math instruction that integrates one of the African cultural themes
(a baseline phase will follow each intervention phase). One week after
the last instruction phase, all the students will be given the same informal
math test and student satisfaction survey again. Means analysis will be
conducted on the lessons’ probes from each of the phases. Descriptive
and inferential statistics (e.g., t test) will be applied to the pretest/posttest
data collected from all the students to determine whether application of
the intervention was related to significant differences between the pre-
and posttest scores.
(6) Potential Risk to Subjects

There are minimal risks to the subjects in the study such as fatigue and
frustration when learning new fraction concepts. The students will be
allowed to take breaks as needed. The BCTEP approach will be
implemented during regular class time so as to not take away precious
instructional hours. Furthermore, during classroom observations, the
researcher will make a significant effort not to distract students from their
learning.
(7) Minimization of Potential Risk

(7) Minimization of Potential Risk
All personal information regarding the students involved in the study will
remain confidential throughout and following the study. This includes not
disclosing the names of the teachers, students, school, and parents.
Since most of the data collection will occur as a natural part of the daily
instruction and assessment, the students will not feel like they are being
bombarded with tests and questions.
(8) Potential Benefit to Subjects

The BCTEP represents an instructional math curriculum that builds on
previous research for culturally and linguistically diverse students with
and without disabilities. The instruction will focus on three major African
cultural themes: communalism, movement, and orality. If the results are
successful, these themes could be used and integrated with research-
based math instruction for students with disabilities. Following integrated
instruction within the three cultural themes, students will be expected to
achieve the following outcomes: increased math performance on informal
math assessments and increased student satisfaction.
(9) Costs to Subjects

There are no financial costs to the participating students. All the supplies
needed for instruction will be provided to the students by the researcher.
All the BCTEP instruction will be delivered during normal instruction time
during the school day.
(10) Reimbursement/Compensation to Subjects

Student participants will not be reimbursed or compensated for
participating in this study. The classroom teacher who participates will be
given a small honorarium for her time (e.g., during informal meetings)
and help with collecting consent forms.
(11) Confidentiality of Records

All data from the study will be kept confidential and the subjects’ identities
will not be revealed before, during, or after the study. The students’
names will be removed from the pre- and posttest data, and they will be
assigned numbers to ensure confidentiality. Data will be kept by the
researcher in a locked file away from the school site. Computerized data
researcher in a locked file away from the school site. Computerized data
will be inputted into a password-protected laptop computer that will also
be removed from the school site. Only the researcher and her assistant
will have access to the data.
___________________ _______________________
Signature of Applicant Date
APPENDIX B SAMPLE COVER LETTER
Dear Sir or Madam:
[introduction] My name is (insert your name) and I am a(n) (insert your

role) in the Department of (insert your department/school) at (insert name
of college/university).
[purpose] I am writing to you to request your consent for your child to
participate in a research study that I am doing to investigate the
effectiveness of an intervention called Bridging Cultural Themes in
Educational Practices (BCTEP) on students’ math performance.
[description of study] This intervention integrates the African American

cultural themes of communalism, movement, and orality with standards-
based mathematics instruction for students with disabilities. For example,
students will work in interdependent groups (i.e., communalism) to solve
math problems together. Movement will be integrated during the math
instruction through dance, rhythm, and music. Orality will provide the
opportunity for students to participate in the mathematics instruction
through various forms of spoken language (e.g., call and response). The
intent of this intervention is to match the classroom environment and
teaching practices with the students’ home culture to minimize conflicts
and maximize achievement for students with disabilities from culturally
diverse backgrounds.
[procedures] If you allow your child to participate, your child’s classroom

teacher, (insert name of teacher), will teach a math curriculum on
fractions for 8 weeks (50 minutes per day) using standards-based math
materials by integrating the African American cultural themes. Before and
after the study, your child will take math tests and a satisfaction survey to
measure the effects of the intervention. A mini math test will also be
given after every lesson.
[confidentiality] Rest assured that I will take steps to maintain
confidentiality of your child’s records by keeping all data materials,
including teacher reports and academic records, in a locked filing cabinet
at my home. All records will remain confidential, and your child’s
participation or nonparticipation will in no way negatively affect the quality
of education your child receives, or the quality of services you receive as
a parent of a child attending the researcher’s school.
[cost/benefit] There will be no cost to your child for participating. At your
own request, I will provide you with a copy of the completed study at no
cost. There will be no payment available to you for your child’s
participation; however, it is my feeling that your child will benefit greatly
from the math instruction and teachers will also be informed of effective
math instruction.
[informed consent] Participation in research is voluntary. You are free to

decline your child’s participation in this study, or withdraw from it at any
point. (Insert name), principal of (insert name of school), is aware of this
study, but she is not requiring that your child participate in this research
and your decision as to whether or not to participate will have no
influence on the quality of education your child will receive at (insert
name of school), nor will your child’s participation or nonparticipation
influence future interactions between him/herself and school personnel.
[contact information] Thank you for your consent and assistance with this
study. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me by phone
at (insert phone number) or by e-mail at (insert e-mail address) or by
regular mail at (insert mailing address).
Sincerely,
(insert your name)
(insert your title)

APPENDIX C SAMPLE INFORMED CONSENT
FORM
PARENT INFORMED CONSENT FORM
(INSERT NAME OF COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY)
CONSENT TO BE A RESEARCH SUBJECT
Purpose and Background
(Insert name, role, school/college, university) is doing a study to

investigate the effectiveness of Bridging Cultural Themes in Educational
Practices (BCTEP), an intervention that integrates the African American
cultural themes of communalism, movement, and orality with standards-
based mathematics instruction for students with disabilities.
My child is being asked to participate because he/she is a student in the

special education classroom in which the teacher has voluntarily agreed
to participate in the study.
Procedures
If I allow my child to be a participant in this study, the following may
happen:
1. The classroom teacher will teach my child math strategies daily (50
minutes) for 8 weeks using standards-based math materials that
integrate African American cultural themes.
2. (Insert name) will have access to my child’s relevant
documents/educational records (which will remain confidential).
3. My child will complete a math test before and after the study is
completed.
4. My child will complete a satisfaction survey about math before and
after the study is completed.
5. My child will complete a mini math test after each lesson is
completed.
Risks or Discomforts
1. It is possible that some of the questions on the satisfaction survey

may make my child feel uncomfortable, but he/she is free to decline
to answer any questions or to stop participation at any time.
2. Participation in research may mean a loss of confidentiality. Study
records will be kept as confidential as is possible. No individual
identities will be used in any reports or publications resulting from the
study. Study information will be coded and kept in locked files away
from the school site at all times. Only study personnel will have
access to the files.
Benefits
There will be no direct benefit to me for letting my child participate in this
study. However, it is likely that my child will improve his/her math
performance and increase his/her satisfaction with school and math.
Other benefits include minimizing the probability of cultural
misunderstandings and therefore maximizing achievement for students
from culturally diverse backgrounds who have special needs.
Costs/Financial Considerations
There will be no financial costs to me or to my child as a result of taking

part in this study.
Payment/Reimbursement
There will be no payment for my child’s participation in this study.
However, my child will receive school supply materials at no cost to the
school or me.
Questions
I have talked to (insert your name and chairperson) about this study and
I have talked to (insert your name and chairperson) about this study and
have had my questions answered. If I have further questions about the
study, I may call him/her at (insert phone number) or e-mail him/her at
(insert e-mail address).
If I have any questions or comments about my child’s participation in this
study, I should first talk with the researchers. If, for some reason, I do not
wish to do this, I may contact the Institutional Review Board for the
Protection of Human Subjects (IRBPHS), which is concerned with
protection of volunteers in research projects. I may reach the IRBPHS
office by calling (insert phone number), by e-mailing (insert e-mail
address), or by writing to the IRBPHS at (insert school address).
Consent
I have been given a copy of the “Research Subject’s Bill of Rights” and I
have been given a copy of this consent form to keep.
PARTICIPATION IN RESEARCH IS VOLUNTARY. I am free to decline

to be in this study or to withdraw my child from it at any point. My
decision as to whether or not to participate in this study will have no
influence on my or my child’s present or future status as a student or
employee at (insert name of college/university).
My signature below indicates that I agree to have my child participate in

this study.
______________________ ______________________
Student’s Name Student’s Teacher

_______________________ _____________________
Signature of Parent/Guardian Date of Signature

(PLEASE KEEP ONE COPY OF THE CONSENT FORM FOR YOUR
RECORDS)
APPENDIX D DR. BUI’S WRITING TIPS AND
RULES FROM A TO Z
A:
Active vs. passive voice: Use the active voice so that your sentences
are more concise:
“The dog bit the boy.” (active)
“The boy was bitten by the dog.” (passive)
Affect vs. effect:
Affect is the verb form: “The students’ reading scores were

affected by the instruction.”
Effect is the noun form: “There was a positive effect on the

students’ reading scores.”
Also: Do not start a sentence with “also”—use other transitions such

as “in addition,” “further,” and so on.
Always use APA format in the text and in the reference section.
B:
Back it up: When you make a definitive statement such as, “Students
with disabilities perform lower on standardized tests,” you need to
back this up with a citation.
Buffers: Do not write paragraphs where every sentence ends with a
citation. This makes the writing extremely choppy. You need to
include buffer statements in between the citations where you are
connecting the information or expanding/commenting on it in some
way.
C:
Chairperson: Communicate frequently with your chairperson. When

in doubt, or if you get stuck, make an appointment to see him. Do not
hide from your chairperson, especially if you are not making steady
progress.
Citations in text use APA format.
Colons: Only use them sparingly and when you’re making a long list.
Then number the items.
“The intervention included the following components: (a) blah,

(b) blah blah, (c) blah blah blah, and (d) final blahs.”
Commas: Do not go crazy with your use of commas.
Use them with lists: “preferences, attitudes, and behavior.”
Use them in between compound sentences: “The students

increased their scores, and the teachers improved their
instructional methods.”
Use them after dependent clauses: “When the students were

grouped by disability, there was a difference in their scores.”
D:
Data are always plural. Say, “Data are” or “data were.”
Don’t (do not) use contractions in the thesis at all—spell them all out.
E:
Edit, edit, edit. Read your writing aloud to make sure it makes sense.
Then have someone else read it before you turn it in to your
chairperson.
Et al.: This can only be used if you have listed all the authors the first
time or if there are six or more authors (see APA). If you are going to
use it, then it should be “(Bui et al., 2020).”
F:
Fluency: Use transitions and segues so your writing is not choppy

(see buffers).
Fragments: Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences, such as

“While they were taking the test,” or “Because they had a disability.”
G:
Graphs (all figures) follow APA format.
H:
Headings: Use three level headings if you want to organize using the
three parallel ladders strategy.
I:
“It” is a pronoun—do not start your sentence with “It.”
J:
Jargon: Terms that are uncommon should be briefly defined in the
text. Longer definitions belong in the definition of terms section in
Chapter One.
K:
Keep paragraph structure intact. Start the paragraph with a good

topic sentence and then make sure all the sentences within the
paragraph fit the topic sentence.
L:
Label all the acronyms the first time they appear: “students with
learning disabilities (LD)”—after that, you can use the acronym
alone, “students with LD.”
M:
Match the subject with the appropriate pronoun: “The student’s score
and her attitude.” “The students’ scores and their attitudes.”
Multiple works: When you have multiple works, group them together
in alphabetical order—“Students of color are overrepresented in
special education (Bobbett, 2014; Bui, 2018; Edwards, 2015; Hawk
& Lee, 2020).”
N:
Numbers should always be spelled out when they start a sentence.

Spell out numbers under 10 and use figures to express numbers 10
and above.
O:
Organizational structure: Be sure to structure your chapters using
the three parallel ladders strategy.
Outline: Before you write, you should create an outline of the topic
sentence for each paragraph. Then you can see if your paper has
funneled correctly in the Introduction and if you have the three
related areas in the Statement of the Problem and the Background
and Need.
P:
Pace yourself: Set a writing goal for yourself every day whether it is
a time goal or a completion goal. Do not wait 2 weeks before the
thesis deadline. This is not something you can “wing” at the last
minute.
Paraphrase; do not plagiarize.
Possessives:
For singular, the apostrophe goes before the “s”—“The

teacher’s class had eight students.”
For plural, the apostrophe goes after the “s”—“The teachers’
classes had a total of 50 students.”
Q:
Quotes: Use quotes sparingly, and if you do, you need to cite the
exact page number from the source.
R:
References: Look to see how APA formats citations in the text and in
the reference list.
Rhetorical questions: Do not ask rhetorical questions in the text.
Run-on sentences: Break “long” sentences into shorter ones. This

does not mean you should only write simple sentences. However, if
your “sentence” is longer than four lines, it is probably a run-on
sentence.
S:
Save: Press the “save” button every time you finish writing a
sentence or paragraph—this will keep you from having a nervous
breakdown when your computer freezes.
Segues and transitions: Make sure to segue between paragraphs.

Headers are not transitions.
Semicolons: Semicolons are used to separate independent clauses:
“The students’ behavior was atrocious; the teacher sent them to the
principal’s office.” If you are not certain of whether or not to use a
semicolon, use a period instead.
Soften your language: Unless you have evidence to back it up (with

a citation), you should soften your statement so it is not so definitive.
“Students’ low motivation causes them to have poor self-

esteem”—strong statement, needs a citation.
“Students’ low motivation may negatively affect their self-

esteem”—softer, does not need a citation.
T:
Tense: 95% of the thesis will be in the past tense since most of the
research has already been conducted.
Their/there: Their is used to show possession—“Their behaviors

were inappropriate.” This is different from there, which indicates
location—“The books are over there.”
U:
Use formal, technical language and terms. Do not use informal

language, slang, or vernacular, and do not “preach” to the reader (no
standing on a soapbox).
Use “people-first” language:
“Students receiving special education services”

“Students with disabilities”
“Students with special needs”
“Students with autism”
V:
Value judgments: Do not use words that express worth or value. For
example: “There were only eight students in the study.” “The
students finally improved on their tests.” “The mean gains from pre to
posttest were pitiful.”
Versions: Always date and properly label the versions of your writing
—this will keep you from revising an old draft.
W:
Write, write, and rewrite.

Writing center: If you need writing help, get it!
X:
Xerox copies: Have some form of copy of your writing—either in hard

copy or electronic. E-mail drafts to yourself or save it on a jump
drive, external hard drive, or Cloud storage provider. Computers
crash all the time—you do not have to.
Y:
You: “You” does not belong in the thesis—neither do “we,” “our,” “I,”
or “us”—always keep the writing in the third person (check with your
chairperson).
Z:
Zzzzzzzz . . . get sleep. Writing is easier when you are rested. Take
frequent (but short) breaks to rest your eyes—blink a lot when you
are at the computer (do not strain your eyes). Write difficult sections
when you are most alert. If you are hitting a mental writing block, do
a less demanding task such as typing up your references.
APPENDIX E SAMPLE CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Adapted from Williams, A. (2006). Motivation, metacognition,

and self-determination among students with learning disabilities.
Unpublished master’s thesis, University of San Francisco,
California.
[broad problem: national level]

The quality of public education in the United States is often judged by
student academic performance. One of the four pillars of the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) is stronger accountability for academic
results (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). In looking at national
academic performance data, there appears to be ample room for
improvement. For example, the Program for International Student
Assessment (PISA) reported in 2003 that 15-year-olds in the United
States performed below their peers in 29 industrialized countries in the
academic area of mathematics (PISA, 2003). Only 24% of 12th-grade
students nationwide performed at or above the proficient level in writing,
and average reading scale scores were lower among 12th graders in
2002 than in 1992. Given the consequences of not meeting academic
standards as outlined in the NCLB, states are eager to improve students’
academic outcomes.
[implications/manifestations of national
problem]
Poor academic performance may lead to student discouragement and
disenchantment with the public education system, which may contribute
to student dropout rates. Nationally, 5% of students enrolled in high
school in 1999 left school before October 2000 as reported by National
Center for Education Statistics (NCES) studies. NCES also reported that
in October 2000, approximately 3.8 million people between the ages of
16 and 24 were not enrolled in high school or had not completed a high
school program (NCES, 2005a).
school program (NCES, 2005a).
Given the level of noncompletion of high school programs, poor
postsecondary outcomes at the national and state levels may be
expected. According to NCES, one of the goals of public education is to
provide young people with the academic skills necessary for success in a
postsecondary learning environment. Students who do not complete a
secondary program do not receive this academic training and will most
likely be unsuccessful in a postsecondary school setting or not attempt
enrollment in a college or university at all (NCES, 2005a). The
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development calculated the
first-time entry rate in postsecondary education for students in the United
States to be at 42% in 2003. This was a shamefully low percentage
compared to Australia, Finland, Iceland, New Zealand, Norway, Poland,
and Sweden, which had first-time entry rates of 60% or more (NCES,
2005b).
Disinterest in education among adolescents in the United States is an

issue that has very serious consequences, including increased risk for
poor academic performance, school dropout, poor postsecondary
outcomes, and criminal activity (Caraway, Tucker, Reinke, & Hall, 2003).
According to Caraway et al., one third of high school seniors in 1999 felt
that what they were learning in school was not important to their future.
Between 1980 and 1999, the percentage of high school seniors who felt
like what they were being taught in school was meaningful and important
declined by 29%. A study reported that peer support and encouragement
of antisocial behavior has been steadily increasing since 1976 (Boesel,
2001). These negative attitudes toward school relate to poor academic
achievement and postsecondary outcomes.
An alternative to attending a postsecondary program after graduating or

dropping out of high school would be obtaining gainful employment;
however, statistics with regards to employment opportunities for youth
without high school diplomas do not appear to be very encouraging. For
example, in 2003, 44% of people between 16 and 24 who dropped out of
high school before receiving a diploma were not enrolled in a
postsecondary program or employed. Education level was cited as an
important factor in youth unemployment rates (NCES, 2005a).
In addition to poor employment prospects, young people who do not
complete a high school program or do not continue their education in a
postsecondary environment are more likely to be involved in criminal
activity. Approximately 75% of state prison inmates did not complete high
school, and approximately 47% of drug offenders do not have a high
school diploma or a GED (Harlow, 2003). Additionally, high school
dropouts are 3.5 times more likely than high school graduates to be
arrested in their lifetimes (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2003). These
figures seem to support the importance of academic achievement and
arrested in their lifetimes (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2003). These
figures seem to support the importance of academic achievement and
enrollment in high school and postsecondary programs for young people.
Clearly, school personnel should sustain dropout prevention programs
and encouragement of postsecondary education. If the present trends
continue, a growth in the number of incarcerated and jobless youth can
be expected. These national statistics are causing growing concern
among educators, politicians, parents, and students across the country.
[one-step funnel: problem on state level]

States such as California are not immune to these growing national
trends, and education data for California were found to be similar to
national data. For example, in 2003, only 22% of eighth-grade students in
California performed at or above the proficient level in math and reading
on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
assessment. For the 2003–2004 Academic Performance Index (API)
cycle, fewer than half of the high schools in California met their API
growth target as reported by the California Department of Education
(2004).
[implications/manifestations of state problems]

In California, the dropout statistics were also consistent with those of the
rest of the country. A 2003 study conducted by the Pacific Research
Institute (PRI) showed that over 30% of California’s students did not
complete a high school program within 4 years (PRI, 2005). This study
also noted that due to tracking challenges, this figure might actually be
higher than 30%. State postsecondary enrollment figures are equally
discouraging. A study conducted by the Los Angeles Unified School
District found that fewer than 50% of graduating high school students in
California attended college in 1998 (PRI, 2005).
[one-step funnel: specific sample group]

Students with disabilities were reported to be at an even greater risk for
poor academic achievement, noncompletion of high school programs,
and involvement in criminal activity than their average-achieving peers.
The NCES reported in 2000 that 8% of students enrolled in public
elementary and secondary schools were classified as having a learning
disability (LD), emotional or behavioral disorder (EBD), or mental
retardation (MR) (NCES, 2000). This means that 3.8 million young people
fall into the disability categories mentioned above. Students with
fall into the disability categories mentioned above. Students with
disabilities lag behind their peers in the areas of employment, wages,
postsecondary education, and residential independence. Fewer than
20% of students with disabilities enter postsecondary education, only
55% are competitively employed, and fewer than 30% are living
independently (NCES, 2005b). Moreover, students with disabilities who
found employment within the first 2 years after leaving high school were
earning poverty-level wages (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996). As a
consequence, adults with disabilities are less successful than their
average-achieving peers in finding and sustaining employment,
maintaining an acceptable standard of living, and developing
independence than persons without disabilities (Field, Sarver, & Shaw,
2003).
A lack of interest in school may play a role in the negative outcomes of

students with LD. Students with LD and low achievers are more likely to
exhibit negative attitudes and less motivation with regard to their
education than higher-achieving peers (McCoach, 2000). The challenges
of encouraging positive attitudes toward school and fostering student
educational involvement may be more important than ever in improving
outcomes for young people.
[one-step funnel: specific research

problem/study]
For students with LD to realize academic success and positive
postsecondary outcomes in today’s educational climate, developing self-
direction may become an essential part of a special education program.
A successful special education program promotes positive attitudes
toward education by providing students with disabilities the skills and
opportunities to have a lead decision-making role in their education and
adult life. Students with disabilities require instruction on the tools that
lead to this self-advocacy and self-empowerment (Grigal, Neubert, Moon,
& Graham, 2003). According to a 2004 report by the Northwest Regional
Education Laboratory (NREL), one of the top priorities of teachers and
administrators is to assist students in becoming responsible for their own
learning and academic performance. High school students with LD may
be able to realize academic, behavioral, and social benefits if taught a
method of self-directed learning.
APPENDIX F SAMPLE CHAPTER ONE
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Adapted from Williams, A. (2006). Motivation, metacognition,

and self-determination among students with learning disabilities.
Unpublished master’s thesis, University of San Francisco,
California.
The challenges present in encouraging high school students with learning

disabilities (LD) to become self-directed learners are related to three
important components of a self-directed educational program: [three
areas] motivation and self-efficacy, metacognition skills, and self-
determination. High school students with LD lack motivation and self-
efficacy, struggle with metacognition, and are often not exposed to
opportunities for developing self-determination (Deci & Chandler, 1986;
Shimabukuro, Prater, Jenkins, & Edelen-Smith, 1999). A motivated
student would take a genuine interest not only in subject matter but also
in identifying the best strategies to accomplish learning about the subject
matter. This skill is referred to as metacognition. Simply stated,
metacognition refers to thinking about thinking. This includes a student’s
ability to self-regulate and self-evaluate her learning processes and
adjust her learning behavior when necessary. The last challenge in
promoting self-directed learning involves supporting and encouraging
aspects of the self-determination theory in classroom curricula. In the
field of education, the theory of self-determination involves a student
actively engaging in making decisions regarding his education with a full
sense of choice (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Self-determination requires a
student to know and value himself; plan, act, and experience outcomes;
and learn.
Motivation and self-efficacy.

[problems in area 1] Motivation and self-efficacy are important facets to
encouraging student educational involvement because a lack of these
attributes contributes to poor academic performance and postsecondary
outcomes. Motivation and self-efficacy appear to be closely related in that
motivation refers to a student’s interest in a subject matter or task, while
self-efficacy describes a student’s judgment about his or her abilities
concerning a specific subject or task (NREL, 2004). A student with
adequate levels of motivation and self-efficacy approaches his or her
education with the attitude of “I want to succeed and I can succeed.”
Motivated students may be said to be actively interested in what they are
learning and the tasks involved in the learning process. A student may be
intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to attempt or accomplish specific
tasks. The effectiveness of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation is
debatable (Cameron, 2001; Deci, Ryan, & Koestner, 2001), but
researchers agree that motivation plays an important role in a student’s
success (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Motivation is a key element of a successful learning environment for
students with LD. However, motivating students with LD can be difficult.
Generally, the educational research community has accepted that
students with LD have low levels of motivation (Adelman, Lauber,
Nelson, & Smith, 1989; Wilson & David, 1994). Motivation has been said
to diminish when a student is faced with repeated failure. Students with
LD have had more experiences with failure than their peers without
disabilities and therefore experience lower levels of motivation (Deci &
Chandler, 1986).
Students with LD also had a lower sense of self-efficacy than their peers
without disabilities. Attributing academic success or failure to external
factors was found to be a common practice among students with LD. This
lack of self-efficacy among students with LD contributed to the amount of
difficulty they experienced in academic settings (Dev, 1996).
Metacognition.
[problems in area 2] In addition to wanting to accomplish a task
(motivation) and feeling as if they have the ability to accomplish a task
(self-efficacy), students with LD may also benefit from knowing the best
way for them to go about accomplishing a task (metacognition). Students
with LD have difficulty with metacognition skills, including self-evaluation
and self-regulation (Klassen, 2002). Accurately evaluating their own
academic skills presents challenges to students with LD (Stone & May,
2002). This inaccurate self-evaluation may lead to difficulties for students
with LD in organizing and planning assignments because the student will
have trouble determining the course of action best suited to his abilities.
Students with LD are challenged by analyzing task requirements,
choosing and applying appropriate strategies to complete tasks, and
evaluating and adjusting performance because they have a tendency to
place more of their focus on lower-order processes than on the
evaluative aspects of metacognitive skills (Butler, 1998). Another aspect
of metacognition is making adjustments to learning. There is a
connection between adjustment, learning, and achievement in that
people learn by adjusting and adjust to learn (Martin, Mithaug, & Cox,
2003).
Developing an understanding of a student’s own cognitive processes
may be a particularly difficult aspect of metacognition for a student with
LD due to difficulties she experiences with self-regulation (Price, 2002).
Self-regulation involves the student being able to understand the
requirements of a task or goal and to monitor progress and deadlines.
When a task is attempted but not accomplished, the student must be able
to self-regulate, or make academic, behavioral, or social adjustments to
meet his goal (Martin et al., 2003). Students with LD, including students
diagnosed with attention deficit or hyperactivity disorders, found
behavioral self-regulation especially difficult due to the nature of these
disorders (Shimabukuro et al., 1999). Students with LD typically have
difficulties in making adjustments and transitioning, which may present
another metacognitive challenge to the student (Shimabukuro et al.,
1999). An understanding of one’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses
seems crucial for students with LD to make effective choices and
decisions about their learning.
Self-determination.
[problems in area 3] Combining motivation, self-efficacy, and
metacognition skills with the development of self-determination among
students with LD may improve these students’ outcomes. Students who
embodied the skills of self-determination had a higher rate of success
both academically and in making transitions to adult life (Bremer,
Kachgal, & Schoeller, 2003). The Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) of 1997 promoted student self-determination in intent and
spirit by mandating that students be involved in the Individual Education
Program (IEP) and transition planning (Grigal et al., 2003). Unfortunately,
rather than supporting and encouraging development of self-
determination, many educational environments rely on short-term
solutions such as overreliance on accommodations or overuse of course
waivers. This results in high dropout rates and low postsecondary
education rates among students with disabilities (Field et al., 2003).
Research indicated that students with disabilities had greater difficulty

developing a sense of self-determination than their typically achieving
peers (Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000). One reason
for this was that the stigma attached to having a learning disability
encouraged many students to deny that their disabilities existed. This
encouraged many students to deny that their disabilities existed. This
denial led to nondisclosure, which limited resources available to students
with LD. This lack of self-awareness also diminished the students’ belief
in themselves, which undermined the development of self-determination
(Hoffman, 2003).
Other barriers to developing a sense of self-determination for students

with LD were the attributes of learned helplessness and self-deprecation
(Bos & Vaughn, 2002) and negative or unrealistic self-concepts exhibited
by these students (Price, 2002). These distortions of self may inhibit a
student’s ability to make effective choices and decisions, which will have
a negative effect on developing self-determination. Unfortunately,
students with LD have greater difficulty developing a sense of self-
determination than their typically achieving peers (Hoffman, 2003).
[section summary] As noted, students with learning disabilities have

lower levels of motivation and self-efficacy, metacognition skills, and self-
determination than their nondisabled peers. These shortfalls negatively
impact their academic performance and may cause them to drop out of
school altogether. To improve students’ with disabilities chances for
successful life outcomes, educators need to implement research-based
strategies that will enhance their motivation and self-efficacy,
metacognition skills, and self-determination.
APPENDIX G SAMPLE RESEARCH
SYNTHESES
Adapted from Kendall, D. (2006). The power of communication:

A special day class teacher and her students’ perceptions on
effective communication, lesson efficacy, and teacher-student
relationships within a cross-cultural framework. Unpublished
master’s thesis, University of San Francisco, California.
Ideally, it can be argued that all teachers enter their classroom with their
own ideas for how their students should conduct themselves
behaviorally. Furthermore, each educator’s personality, cultural identity,
race, and manner, which play a large role in conveying these
expectations, are diverse. Previous research (Sherwin & Schmidt, 2003)
has indicated a need for educators and service providers to be aware of
the cultures they serve, to prevent miscommunications. A study by
Dennis and Giangreco (1996) investigated similar notions by exploring
aspects of cultural sensitivity in standard family interviewing practices
that guide, develop, and implement students’ individualized education
programs (IEPs). The researchers emphasized their perspectives as
professionals and as members of minority groups in the United States.
The purpose of this qualitative study was to listen carefully to interview
responses, consult current research in the area of cultural sensitivity, and
construct more culturally sensitive family interviewing practices.
The researchers in this study used criterion sampling to select the 14

participants. The three criteria that needed to be met to be a participant in
the study were (a) being a member of a minority group in the United
States, (b) being knowledgeable about cultural issues related to their own
heritage, and (c) being knowledgeable about current common practices
in educating students with severe disabilities in the United States.
Participants were identified as members of the following minority groups
in the United States: African American, Latino, Chinese American,
Japanese American, Native American, Asian Indian, Native Hawaiian,
and Native Alaskan.
The data collection process included providing each of the 14 participants
with a copy of the study’s protocol and asking them to read and respond
to the document. The document, Choosing Options and Accommodations
for Children: A Guide to Planning Inclusive Education (COACH), was
developed in an earlier study, and expanded on the previous research by
asking family members about the importance of specific current and
future life outcomes (e.g., health, safety, social relationships), as well as
their priorities for learning outcomes. After reading the protocol, the
participants were asked to write a report and critically assess COACH
from a cross-cultural perspective. Interviews were formed based on the
reports, and subsequent semi-structured, recorded telephone interviews
were administered.
The research was driven by three questions: (a) “What does cultural
sensitivity mean in family interviewing,” (b) “How do professionals
approach their work in culturally sensitive ways,” and (c) “How can family
interviews be conducted in more culturally sensitive ways?” These
variables in the form of participant interview responses were transcribed
and entered into Ethnograph (a computerized software program) for data
analysis.
The results of this study revealed that with regard to the definition of
cultural sensitivity in family interviewing, the participants conveyed the
need for professionals to understand each particular student’s family
environment, to more accurately interpret the family’s future life and
learning goals. With regard to professionals approaching their work and
conducting family interviews in more culturally sensitive ways,
participants stated that professionals needed to form positive attitudes,
greater sensitivity, and respect for other schools of thought, even if they
were contrary to the values they currently identify with. This is an
important implication for educators who teach students from diverse
backgrounds. The aforementioned work approaches and open-
mindedness may prove successful for the educator who will meet with
the parents of students from various cultures. Knowledge of the students
and families one serves, as well as genuine sensitivity to their cultural
norms, can function to alleviate misunderstandings and may help clarify
communicative intent in the classroom as well as in IEP meetings.
Although the research discussed many salient and pertinent issues in the
areas of cultural sensitivity, a threat to the internal validity of the study
was a lack of clarity of the variables measured and, subsequently, a lack
of clarity of the results. Threats to the external validity include vague
descriptions of the setting and duration of the investigation of the issue.
Thus, the generalizability of these findings to other groups may be
limited.
Adapted from Iniguez, D. (2007). Providing primary language
support for English language learners with learning disabilities
through affirming intervention models. Unpublished master’s
thesis, University of San Francisco, California.
A study based on professional development was implemented to help

support teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Project
CRISP (Culturally Responsive Instruction for Special Populations) was
established to assess teachers’ perspectives about multicultural
education, its place in the school curriculum, and how it can affect the
number of referrals for special education services (Voltz, Brazil, & Scott,
2003). Awareness of multicultural education can prepare teachers of
culturally and linguistically diverse students to avoid overrepresentation
and reduce referrals for special education services. This project was
aimed at lowering the overrepresentation of students of color in special
education and providing a meaningful theoretical framework of
multicultural education for educators.
The participants were 33 teachers from large urban school districts. The
ethnic background of the participants was 45% African American and
55% European American. The teachers volunteered for the study and
were also paid a modest stipend. The criteria for the participants included
having only elementary and middle school teachers and a collaboration
of at least two teachers from the same school. In addition, the school
groups had to have at least one special educator. As a result, 60.6%
were general educators with an average of 9.6 years of experience, and
39.4% were special educators with an average of 11.9 years of
experience. The majority of the participants were elementary educators
at 85%, and 15% were middle school educators.
The participants engaged in professional development activities based on
a multicultural education framework. Project CRISP was created to help
teachers understand the importance of “culturally responsive pedagogy”
(Voltz et al., 2003, p. 64). In addition, the influence of culture on learning
styles and behavior was also integrated into the project. The foundation
of the project was based on Banks’s model of multicultural education
(2001), which has five main components: (a) content integration, (b)
knowledge construction process, (c) prejudice reduction, (d) empowering
school culture, and (e) equity pedagogy.
The professional development was divided into several stages. The initial
part of the project was conducted as a seminar that lasted 3 days. The
seminar was organized to begin with Banks’s (2001) model of
seminar was organized to begin with Banks’s (2001) model of
multicultural education. The other activities included were hands-on
activities, developing plans with same-school participants, discussions,
and demonstrations. One of the final activities included goal setting for
the participants. All the participants had to name at least one goal that
would continue and extend the participants’ learning in the areas
discussed during the seminar. From the goals, teachers wrote their own
ongoing professional development plan. All schools worked in
collaborative teams and worked about 26 hours to accomplish their
defined goals. The participants’ professional development plans included
action research projects, curriculum development projects, and reading
groups.
A variety of measurement tools were administered to assess the effects
of Project CRISP. First, the participants were administered a
questionnaire as a pre- and postassessment based on a five-point Likert-
type scale that included responses from (1) strongly disagree to (5)
strongly agree. The postquestionnaire had two extra questions that were
relevant to the effects of the project on the participants’ teaching
methodology that was administered 15 weeks after participants attended
the seminar. In addition, all participants were interviewed over the phone
as a pre- and postassessment of overall familiarity and understanding of
multicultural education and the process they used to refer students for
special education services. The interviews averaged about 20 minutes
each. The final measurement tool used by Project CRISP was a pre- and
postlesson plan analysis that required participants to deconstruct a given
lesson plan by creating a culturally appropriate one.
There were several methods of data analysis for the different measures.
The data for the questionnaire were analyzed by using a paired t test to
determine whether the differences in pre- to postmean ratings were
statistically significant. The interviews were transcribed and coded to look
for frequent themes cited in the interviews by the participants. To add to
the validity of the project, a trained graduate assistant concurrently coded
the transcripts and the interrater reliability was found to be 78.8%. For the
lesson plan analysis, the ideas were classified in the areas of content,
methodology, materials, and assessments. Again, an interrater reliability
was used and had a rate of 82.9%. The amount of change between the
prelesson plan analysis and the postlesson plan analysis was rated on a
1–4 scale. The total mean ratings were comparatively analyzed with a
paired t test.
Results from the questionnaire indicated that most teachers thought
Project CRISP was effective in helping them become better teachers.
The results of the prequestionnaires showed that most general educators
felt comfortable and able to work with culturally and linguistically diverse
felt comfortable and able to work with culturally and linguistically diverse
families and were also familiar with the culture of their students. Yet a
distinction was found in three areas: (a) meeting the needs of their
culturally and linguistically diverse students, (b) identifying the differences
between a learning disability and learning differences, and (c) how to
teach and implement a curriculum from a multicultural standpoint. The
three areas that were identified as a need were rated significantly higher
(.05 level) on the prequestionnaire results. Most participants revealed
that their teacher training program was inadequate in preparing them to
work with a culturally and linguistically diverse student population. The
postquestionnaire showed that teachers continued to feel comfortable
teaching a diverse student population.
The results of the interviews were grouped in the following categories by
the authors of the study: referral practices, prereferral interventions,
behavior management, and teacher perceptions on the effects of Project
CRISP. The questions about referral practices during the preinterview
showed that 65% of general educators had referred students for special
education services because of academic difficulties in math or reading.
The postinterview showed similar rates, at 60%, of teachers referring
students for special education services. Yet, at the postinterview, about
25% of the participants noted the need to address a variety of factors,
such as home environment and communication with other educators in
the referral process. The preinterview about prereferral interventions
highlighted three areas that were commonly used as a response:
accommodations (35%), parent collaboration (35%), and professional
collaboration (25%). The postinterview noted a new category adapting
the methodology for the needs of diverse students. About 54% of special
educators among the participants were found to be involved with
prereferral interventions. The pre- and postinterview results about
behavior management found minimal differences; 53% of general
educators and 45% of special educators believed students’ cultural
backgrounds can affect their behavior. The teacher perception results of
Project CRISP were noted as making a difference in teaching
methodology by 45% of general educators and 69% of special educators.
The lesson plan analysis noted the most changes in the area of content
and methodology. The variation of the mean for general educators was
2.00 during the prelesson analysis and 2.44 on the postanalysis of the
lesson. The variation of the mean for special educators was 1.83 during
the prelesson analysis and 2.25 during the postanalysis of the lesson.
There were no statistically significant changes between the pre- and
postratings.
The authors of the study indicated that teachers believed they lacked the
methodology and cultural understanding to adequately teach culturally
methodology and cultural understanding to adequately teach culturally
diverse students before the intervention. A difference was also found in
the level of confidence by special educators to work with culturally
diverse students in comparison with general educators. The study also
highlighted how Project CRISP was able to influence teacher reflections
of classroom practices with culturally diverse students. Participants in the
study also added depth to their prior knowledge.
The implications of these results indicate a need for educators to receive
more training to teach a culturally diverse student population to reduce
the number of referrals for special education services. This can be
obtained by providing a positive school environment and workshops for
educators on how to teach to different students’ cultural learning styles.
This current study addresses this need by providing reading instruction in
the students’ primary language. The authors also suggested that special
educators should participate in professional development programs
focused on working with culturally diverse students.
The study had several limitations as noted by the researcher. First, the
length of the professional development was a weakness because the
seminar only lasted 3 days, in comparison with courses at the university
level, which last for several months. More time could have been valuable
for the participants. Another possible major limitation of the study was
that participants volunteered for the study, and there was a small sample
size. The project’s sample group might have been composed of
participants who wanted to learn about multicultural education theories.
Other teachers may not have been present at the study because of their
personal biases. Future studies need to be conducted with larger sample
sizes with a diverse group of educators.
GLOSSARY
abstracting:
Abstracting is a method of organizing information about an article
that includes a brief summary and selected critical information about
the study.
accessibility:
Accessibility refers to the ability to gain access or entry to the
research site and participants.
advance organizer:
An advance organizer is an outline for the literature review and
informs the reader of what will be addressed in the chapter.
advanced search:
Advanced search (also referred to as guided search) allows the user
to set specific filters to narrow the search results.
American Psychological Association (APA) style:

APA style is the writing and editorial form used by the American
Psychological Association to publish books and manuscripts. This
style form is commonly used in various social science disciplines
such as education, psychology, sociology, business, economics,
nursing, and social work.
AND:
The AND Boolean operator combines two or more terms so that
each record contains all of the terms.
answerable research question:

An answerable research question is one where the researcher is
able to collect data or information (using a measurement instrument)
to answer the question related to the problem.
Belmont Report:
The Belmont Report is a summary of the basic ethical principles and
guidelines for conducting research with human subjects.
beneficence:
Beneficence is the second principle in the Belmont Report and refers
to two general rules: “(1) do not harm; and (2) maximize possible
benefits, and minimize possible harms.”
benefits, and minimize possible harms.”
Boolean operators:
Boolean search operators are used in electronic databases and
other search engines to define the relationships between words or
groups of words.
chairperson:
The chairperson is the faculty member who is assigned to or
selected by the graduate student to advise him or her throughout the
master’s thesis process.
chunking method:
The chunking method refers to breaking up large tasks into smaller,
more manageable chunks such as writing one section of a chapter
rather than the entire chapter.
column head:
In an APA table, the column head identifies the items listed under
one column.
column spanner:
In an APA table, a column spanner is a broad heading that covers
two or more columns.
Common Rule:
The Common Rule is a federal policy for the protection of human
subjects followed by most of the federal departments and agencies
that sponsor research with human subjects.
convenience sample:
In a convenience sample, the researcher selects the individuals who
are available and accessible at the time.
cost-benefit analysis:
In a cost-benefit analysis, researchers must weigh the potential
benefits against the anticipated risks and decide whether the
benefits are so great that they justify putting subjects at a certain
level of risk or whether the risks are so high that the benefits are not
worth the potential harm to subjects.
data coding:
Data coding is a data analysis process used in qualitative research
to categorize and label the major themes.
data triangulation:
Data triangulation is one type of triangulation procedure where
multiple methods of data collection are used to study one
phenomenon.
deception:
Deception occurs when the researcher omits information about the
study or gives false information.
deductive reasoning:
A logic/reasoning approach that moves from the general to the
specific.
dependent variable:
The dependent variable is the variable that is observed to see if
there is a change (e.g., effect) in response to the independent
variable. The researcher cannot manipulate the dependent variable.
descriptive statistics:
Descriptive statistics are the basic level of statistical analysis for a
data set from a sample group. Typically, reported statistics include
the mean, median, mode, variance, and standard deviation.
descriptors:
Descriptors are used in electronic databases to give every record a
subject indexing term (i.e., controlled vocabulary or subject terms).
dictionary definition:
A dictionary definition is a definition that is offered in a dictionary to
define ambiguous terms related to the study or research question.
digital object identifier (DOI):
The DOI is a unique code of letters and numbers that provides a link
to a journal article’s location on the Internet.
dissertation:
A dissertation is typically the culminating requirement for a doctoral
degree.
editorial style:
The editorial style is a set of rules or guidelines that writers must
adhere to for publishing manuscripts, books, and so on.
electronic database:
An electronic database is an electronic collection of information (e.g.,
books, journal articles, reference materials) where an individual can
An electronic database is an electronic collection of information (e.g.,
books, journal articles, reference materials) where an individual can
research and retrieve resources. Electronic databases can be
interdisciplinary or organized around a particular subject area or
field.
empirically based:
Empirically based research findings are those that are based on data
that are produced by experiment or observation rather than opinion
or theory.
example definition:
An example definition is a definition that uses examples to define
ambiguous terms related to the study or research question.
expanders feature:
The expanders feature is the opposite of the limiters feature and
broadens an electronic search by allowing the user to combine or
add key terms.
external validity:
External validity (outside the study) refers to whether the results of
the study are applicable or can be generalized to other settings and
groups.
feasibility:
Feasibility refers to how realistic it will be to access data or
participants and the time needed to complete the study.
Final Rule:
The Final Rule is the revised Common Rule that was issued in by
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and 15 other
federal departments and agencies. The Final Rule was published in
the Federal Register (FR) on January 19, 2017 and went into effect
on January 21, 2019.
full-text (see also PDF):
Full-text is when the entire resource is available either in a printable
webpage format or a PDF format.
funnel writing strategy:

The funnel writing strategy is analogous to a funnel where your first
paragraph about the problem is broad and every subsequent
paragraph narrows the topic toward a specific problem.
general notes:
In an APA table, general notes appear at the bottom of the table and
explain information relating to the entire table such as abbreviations
or symbols.
generalizability:
Generalizability refers to the extent to which the results about a
sample group from a study are applicable to the larger population.
hanging indent:
A hanging indent is used in the reference list. A hanging indent
refers to when the first line of a reference is flushed all the way to the
left margin and the rest of the lines are indented half an inch.
heading (see also levels of heading):

A heading is the name of a section or subsection used to organize
the paper. A heading at the same level has equal importance. The
headings are formatted depending on how many levels of headings
there are in the manuscript or thesis.
heading capitalization:
Heading capitalization is when all the major words are capitalized
like in the title of a movie.
hypothesis:
In quantitative studies, a hypothesis involves making assumptions or
predictions based on probability distributions or likelihoods of events.
independent variable:
The independent variable is the variable that is deliberately
manipulated (e.g., cause) by the researcher to produce a change in
the dependent variable.
independent-samples t test:
The independent samples t test is used to determine whether the
difference in means on the dependent variable between two
independent groups is a real difference or one that is due to chance.
inductive reasoning:
A logic/reasoning approach that moves from the specific to the
general.
inferential statistics:
Inferential statistics are the higher level of statistical analysis where
inferences are made from a sample to a population. Inferential
statistics may also include hypothesis testing and set probability
inferences are made from a sample to a population. Inferential
statistics may also include hypothesis testing and set probability
levels to test for statistically significant differences between groups
or treatments.
Institutional Review Board (IRB):

At institutions of higher education, the IRB is a group that has been
formally designated to review and monitor research applications
involving human subjects.
interlibrary loan:
Interlibrary loan is a service provided by libraries whereby a user of
one library can borrow books or acquire photocopies of articles in
journals that are owned by another library (sometimes there is a fee
involved).
internal validity:
Internal validity (within the study) refers to whether the changes in
the dependent variable were due to the independent variable or
some other variable.
interrater reliability:
Interrater reliability refers to the relative consistency of the ratings of
the same stimulus given by two or more independent raters (data
collectors). Traditionally interrater reliability has been measured by
percentage agreement, calculated as the number of agreement
scores divided by the total number of scores.
justice:
Justice is the third principle in the Belmont Report and refers to
fairness and equity in the selection of participants and distribution of
benefits.
Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendments:
The Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendments increased the regulatory
powers of the Food and Drug Administration so that drug
manufacturers had to prove that their drug was safe and effective
before marketing and selling it to the public. The act also required
that subjects from medical studies give their informed consent.
keywords:
Keywords are typically two to three words or short phrases that are
fundamental to the research topic, problem, or questions and are
used to refine the search process.
levels of heading (see also heading):
The levels of heading refer to the organizational structure or
hierarchy of the sections in the manuscript or thesis. Five is the
maximum number of levels of heading in a manuscript or thesis.
limiters feature:
The limiters feature narrows an electronic search by allowing the
user to set specific limits, so the search results will only contain
research with the chosen specific criteria.
literature review matrix:

A literature review matrix is an organizational tool such as a table,
chart, or flow chart to display the relationship or common attributes
among multiple studies.
literature synthesis:
A literature synthesis (also referred to as a research synthesis) is a
type of article in which the results of several related studies are
compared and summarized.
mapping:
Mapping is a technique to visually organize research articles around
a core issue, theme, author, and so on. There are different types of
mapping formats (e.g., concept, mind, subject tree, content) and
software programs available.
Master of Arts (MA):

The Master of Arts degree is typically awarded in the disciplines of
arts, sciences, social sciences (e.g., education, psychology), and
humanities (e.g., history, philosophy, religion).
Master of Science (MS):
The Master of Science degree is typically awarded to students in
technical fields such as engineering, nursing, mathematics, and
health care management but can also be in the social sciences.
master’s degree:
A master’s degree is a postbaccalaureate degree conferred by a
college or university on candidates who complete one to two years of
graduate study.
master’s degree program:
A master’s degree program is a graduate-level, postbaccalaureate
program in a specific field or discipline that typically involves a
culminating activity, project, or thesis.
culminating activity, project, or thesis.
master’s thesis:
A master’s thesis is an empirically based research study that is an
original piece of work by the graduate student.
mean:
The mean is the arithmetic average and calculated by the sum of the
scores divided by the number of scores in the distribution.
measure of central tendency:

The measure of central tendency is the “typical” or “average” score
in a distribution.
measure of variability:
A measure of variability is a statistic that indicates how close or
spread apart (i.e., dispersed) the scores are in a distribution.
measurement instruments:
Measurement instruments are data collection tools (e.g., surveys,
observations, tests) that are used to measure changes in dependent
variables or variables of interest.
median:
The median is the middle score in a distribution or the score that
divides the distribution in half (50% above and 50% below).
meta-analysis:
A meta-analysis research study is one in which the results of several
related studies are analyzed and reported with statistical measures
(e.g., effect sizes).
mixed methods research:
A research approach that intentionally uses both rigorous
quantitative and qualitative methods and draws on the strength of
each to answer research questions.
mode:
The mode is the most common or most frequently occurring score in
a distribution.
multidisciplinary database:
A multidisciplinary database is an electronic database that covers
different subjects rather than just one specific field or discipline.
Biomedical and Behavioral Research:
The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of
Biomedical and Behavioral Research was the first national public
group whose responsibility it was to identify a set of basic ethical
principles and guidelines for conducting biomedical and behavioral
research involving human subjects.
National Research Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-348):

The National Research Act created the National Commission for the
Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
Research.
nonnumerical data:
Studies that use qualitative approaches collect nonnumerical data to
answer their research question(s). Nonnumerical data are narrative
data (i.e., words).
non-refereed:
A non-refereed article is one that did not go through an external
review process before being published.
nonresearchable question:
A nonresearchable question is a type of question where the
researcher cannot collect measurable data to answer the question or
the “answers” are based on philosophical, spiritual, or religious
beliefs.
NOT:
The NOT Boolean operator searches terms so that records with
certain terms are excluded from the results.
null hypothesis:
The null hypothesis, H0, represents the “chance” theory, meaning
any observed differences are due to chance, and the treatment has
no significant effect on the dependent variable.
numerical data:
Studies that use quantitative approaches collect numerical data to
answer their research question(s). Numerical data are mathematical
(i.e., numbers) data.
Nuremberg Code:
The Nuremberg Code is a set of standards of ethical medical
subjects in medical experiments.
operational definition:
An operational definition is a definition that describes attributes or
characteristics of the term that need to be present in order to
measure it.
OR:
The OR Boolean operator searches terms so that at least one of the
terms is present in the record.
paired-samples t test (also referred to as nonindependent samples

and dependent samples):
The paired samples t test is used to determine whether the
difference in means on the dependent variable between two sets of
related scores is a real difference or one that is due to chance.
paraphrasing:
Paraphrasing is rewriting the original text into your own words (with
appropriate citations) while trying to maintain the idea or essence of
the original work.
PDF:
The PDF format is a full-text electronic “picture” of a document and it
resembles how a research article actually looks in the journal.
plagiarize:
Plagiarizing refers to using another person’s ideas or words without
giving them proper credit.
primary sources:
Primary sources are the actual or the original results of studies
reported by the researcher(s) (i.e., firsthand information).
probability notes:
In an APA table, probability notes appear after the specific notes and
indicate whether results were statistically significant (meaning that
the null hypothesis was rejected).
purposeful redundancy:
Purposeful redundancy refers to intentionally reiterating main points
about the research problem and study throughout the thesis.
purposive sample:
In a purposive sample, the researcher selects individuals who are
In a purposive sample, the researcher selects individuals who are
considered representative because they meet certain criteria for the
study.
qualitative research:
A qualitative research method delves into a particular situation to
better understand a phenomenon within its natural context and the
perspectives of the participants involved.
quantitative research:
A quantitative research method includes but is not limited to
research using descriptive, correlation, prediction, and control
(cause-effect) methods.
random assignment:
In random assignment, each participant in the sample has an equal
and independent chance of being selected for the treatment group.
random sample:
In a random sample, every individual in the population has an equal
and independent chance of being selected.
range:
The range is the difference between the largest and smallest scores
in a distribution.
refereed:
A refereed (also referred to as peer-reviewed) article has been
submitted for external review by a panel of reviewers before being
published.
reference materials:
Reference materials are collections of information such as
encyclopedias, handbooks, indexes, and dictionaries.
relevancy ranked:
The “relevancy ranked” option shows the search term first and then
lists subject terms (i.e., descriptors) that are related to the search
term displayed in order of relevance.
reliability:
Reliability refers to the extent to which an instrument consistently
measures what it was intended to measure.
replicability:
verify and interpret the results or adapt and expand the study.
research question:
A research question is related to the problem in a study and is the
question that the researcher attempts to answer. The research
question guides the type of data that will be collected or how the
data should be collected.
Research Subject Bill of Rights:
The Research Subject Bill of Rights is a list of rights that is
guaranteed for every participant in a study.
resources:
Resources are tangibles such as materials and finances necessary
to conduct a study but also include nontangibles such as personal
health and energy.
respect for persons:
Respect for persons is the first principle in the Belmont Report and
includes “two ethical convictions: first that individuals should be
treated as autonomous agents, and second, that persons with
diminished autonomy are entitled to protection.”
sample group:
The sample group is the group of participants in a study. They are
the group that the researcher collects data from or about.
sampling:
Sampling refers to the process of selecting participants for a study
from a population.
search engine:
A search engine is a computer system where information is stored
and organized for easy retrieval. The most common search engines
search for information on the World Wide Web through the Internet.
secondary sources:
Secondary sources describe or summarize the work of others (i.e.,
secondhand information).
seminal article:
A seminal article is an article that was significant to the topic (e.g.,
classic) or created a change in the field.
sentence capitalization:
Sentence capitalization is when only the first word of the title and
proper nouns are capitalized like in a regular sentence.
skimming:
Skimming is a technique to quickly scan a research article by
reading the abstract, introduction, and conclusion to get the main
idea.
specific notes:
In an APA table, specific notes appear after the general notes and
explain information pertaining to an individual column, row, or item.
standard deviation:
The standard deviation indicates how much the scores vary from the
mean in a distribution.
stub column:
In an APA table, the first column on the left side of the table is called
the stub column.
stub head:
In an APA table, the stub column’s heading is called the stub head.
stubs:
In an APA table, the stubs are the row headings, which are the major
independent variables related to the stub head.
t test:
A t test is a statistical test that is used to determine whether the
observed difference between two mean scores represents a true
difference or is due to chance.
terminal degree:
A terminal degree is the generally accepted highest academic
degree in a field of study.
thesaurus:
The thesaurus contains alphabetized descriptors (i.e., subject terms,
subjects) that are used in the electronic database to give every
record a subject indexing term (i.e., controlled vocabulary).
thick description:
A thick description is an explanation that includes both the behavior
and the context in which the behavior was displayed.
and the context in which the behavior was displayed.
three parallel ladders strategy:
The three parallel ladders strategy is an organizational writing
strategy. The three ladders represent sections of your thesis
chapters that are aligned by topic or order (e.g., Statement of the
Problem, Background and Need, and so on).
time:
Time refers to the researcher’s time that is available to devote to the
study as well as the duration (length) and frequency (how often the
researcher will interact with participants) of the study.
timeline:
A timeline is a schedule that is created by the researcher that
outlines all the necessary steps and phases to complete the study
within the allocated time.
Type I error:
A Type I error is rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.
validity:
Validity refers to the extent to which the instrument measures what it
was intended to measure. Validity can also refer to the credibility of
findings in a qualitative study.
voluntary informed consent:

Voluntary informed consent is when a person has the capacity to
give consent and receives sufficient and accurate information about
the study (e.g., purpose, methods, risks, benefits) to make an
informed decision to participate.
vulnerable populations:
Vulnerable populations are children, pregnant women, prisoners, or
others who may need additional protection from harm, depending on
the risks involved.
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Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Warr, M. (1998). Life-course transitions and desistance from crime.

Criminology, 36(2), 183–216.
Way, N., Stauber, H. Y., Nakkula, M. J., & London, P. (1994). Depression
and substance use in two divergent high school cultures: A quantitative
and qualitative analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23(3),
331–357. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01536723
Wehmeyer, M. L., & Kelchner, K. (1995). The Arc’s self-determination

scale. Arlington, TX: The Arc of the United States.
Wendling, B. J., Schrank, F. A., & Schmitt, A. J. (2007). Woodcock

Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside.
Williams, A. (2006). Motivation, metacognition, and self-determination

among students with learning disabilities (Unpublished master’s
AUTHOR INDEX
American Psychological Association, 93, 216, 243
Auden, W. H., 50
Babbie, E., 12
Bayor, R. H., 53
Bell, N., 200

Benz, C., 12
Biklen, S. K., 159
Bogdan, R. C., 159
Brown, C. F., 96
Bui, Y. N., 144, 149, 158, 160
Carson, R. L., 137

Charles, C. M., 66
Churchill, W., 167

Confucius, 117
Cormier, R., 91
Creswell, J. D., 12, 69, 122, 138, 146, 190
Creswell, J. W., 12, 14, 15, 53, 66, 68, 69, 106, 118, 122, 138, 139,
146, 155, 185, 190
Demaray, M. K., 96
Denzin, N. K., 12, 185, 190
Drew, C. J., 78
Ferretti, R. P., 126, 130
Fetters, M. D., 15
Fink, A., 122

Fraenkel, J., 36, 37, 48, 52, 66
Freshwater, D., 15
Gay, L. R., 12, 14, 111, 145
Gibran, K., 197
Gillberg, C., 200
Goldstein, A. P., 149

Gomes, C., 155, 160, 200, 208
Good, R. H., 152, 153
Goredimer, N., 23
Greene, J. A., 77
Grieger, I., 185
Hardman, M. L., 78
Henderson, L., 176
Hess, L., 203, 206, 209

Hinduja, S., 98
Ho, A., 124
Hosp, J. L., 78
Hyun, H., 48, 52, 66
Iniguez, D., 177
Irey, R., 145, 152, 154, 176, 209
Johnson, S., 47
Kahn, J., 174
Kaminsky, R. A., 152, 153
Kelchner, K., 231
Kendall, D., 143, 146, 147, 153, 156, 189, 203, 206
Kim, J. H., 77
Kim, W. O., 77
Kornhanser, M., 148, 149
Lane, D., 175 (figure)
Lao Tzu, 43
Lincoln, Y. S., 12
London, P., 143, 161
MacArthur, C. D., 126, 130

Machi, L. A., 26, 121, 122
Maugham , W. S., 216
Maxwell, J. A., 159, 187, 190
McCoy, B. R., 93
McEvoy, B. T., 26, 121, 122
McGinnis, E., 149
McLeod, J., 154

McLeod, R., 154
McMillan, J. H., 48, 49, 68
Mertler, C. A., 66
Milgram, S., 31
Mills, G. E., 12, 14, 111, 145
Mireles, S., 187

Modern Language Association, 16
Mujis, D., 12
Nakkula, M. J., 143, 161
National Conference of State Legislatures, 97

Newman, I., 12
Nixon, B., 157
Obama, B., 1
Okolo, C. M., 126, 130

Onwuegbuzie, A. J., 190
Orcher, L. T., 78
Patchin, J. W., 98
Plagiarism.org, 84
Plano Clark, V. L., 15, 106, 138, 139, 190
Podolsky, S. H., 77
Ponterotto, J. G., 185

Poth, C. N., 14, 53, 66, 68
Purdue Online Writing Lab, 85
Rau, S., 178, 207
Santayana, G., 88
Schmitt, A. J., 151
Schrank, F. A., 151

Scialli, A. R., 77
Secord, S. M., 96
Shavelson, R. J., 171, 178

Simpson, L. A., 144, 149, 158, 160
Stauber, H. Y., 143, 161
Stephens, D., 159
University of Chicago Press, 16
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 77, 78, 80

VandenBos, G. R., 16
Wallen, N., 36, 37, 48, 52, 66
Warr, M., 111

Way, N., 143, 161
Wehmeyer, M. L., 231
Wendling, B. J., 151

Wiesel, E., 75
Williams, A., 142, 183

SUBJECT INDEX
Abstracts/abstracting, 69, 237–238, 238 (figure), 275
Academic Search Complete:
about, 57, 58 (figure)
basic search, 57–62
expanders feature, 61–62, 62 (figure)

limiters feature, 60–61, 61 (figure)
search modes, 57–60, 58 (figure), 59 (figure)
thesaurus, 64–65, 64 (figure), 65 (figure)
Accessibility, 7, 33–34, 275
Acknowledgments, 237
Advanced Scholar Search, 27, 28 (figure), 29 (figure)

Advanced search, 27, 28 (figure), 29 (figure), 30, 63, 275
Advance organizers, 10, 123–124, 208, 275

American Educational Research Association (AERA), 79
American Psychological Association (APA), 79

American Psychological Association (APA) style:
about, 16
abstract, 237–238, 238 (figure)
acknowledgments, 237
appendixes, 235–236, 236 (figure)
changes to, 216–217

citations in text, 221–224
defined, 275
figures, 232–234, 234 (figure)

front pages, 236–239
independent-samples t test, 181
levels of heading, 218–221, 219 (figure), 220 (figure)
lists of tables and figures, 239
paired-samples t test, 182–183
reference list, 224–226, 225 (figure), 226 (figure), 227 (figure),

228 (figure)
signature page, 237, 238 (figure)
table of contents, 239, 240 (figure)
tables, 226, 228–232

title page, 236, 237 (figure)
variability measures, 174–175
AND (Boolean operator), 58, 58 (figure), 60, 275
Answerable research questions, 35–36, 275

APA. See American Psychological Association
APA style. See American Psychological Association style

Appendixes, 235–236, 236 (figure)
Arc’s Self-Determination Scale (ASDS), 182–183
Arithmetic average (mean), 172–173, 174–176, 278

Articles:
citing, 226, 226 (figure)
non-refereed, 68, 279

online, 226, 227 (figure)
peer-reviewed, 68
refereed, 68, 280
relevant, 118
seminal, 121, 280
types, 67–68
Audience, intended, 198
Average, arithmetic, 172–173,174–176, 278
Background and Need section, 102–104, 103 (figure), 104 (figure),

105 (figure)
Basic electronic database searches:

expanders feature, 61–62, 62 (figure), 276
limiters feature, 60–61, 61 (figure), 278

Belmont Report, 77–79, 275
Beneficence, 78–79, 275
Binding master’s thesis, 241

Body of the Review section:
conclusions/implications, 128–129
data analysis, 128
intervention/issue, 126
introduction, 124–125
limitations/weaknesses, 129–130
procedures, 127
purpose, 125–126
research synthesis, 124–130, 125 (figure)
results, 128
section summary, 130–131
setting/sample, 126
variables/measurement instruments, 127
Books/book chapters, 226, 227 (figure)

Boolean operators, 57–60, 58 (figure), 59 (figure), 275
Business resources, 51, 55
Capitalization:
heading, 237 (figure), 238 (figure), 277
sentence, 225, 281
Captions, 233–234
Cells, table, 231–232
Central tendency measures, 171–173, 278
Chairperson, 6–7, 275
Chapter One (Introduction):
about, 9
Background and Need section, 102–104, 103 (figure), 104
(figure), 105 (figure)
Definitions section, 110–111
Ethical Considerations section, 111

Introduction section, 94–99, 95 (figure), 97 (figure)
Limitations section, 111
Purpose of the Study section, 106–108
Research Questions section, 108–109

sections overview, 93–94, 94 (figure)
Significance to the Field section, 109–110

Statement of the Problem section, 99–102, 100 (figure), 101
(figure)
three parallel ladders strategy, 102–104, 103 (figure), 104

Chapter Two (Literature Review):
about, 9–10, 117–119
advance organizer, 123–124

Body of the Review section, 124–131
Introduction section, 122–124
misconceptions about writing, 118

preparation and organization, 119–121
Summary section, 131–132
three parallel ladders strategy, 119–120, 120 (figure)
writing strategy, 119
Chapter Three (Methods):
about, 10, 137–138
Data Analysis section, 158–161

Intervention section, 147–149

Materials section, 149
Measurement Instruments section, 149–155, 150 (figure), 151

(figure)
Participants section, 145–147
Procedure section, 155–158
research designs versus research methods, 138–139

Setting section, 144–145
three parallel ladders strategy, 150, 151 (figure), 170 (figure)
Chapter Four (Results and Findings):
about, 11, 167–168

descriptive statistics, 171–178, 175 (figure)
inferential statistics, 178–183
mixed methods data, 190
qualitative data, 183–190
quantitative data, 169–183
sections overview, 169

three parallel ladders strategy, 150, 151 (figure), 169–170, 170
(figure), 200, 201 (figure)
Chapter Five (Discussion):
about, 11–12, 197–198

Conclusion section, 207–211
Discussion section, 200–204, 201 (figure)
Limitations section, 204–206

Recommendations for Future Research section, 206–207
sections overview, 199, 199 (figure)
three parallel ladders strategy, 150, 151 (figure), 200, 201

(figure)
Chunking method, 42–43, 275
Citation management software, 65–66
Citations in text:
direct quotes, 222
multiple author formats, 223

multiple work formats, 223–224
one author formats, 222–223
paraphrasing, 222
Clarity, 229, 232
Clearinghouse websites, 26
Coding, data, 128, 159, 275
Column heads, 231, 275
Column spanners, 231, 275

Committee selection, 6–7
Common Rule, 79–80, 275
Communication resources, 51, 55
Comprehensibility, 228–229, 232

Conclusion section:
Chapter Five (Discussion), 207–211
research synthesis, 128–129
Condensed sample reference list, 225 (figure)
Conference presentations, 241–242

Consistency, 229, 232
Convenience samples, 145, 275
Convergent design, 15
Copying and binding master’s thesis, 241
Cost-benefit analysis, 79, 275
Cover pages, 236, 236 (figure)
CrimeSolutions.gov, 26
Critical issues, 25–26
“C” rules:
figures, 232
tables, 228–229
Curry, Stephen, 171–173

Data:
nonnumerical, 14, 279
numerical, 12, 279
Data Analysis section:
Chapter Three (Methods), 158–161
research synthesis, 128
Data coding, 128, 159, 275
Data collection, 155–158
Data sources, 50–52
Data triangulation, 190, 276
Deception, 77, 276

Deductive reasoning, 13, 276
Definitions:
dictionary, 36, 276

example, 36–37, 276
operational, 37, 279
Dependent variables, 13, 276

Descriptive statistics:
defined, 171, 276
measures of central tendency, 171–173
measures of variability, 173–176, 175 (figure)

methods, additional, 176–178
Descriptors, 63, 276
Dictionary definitions, 36, 276
Digital object identifier (DOI), 224, 276
Directory of Open Access Journals, 67

Direct quotes, 222
Discovery services, 57
Discussion (Chapter Five):
about, 11–12, 197–198
Conclusion section, 207–211

Limitations section, 204–206

sections overview, 199, 199 (figure)
three parallel ladders strategy, 150, 151 (figure), 200, 201

(figure)
Dissertations, 5–6, 276
Doctoral dissertations, 5–6, 276

DOI. See Digital object identifier
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Oral Reading

Fluency (DORF), 152, 154
Editorial style, 16, 276
Education resources, 51, 55
Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), 30, 55

Electronic databases:
about, 54–57
advanced search, 63
basic search, 57–62
defined, 276
expanders feature, 61–62, 62 (figure), 276
limiters feature, 60–61, 61 (figure), 278

research topic selection, 30

thesaurus, 63–66, 64 (figure), 65 (figure)
Empirically based research, 3, 276

ERIC. See Education Resources Information Center
Errors, Type I, 180, 281
“Et al.”, 223

Ethical research practices:
about, 75–76
Belmont Report, 77–79

Common Rule, 79–80
Final Rule, 80
Institutional Review Boards, 80–83, 82 (figure)
legal regulations, 76–80
plagiarism and paraphrasing, 84–86

protocol review process, 81–83, 82 (figure)
research topic selection, 30–31
Ethnic studies electronic databases, 56

Example definitions, 36–37, 276
Exempt IRB protocol review process, 81

Expanders feature, 61–62, 62 (figure), 276
Expedited IRB protocol review process, 81
Expertise, of chairperson, 7
Explanatory sequential design, 15
Exploratory sequential design, 15
External validity, 111, 276
Feasibility, 32–33, 276

Figures:
about, 232–233
captions and legends, 233–234
graphs, 234, 234 (figure)
lists of, 239
placement, size, and font, 233
in text, 233
three “C” rules, 232
Final Rule, 80, 276
Final tips and checklist, 239–241
Findings. See Chapter Four (Results and Findings)
Fonts, 233
Front pages:
abstract, 237–238, 238 (figure)

acknowledgments, 237
lists of tables and figures, 239

signature page, 237, 238 (figure)
table of contents, 239, 240 (figure)
title page, 236, 237 (figure)
Full committee IRB protocol review process, 81
Full-text format, 54–55, 276
Funnel writing strategy, 94–99, 95 (figure), 97 (figure), 276
Geertz, Clifford, 185
Generalizability, 146, 277
General notes, 232, 276–277

Google Scholar, 27, 28 (figure), 29 (figure), 66, 68
Government reports, 26
Graphs, 234, 234 (figure)
Hanging indent, 225, 277
Heading capitalization, 237 (figure), 238 (figure), 277
Headings, 100, 231, 277
Health education electronic databases, 56

History electronic databases, 56
Hypotheses:
about, 13, 277
null, 179–180, 279

Implications, in research synthesis, 128–129
Indent, hanging, 225, 277
Independent-samples t test, 179–181, 277

Independent variables, 13, 277
Inductive reasoning, 14, 277
Inferential statistics:
defined, 277
independent-samples t test, 179–181, 277
paired-samples t test, 181–183, 279
tests of significance, 178–179
Informed consent, 76, 78, 83, 281
IngentaConnect, 67
Institute of Education Sciences, 26, 30
Institutional Review Board (IRB):
defined, 31, 277

ethical research practices, 80–83
protocol review process, 81–83, 82 (figure)
Interlibrary loan, 66, 277
Internal validity, 111, 277

Internet searches, 66–67
Interrater reliability, 154–155, 277
Intervention/issue, in research synthesis, 126

In-text appendixes, 235
In-text citations, 221–224
In-text figures, 233

In-text tables, 229
Introduction (Chapter One):
about, 9

Introduction section, 94–99, 95 (figure), 97 (figure)
Limitations section, 111


(figure)
three parallel ladders strategy, 102–104, 103 (figure), 104
Introduction section:
Chapter One (Introduction), 94–99, 95 (figure), 97 (figure)
Chapter Two (Literature Review), 122–124

IRB. See Institutional Review Board
Issues, critical, 25–26
Journal articles. See Articles
Justice, 79–80, 277
Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendments, 77, 277
Keywords, 52–53, 53 (figure), 54 (figure), 277–278
Ladder strategy:

Measurement Instruments section, 150, 150 (figure), 151
(figure)
Statement of the Problem section, 99, 100 (figure), 101 (figure),

103 (figure), 104 (figure), 105 (figure)
See also Three parallel ladders strategy
Law/political science electronic databases, 56
Legal regulations and ethical standards, 76–80
Legends, 233–234
Levels of heading, 218–221, 219 (figure), 220 (figure), 278
LibGuides, 67
Librarians, reference, 49–50

Limitations section:
Chapter One (Introduction), 111
Limiters feature, 60–61, 61 (figure), 278
Lists of tables and figures, 239
Literature Review (Chapter Two):
about, 9–10, 117–119
advance organizer, 123–124

Body of the Review section, 124–131

misconceptions about writing, 118

three parallel ladders strategy, 119–120, 120 (figure)
writing strategy, 119
Literature review matrix, 69–70, 278
Literature searches:
about, 47–48
article types, 67–68
benefits of conducting, 48–49

data sources, 50–52
electronic database searches, 54–66, 58 (figure), 59 (figure), 61

(figure), 62 (figure), 64 (figure), 65 (figure)
Internet searches, 66–67

keyword selection, 52–53, 53 (figure), 54 (figure)
organization strategies, 68–70
reference librarian help with, 49–50
Literature synthesis:

conclusions/implications, 128–129
data analysis, 128

defined, 67, 278
intervention/issue, 126
introduction, 124–125
limitations/weaknesses, 129–130
procedures, 127
purpose, 125–126
results, 128
setting/sample, 126
variables/measurement instruments, 127
Magic finger trick, 172
Mapping, 121, 278
Master of Arts (MA), 2, 278
Master of Science (MS), 2, 278
Master’s degree, 2–3, 278

Master’s degree program, 2, 278
Master’s thesis:
about, 3–4
benefits of writing, 4
components overview, 8–12
copying and binding, 241

defined, 3, 278
dissertation versus, 5–6

final tips and checklist, 239–241
order of writing, 92
term paper versus, 4–5
writing style, 92–93

See also specific topics
McLeod Assessment of Reading Comprehension, 154
Mean (arithmetic average), 172–173, 174–176, 278
Measurement instruments:
Chapter Three (Methods), 149–155, 150 (figure), 151 (figure)
defined, 13, 278
reliability, 154–155
types, 151–152
validity, 153–154

(figure)
Measures of central tendency, 171–173, 278

Measures of variability, 173–176, 175 (figure), 278
Median, 172, 278
Meta-analysis, 67, 278

Methods (Chapter Three):
about, 10, 137–138
Data Analysis section, 158–161


(figure)

Procedure section, 155–158
research designs versus research methods, 138–139
Setting section, 144–145
three parallel ladders strategy, 150, 151 (figure), 170 (figure)
Mixed methods research:
about, 15–16
advantage and challenge, 139
Chapter Three (Methods), 143, 160–161

Chapter Four (Results and Findings), 190
Chapter Five (Discussion), 200

characteristics, 138–139
data analysis, 160–161

defined, 278
Mode, 172, 278

Modern Language Association (MLA) style, 16, 216
MS. See Master of Science
Multidisciplinary databases, 54, 279
Multidisciplinary reference materials, 51
Multiple author citation formats, 223
Multiple works citation formats, 223–224
Narrowing and refocusing research topic, 31–35

Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 77, 279
National Institute of Justice, 26

National Research Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-348), 77, 279
Nonnumerical data, 14, 279
Non-refereed articles, 68, 279
Nonresearchable questions, 37, 279

NOT (Boolean operator), 58, 59 (figure), 279
Notes:
general, 232, 276–277
probability, 232, 279

specific, 232, 281
Null hypothesis, 179–180, 279
Number level headings, 219
Number of level headings, 219

Number tables, 226
Numerical data, 12, 279
Nuremberg Code, 76, 279

Nursing electronic databases, 56
Observation checklists, 153
One author citation formats, 222–223
Online journal articles/documents, 226, 227 (figure)
Operational definitions, 37, 279
OR (Boolean operator), 58–59, 59 (figure), 60, 279

Organization strategies, 68–70
Oxford Handbook of American Immigration and Ethnicity, The

(Bayor), 53, 53 (figure), 54 (figure)
Page numbers, 239–240

Paired-samples t test, 181–183, 279
Paraphrasing, 85, 222, 279

Patterns, major, 184–187

PDF format, 55, 65, 279
Peer-reviewed articles, 68
Philosophy reference materials, 51
Plagiarism, 84–86, 221–222, 279
Political science electronic databases, 56

Posttest phase, 157
Presenting at conferences, 241–242
Pretest phase, 156–157

Primary sources, 50–51, 52, 279
Probability notes, 232, 279
Procedure section:
Professional degrees, 2
Protocol review process, 81–83, 82 (figure)
Psychology electronic databases, 56
PsycINFO, 30
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
(APA), 16, 216
See also American Psychological Association (APA) style
Public Law 93-348 (National Research Act of 1974), 77, 279

Publishing guidelines, 242–243
Purpose, in research synthesis, 125–126
Purposeful redundancy, 122–123, 141, 280
Purposive samples, 145–146, 280
Qualitative research:
about, 14–15
approaches, 138
Chapter Three (Methods), 142–143, 146, 155–156, 159
Chapter Four (Results and Findings), 183–190
Chapter Five (Discussion), 200, 201 (figure), 203–204
data analysis, 159
data collection, 155–156
defined, 280
generalizability, 146
research questions, 187–189
themes and patterns, major, 184–187

validity of findings, 190
Quantitative research:
about, 12–14
approaches, 138
Chapter Three (Methods), 142, 143–144, 146, 156–158, 159–
160
Chapter Four (Results and Findings), 169–183, 175 (figure)
Chapter Five (Discussion), 200, 202–203
data analysis, 159–160

data collection, 156–158
defined, 280
descriptive statistics, 171–178

generalizability, 146
Quotations, 84–85, 185, 222
Random assignment, 145, 280
Random samples, 145, 280
Range, 174, 280
Reasoning:
deductive, 13, 276
inductive, 14, 277
Redundancy, purposeful, 122–123, 141, 280

Refereed articles, 68, 280
Reference librarians, 49–50

Reference list:
books/book chapters, 226, 227 (figure)
condensed sample, 225 (figure)
journal articles, 226, 226 (figure)

online journal articles and documents, 226, 227 (figure)
order and format, 224–226, 225 (figure), 226 (figure), 227

websites and webpages, 226, 228 (figure)
Reference materials, 51–52, 226, 227 (figure), 280
Relevancy ranked search terms, 64, 64 (figure), 280
Relevant articles, 118
Reliability:
about, 154–155
defined, 280
interrater, 154–155, 277
Replicability, 139, 280

Research designs, 138–139, 141–144
Researcher-made measurement instruments, 152

Research problem:
Introduction section (Chapter One), 98–99

learning about, 48
(figure)
Research questions:
about, 35, 38
answerable, 35–36, 275
Chapter One (Introduction), 108–109
Chapter Three (Methods), 141, 142–143, 144, 158
data analysis and, 158
defined, 35, 280

nonresearchable, 27, 37
reducing number of, 32–33
terms, defining, 36–37
Research Subject Bill of Rights, 83, 280
Research synthesis. See Literature synthesis

Research topic selection:
about, 23–24
accessibility, 33–34
clearinghouse websites, 26
critical issues, 25–26
electronic databases, 30
ethical considerations, 30–31
existing research literature, 26–30, 28 (figure), 29 (figure)

feasibility, 32–33
government reports, 26
narrowing and refocusing, 31–35

personal significance, 24–25
search engines, 27, 28 (figure), 29 (figure), 30
time and resources, 34–35
Reserving time, 41–42
Resources, 34–35, 280
Respect for persons, 77–78, 280
Results:
interpretation of, 201–202
Results and Findings (Chapter Four):
about, 11, 167–168

descriptive statistics, 171–178, 175 (figure)

mixed methods data, 190
quantitative data, 169–183

sections overview, 169
three parallel ladders strategy, 150, 151 (figure), 169–170, 170

(figure), 200, 201 (figure)
Review of the Literature. See Chapter Two (Literature Review)
Ryle, Gilbert, 185
Sample group, 32, 280
Samples:
convenience, 145, 275
purposive, 145–146, 280

random, 145, 280
Sampling, 145–146, 280

Sans serif fonts, 233
Search engines, 27, 28 (figure), 29 (figure), 30, 280

Secondary sources, 51–52, 280
Section summary (Body of the Review section), 130–131

Seminal articles, 121, 280
Sentence capitalization, 225, 281
Setting section:
Signature page, 237, 238 (figure)
Significance, personal, 24–25
Significance tests, 178–179
Single subject design studies, 143–144, 148–149, 157–158, 159,

160, 176
Skimming, 121, 281
SmartText Searching, 60
Sociology resources, 52, 56–57

Spacing, 230
Specific notes, 232, 281
Standard deviation, 174–176, 175 (figure), 281
Standardized measurement instruments, 151, 152

Statement of the Problem section, 99–102, 100 (figure), 101 (figure)
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), 160, 181

Statistics. See Descriptive statistics; Inferential statistics
Stub column, 281

Stub heads, 231, 281
Stubs, 231, 281

Style form, 16
Surveys, 176–177
Table of contents, 239, 240 (figure)
Tables:
headings and body, 231–232
in-text, 229
lists of, 239
notes, 232
placement and spacing, 229–230
three “C” rules, 228–229
title, 231
uses, 226, 228
Terminal degrees, 2, 281
Term papers, 4–5

Tests of significance, 178–179
Text:
appendixes in, 235
citations in, 221–224

figures in, 233
tables in, 229
Thalidomide, 77
Themes, major, 184–187
Thesaurus, 63–66, 64 (figure), 65 (figure), 281
Thick description, 185, 281
Three “C” rules:
figures, 232
tables, 228–229
Three parallel ladders strategy:
Chapter One (Introduction), 102–104, 103 (figure), 104 (figure),

105 (figure)
Chapter Two (Literature Review), 119–120, 120 (figure)
Chapter Three (Methods), 150, 151 (figure), 170 (figure)
Chapter Four (Results and Findings), 150, 151 (figure), 169–

170, 170 (figure), 200, 201 (figure)
Chapter Five (Discussion), 150, 151 (figure), 200, 201 (figure)
defined, 281
See also Ladder strategy
Time, 34, 281

Timeline, 38–41, 281
Time management, 41–43
Title of tables, 231
Title page, 236, 237 (figure)
Topic sentences, 96, 97, 98–99

Triangulation, 190, 276
t tests:
defined, 178, 281

independent-samples, 179–181, 277
paired-samples, 181–183, 279
Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 77
Type I errors, 180, 281
University of Chicago style, 16, 216
U.S. Department of Education, 55
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, 26,

30
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 79–80

U.S. Public Health Service, 77
Validity:
about, 153–154
defined, 281
external, 111, 276

internal, 111, 277
qualitative data, 190
Variability measures, 173–176, 175 (figure), 278
Variables:
dependent, 13, 276
independent, 13, 277
in research synthesis, 127
Voluntary informed consent, 76, 78, 83, 281
Vulnerable populations, 78, 281
Websites/webpages, 226, 228 (figure)
WhatWorksClearinghouse, 26
Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Achievement, 151, 153
Word tables, 226
Writing strategy:
Chapter Two (Literature Review), 119

funnel, 94–99, 95 (figure), 97 (figure), 276
Writing style, 92–93

How To Write A Masters Thesis by Yvonne Bui

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HOW

TO WRITE A MASTER’S THESIS

San Francisco State University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bui, Yvonne N., author.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019006833 | ISBN 9781506336091 (Paperback : acid-free paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Dissertations, Academic—Handbooks, manuals, etc.

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Cheryl Gomes: Chapters 7, 9

Lindsey Henderson: Chapter 8

Lori Hess: Chapter 9

Amelyn Ho: Chapter 6

Diana Iniguez: Chapter 8, Appendix G

David Kendall: Chapters 7, 8, 9, Appendix G

Michelle Kornhauser: Chapter 7

Sara Mireles: Chapter 8

Barbara Nixon: Chapter 7

Shain Rau: Chapters 8, 9

David Stephens: Chapter 7

Based on my experiences in advising and teaching master’s students, I

At the end of each chapter, there is a Resources section that can be

Writing a master’s thesis is a complex task, and I would be less than

Andrew Vorder Bruegge, Winthrop University

Margaret K. Chojnacki, Barry University

Joel M. Cox, Liberty University

Michael Dreher, Bethel University

Tavis Jules, Loyola University Chicago

Jonathan Mercantini, Kean University

Linda Smetana, California State University, East Bay

Cheryl Young-Pelton, Montana State University Billings

To Leah Fargotstein, my amazing editor at SAGE Publications, I cannot

The Master’s Degree 2

The Benefits of Writing a Master’s Thesis 4

The Difference Between a Master’s Thesis and a Doctoral

Selecting a Thesis Chairperson and Committee 6