Synchro, Servo, LVDT, Stepper

Synchros
CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING, PROF. K.DATTA & PROF. SMITA SADHU, EE, JU 1
Synchros
• One of the most widely used error sensing

transducers
• Synchros are known by various trade
names like Selsyn (General Electric),
Telesyn, Autosyns, Magslips, etc.
• Synchro is an electromagnetic transducer
commonly used to convert the angular
position of a shaft to an electrical signal
1
Synchro transmitter construction
• The basic synchro unit is called a synchro
transmitter
• Synchro transmitter also called a synchro
generator or torque transmitter consists of a
single winding rotor and a stator having 3
windings displaced electrically by 120 degrees.
• Three stator coils are wound in uniformly
spaced slots on a laminated silicon steel and
are usually Y connected with 3 leads being
brought out to the terminals on the frame.
• The salient pole rotor consists of a bobbin shaped laminated core
mounted on a shaft, which has two insulated slip rings mounted on
it to permit electrical contact to be maintained with the two pole
rotor winding.
• The coil is wound so that its axis is perpendicular to the shaft which
rotates on ball bearings located in the end bell housings.
• An a.c. voltage is applied to the rotor winding through slip rings.
Synchro transmitter
2
Synchro transmitter
• The synchro depends on

transformer action for its
operation
Common stator • One end of each stator
Slip ring
connection winding is connected to a
Excitation common point (not
accessible from outside)
and the free ends S1, S2 and
S3 are brought out to the
external terminals on the
case of the synchro.
• Rotor leads R1 and R2 are
Shaft also brought out.
Synchro transmitter –winding orientation

S2
R1
Excitation
R2
Shaft
S3 S1
• The rotor winding is connected to the source of excitation

voltage and therefore functions as a transformer primary.
• Since the stator windings function as secondaries and since
the voltage induced in a secondary depends upon the angle at
which the magnetic lines of force cut across the turns, the
voltage induced in any of the three secondaries is determined
by the physical position of the rotor.
3
Principle of operation
Let A.C. supply to rotor be θ
vr (t ) = Vr sin ωct
S2
vs1n , vs 2 n , vs 3 n are the voltages

induced in the stator coils S1 , S2 , S3 A.C.
supply
with respect to the neutral.
Then for the rotor position where
the rotor axis makes an angle θ with S1
S3
the axis of the stator coil S2 .
vs1n = KVr sin ωct cos(θ + 120o ) K (i )
vs 2 n = KVr sin ωct cos(θ ) K (ii )
vs 3 n = KVr sin ωct cos(θ + 240o ) K (iii )
θ
S2
A.C.
supply
S1
S3
The three terminal voltages of the stator are

vs1s 2 = vs1n − vs 2 n = 3KVr sin (θ + 240o )sin ωct K (iv)
vs 2 s 3 = vs 2 n − vs 3n = 3KVr sin (θ + 120o )sin ωct K (v)
vs 3 s1 = vs 3n − vs1n = 3KVr sin θ sin ωct K (vi)
4
Electrical zero of synchro transmitter
θ
S2
vs 2 n = KVr sinωct cos(θ ) K (ii)
v s3s1 = v s3n − v s1n = 3 KVr sin θ sin ωc t K (vi)
A.C.
supply
S1
S3
When θ = 0, from (ii), it is seen that maximum voltage
is induced in the stator coil S2 while from (vi), the
terminal voltage vs 3 s1 is zero.
This position of the rotor is defined as the Electrical
Zero of the transmitter and is used as reference for
specifying the angular position of the rotor.
In this rotor position, the coupling between rotor
and S2 is also maximum.
Relationships between rotor position and vs2n

(a) S2 (b) S2 (c) S2
0o 30o
R1 R1 90o
R2
R2 R1 R2
vs 2 n = KVr sinωct vs 2 n = 0.866KVr sinωct vs 2 n = 0

(In phase with excitation) (In phase with excitation)
S2 S2
(d) (e)
R2
120o o R1
R2 180
R1
vs 2 n = − KVr sin ωct

vs 2n = −0.5KVr sin ωct (Out of phase with excitation)
(Out of phase with excitation)
5
Relationships between rotor and stator voltages
0o 60o 120o 180o
180o 120o 60o S2 S1
S3
Anti-Clockwise Clockwise
Electrical
zero
Relationship between the rotor and the amount of voltage induced in the stator coils
• Each stator coil produces a field of its own, the magnitude of the field being
proportional to the voltage induced in the stator.
• However, the fields of all three stator coils combine to form a resultant field
whose magnitude remains constant.
• Thus the synchro generator is in reality a sort of variable transformer with its
primary the rotor winding and its secondary the stator winding and where the
coupling between primary and secondary may be varied by the rotation of the
rotor.
Rotor at zero degree

S2
Position and polarity of

resultant stator field

R1
rotor field
R2 Positions and polarities of

respective magnetic fields S2
S1
S3
S1
S3
• Note: Resultant field assumes same angular position as that of the rotor
magnetic field but opposed in polarity
Recall that by Lenz’s law, when two coils are magnetically coupled, the magnetic field produced by the
current induced in the secondary winding will always oppose in polarity the magnetic field of the first.
6
Rotor turned 60 degree clockwise
S2


R1 rotor field
Positions and polarities of

R2
respective magnetic fields S1
S2
S1
S3 S3
Rotor turned 120 degree clockwise
S2


R1
rotor field
R2 Positions and polarities of

respective magnetic fields
S2
S1 S3 S1
S3
7
Synchro receiver
• The physical structure of the synchro receiver is similar
to that of the transmitter except that the receiver is
provided with a mechanical damper (inertia damper).
• Without damping, the receiver rotor would move too
rapidly.
• Since the rotor is free to turn, any sudden changes in
received data would cause the rotor to overshoot and
make it oscillate about the desired setting.
• Another possibility is that the momentum of the rotor
may carry it beyond the current position and through a
complete revolution.
• Under these conditions, the rotor will spin continuously in
true motor fashion.
Synchro transmitter and receiver
S2 S2/
R1 R1/
R2 R2/
S3 S1 S3/ S1/
A.C.
Supply
8
Synchro transmitter and receiver operation
S2 S2/
R1 R1/
R2 R2/
S3 S1 S3/ S1/
A.C.
Supply
• The polarities of the rotor magnetic fields are similar .

• The resultant stator field of the repeater is opposite in polarity to the
resultant stator field of the transmitter since receiver stator coils are
in series with transmitter stator coils and it rotates in step with stator
field.
S2 S2/
R1 R1/
R2 R2/
S1 ’
S3 ’
S3 S1 S3/ S1/ S2 ’
A.C.
Supply
• The field of the receiver rotor tends to align in the same direction as
the resultant field of the receiver stator coils.
• Hence they line up and so the repeater’s rotor revolves in step with
the rotation of its stator field.
9
S2 S2/
R1 R1/
R2 R2/
S3 S1 S3/ S1/
A.C.
Supply
• The A.C. voltage applied to the repeater rotor coils also produces a
magnetic field and as the transmitter and repeater rotor coils are
identical and same current flows through the corresponding coils,
each repeater field coil has the same magnetic field as its generator
field counterpart.
• But since the direction of current flow through the repeater stator
coils is opposite to that of their transmitter coil counterpart, their
magnetic fields are opposed.
S2 S2/
R1 R1/
R2 R2/
S3 S1 S3/ S1/
A.C.
Supply
• When the transmitter and repeater rotor coils are in

alignment, rotor coils induce equal and opposite voltages
in their respective stator coils, causing the resultant
stator fields to cancel.
• Thus stator current is reduced to zero.
10
• In balanced condition, the only current in the system is the exciting

current drawn by the two rotors. The transmitter supplies current to
establish a field in the receiver only when the receiver rotor is out of
alignment.
– Result: little power consumption.
• When the receiver rotor field does not correspond to the receiver
stator produced field, a torque caused by magnetic
attraction/repulsion will be experienced by the receiver rotor. This
torque will cause the receiver rotor and stator fields to be aligned i.e.,
the receiver rotor is at the same angle as the transmitter rotor.
• If the transmitter rotor is rotated to some new angle, the magnetic field
from the receiver stator will also move causing the receiver rotor to
move until it is again at the same angle as the transmitter rotor.
• In this manner, any motion of the transmitter shaft is duplicated on the
receiver shaft.
• The transmitter-repeater combination therefore synchronizes the
motion of the two shafts without requiring mechanical coupling.
• Such combinations are useful for remote positioning application (if
mechanical load on receiver is not too great) and for remote indication
application.
Applications: Synchros
• Synchro systems were first used in the control system of
the Panama Canal, to transmit lock gate and valve stem
positions, and water levels, to the control desks.
• Fire-control system designs developed during World War
II used synchros extensively, to transmit angular
information from guns to an analog fire control computer,
and to transmit the desired gun position back to the gun
location.
• Smaller synchros are used to remotely drive indicator
gauges and as rotary position sensors for aircraft control
surfaces, where the reliability of these rugged devices is
needed.
• Selsyn motors were widely used in motion picture
equipment to synchronize movie cameras and sound
recording equipment.
Source: Wikipedia
11
Synchro control transformer
• The synchro control transformer is used to

produce an output voltage proportional to
the angular difference between two shafts.
• This output is called an error voltage
because it is present only when two shafts
are not in alignment.
Synchro control transformer construction
• Structurally, the stator of the synchro control

transformer is the same as the stators of the
other synchro units.
• The rotor, however, is cylindrical in shape, with
slots to accommodate the windings.
• Electrically, stator windings of a control
transformer are similar to the stator windings in
the other synchros except that they have a
greater no. of turns of fine wire.
• Since no voltage is applied to the rotor of control
transformer, there is no voltage inducing its
stator windings to oppose the stator voltage of
the transmitter.
12
Synchro control transformer construction
• The stator current is therefore limited to a low value only

by the impedance of the windings, which by design is
made higher than that of conventional synchros.
• Since the synchro control transformer is designed to
produce an output voltage instead of a torque, there are
basic differences in its rotor construction.
– The rotor is cylindrical.
– The reluctance of the flux path may therefore be
presumed to be the same regardless of the position of
the rotor.
– Like the stator winding, the rotor winding consists of a
great no. of turns of fine wire to ensure high
impedance, very low current and negligible torque
developed.
Synchro control transformer: Principle of operation
• The synchro transmitter-control transformer pair

acts as an error-detector.
• Circulating currents of the same phase but of
different magnitude flow through two sets of
stator coils.
• The result is the establishment of an identical
flux pattern in the air gap of the control
transformer as the voltage drops in resistances
and leakage reactances of the two sets of stator
coils are usually small.
13
Synchro control transformer: Principle of operation
S2 S2
Synchro Control
transmitter θ transformer
e(t) 90o
vr(t) α
S1 S3 S1
S3
• The control transformer flux axis thus being in the same position as
the synchro transmitter rotor, the voltage induced in the control
transformer rotor is proportional to the cosine of the angle between
the two rotors and is given by e(t)=K/Vrcos φ sin ωct.
– Where φ is the angular displacement between the rotors.
• When φ =90 degree, e(t)=0, i.e., the two rotors are at right angles, then
the voltage induced in the control transformer rotor is zero.
• This position is known as the Electrical Zero position of the control
transformer.

S2 S2
Synchro Control
e(t) 90o
vr(t) α
S1 S3 S1
S3
• Let the rotor of the transmitter rotate through an angle θ in the

anticlockwise direction and let the control transformer rotor be
rotated in the same direction through an angle α resulting in a net
angular separation of φ=(90o-θ+α) between the rotors.
• The voltage at the rotor terminals of the control transformer is the
e(t)=K/Vr sin (θ-α) sinωct
14
S2 S2
Synchro Control
e(t) 90o
vr(t) α
S1 S3 S1
S3
• For small angular displacement of two rotor positions,

e(t)=K’Vr (θ-α) sinωct
• The synchro transmitter control transformer pair acts as an error
detector giving a voltage signal at the rotor terminals of the control
transformer proportional to the angular difference between the
transmitter and control transformer shaft positions.
Synchro error detector output

0 .8
0 .6
(θ-α)
(θ α)
0 .4
e(t)
0 .2
-0 . 2
t
-0 . 4
-0 . 6
-0 . 8
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Vrsinω
ωct 0
0
.
.
8
0 . 2
- 0 . 2
- 0 . 4
- 0 . 6
- 0 .
-
8
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 t
15
Synchro error detector output
0 . 8
0 . 6 (θ-α)
(θ α)
0 . 4
e(t)
0 . 2
-0 . 2
-0 . 4
-0 . 6
-0 . 8
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
• The output of the synchro is a modulated signal

• The modulating wave has information regarding the lack of
correspondence between the two rotor positions and the carrier
wave is the a.c. input to the rotor of the synchro transmitter.
• This type of modulation is known as suppressed carrier modulation.
• The modulating signal representing the discrepancy between the
two shaft positions is
• em(t)=Ks(θ-α) where Ks=sensitivity of error detector in volts/rad.
Example
Antenna
Synchro Transmitter + Fixed
S2 S2/ D.C.
- Supply
D.C. servo
Control Transformer Motor geared
to Antenna Shaft
Hand
wheel
Phase sensitive
D.C. Amplifier
0V Error Ref
Input Voltage
S1 S1/
S3 S3/
A.C.
Supply
Entire system comes to rest when rotor of the Control Transformer is aligned perpendicular to the stator field of C.T.,
the error voltage falling to zero. Antenna will remain at rest until Synchro Transmitter shaft is again turned.
It might be a system whereby the position of a large and heavy Radar antenna mounted upon the mast of
a ship may be controlled by an operator located below the deck.
16
A.C. servomotor
Rotor
• For low power To amplifier
error signal V θ
applications, a.c. motors 2 m
are preferred because they Control

phase
are light weight, rugged
V 1
and there are no brush Fixed
phase
contacts to maintain
• Most of the a.c. motors used in feedback control systems
are the two phase induction type.
• Unlike the motors used for other general purposes, the
output power of the a.c. servo motor usually varies from
a fraction of a watt upto only a few hundred watts.
• The frequency is either 60 c/s or 400 c/s
A.C. servomotor
Rotor
• The motor consists of a stator To amplifier
error signal V2 θm
with two distributed windings
displaced 90 electrical degrees Control
phase
apart.
V1
• The voltages applied to the Fixed
windings are not balanced. phase
• Under normal operating conditions, fixed voltage from a constant

voltage source is applied to one phase called the fixed phase.
• The other phase which is called the control phase is energized by a
voltage which is set at 90o out of phase w.r.t. the voltage of the fixed
phase.
• The control phase voltage is usually supplied from a servo amplifier
and it has a variable magnitude and polarity.
• The direction of rotation of the motor reverses if the control phase
signal changes sign.
17
A.C. servomotor
Rotor
• The rotor construction is usually IR θm
of (Cu or Al bars connected by or Error
shorting rings at the ends)

squirrel cage type with no
electrical access. IC
C Excitation
• The diameter of the rotor is
made small in order to reduce
inertia and thus to improve the
acceleration characteristics.
IR
90deg IC IR
90deg
Excitation and error voltage
IC
Error voltage Excitation
IC lags IR by 90 degree IC leads IR by 90 degree
A.C. servomotor torque speed characteristics

Torque increases with increase in
speed i.e., damping torque
decreases and unstable operation
apprehended
Suitable for Conventional induction

feedback motor producing high
maximum torque
Torque
systems. A
Positive slope
negative slope
is essential for
stability
Large X/R
Small X/R Shape of the characteristic

depends on the ratio of rotor
reactance to rotor resistance
0 Syn. speed Speed, rpm
18
Rotor
Torque
Region approximately linear To amplifier
error signal V2 θm
V22 Control voltage
Control
V23 phase
V1
V24 Fixed
phase
V25 V22=V1=Rated voltage
V26 V22> V23> V24> V25> V26
1000 2000 3000 4000 Speed, rpm

Linear approximation
• Servomotor seldom operates at high speeds and linear portion of Torque-Speed
curves can be extended out to high speed region.
• Curves are nonlinear except at low speeds and in the region of low control voltage
• In order to derive transfer function of motor, some linear approximation is made.
Linear portion of curve extends to high V22=V1=Rated voltage

speed. Still resultant curves are not V22> V23> V24> V25> V26
parallel, i.e., for constant speed, except
near zero speed, torque does not vary
linearly with respect to control voltage.
So the next assumption is to assume that
all the curves are straight lines, parallel to
characteristic at rated control voltage
Torque
Torque
Region approximately linear
V22 Control voltage V22

V23 V23
V24 V24
V25 V25
V26 V26
1000 2000 3000 4000Speed, rpm 1000 2000 3000 Speed, rpm
4000
19
Transfer function of A.C. Servomotor
• The various assumptions to derive the

transfer function are:
– A servomotor rarely operates at high speeds.
Hence for a given value of control voltage,
T-N characteristics are perfectly linear.
– In order that T-N characteristics are directly
dependent on voltage applied to its control
phase, we assume T-N characteristics to be
straight lines and equally spaced.

Torque at any speed N is
dθ
Tm = KE 2 + m m ... (1)
dt
dθ
where m is the speed of the motor.
dt
If the load consists of J m and Bm we can write
Tm (s ) = J m s 2 θ m (s ) + Bm sθ m (s ).
Now the L.T. of eqn (1) is
Tm (s ) = KE 2 (s ) + msθ m (s ) ... (2)
From (1) and (2) above,
KE 2 (s ) + msθ m (s ) = J m s 2 θ m (s ) + Bm sθ m (s )
θ (s ) K K
∴ m = =
E 2 ( s ) s ( J m s − m + Bm )  Jms 
s (Bm − m ) 1 + 
 Bm − m 
20
Motor Displacement θ m (s ) Km θ (s ) K
= = Q m =
Control phase voltage V2 (s ) s (1 + sτ m ) E ( s )  Jms 
s (Bm − m ) 1 + 
2
 Bm − m 
where
K
K m = motor gain constant =
Bm − m
Jm
∴τ m = = motor time constant.
Bm − m
J m and Bm denote inertia and friction of the motor.
• If m is a negative number, the equation above shows that the effect
of the slope of the torque-speed curve is to add friction to the motor
which improves the damping of the motor.
• The added damping effect is sometimes called the “internal electric
damping” of the 2-phase motor.
• However, if m is a positive number, for m>Bm, negative damping
occurs and it can be shown that the motor becomes unstable.
Transducers
• Displacement Transducers
• Reference Transducers
• Velocity Transducers
21
Transducers
• The range of devices available to provide

transduction of displacement (rectilinear or
angular) is considerably greater than that for any
other variable.
• Moreover, many of the displacement measuring
devices form the secondary element in
transducers for other variables such as
temperature, force, torque, acceleration, tension,
liquid flow-rate, level, density, etc.
• In this role the function of the displacement
measuring device is to enable the transducer to
generate an electrical output signal.
Displacement Transducers
• The displacement is Rectilinear or Rotary

(angular)
• Displacement transducers are also known
as position transducers.
• They are primarily used as feedback
transducers in position control system.
• These may also be used as reference
transducers.
22
Velocity Transducers
• Velocity transducers are also known as

rate transducers.
• They are mostly used as principal
feedback transducers in velocity (speed)
control systems and as secondary
feedback transducers in position control
systems.
Displacement Transducers
• Could be wire-wound or carbon

• Most servo-pot are wire-wound because of high degree
of linearity
• Rectilinear pots are constructed with lengths of travels
ranging typically from 1 mm to 6 m (1 cm to 15 cm
common), track resistances range from 20 ohms to 200
kilo-ohms (100 ohms to 10 kilo-ohms common)
• Linearity errors are commonly ~ 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%.
• Typical resolution of wire-wound pots 70 to 200 steps
per cm.
• Wire-wound pot may be multi-turn.
23
Differential Inductors and Transformers
• They can be subdivided into

– LVDI: Linear Variable Differential Inductor
– LVDT: Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
– RVDI: Rotary Variable Differential Inductor
– RVDT: Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer
Differential Inductors and Transformers
• Rotary versions have a very little travel (typically

+ 60deg) and sometimes referred to as “Rotary
pick offs”
• The inherent reliability associated with these
arises because they do not involve the use of
any moving electrical contacts
• The rectilinear types are constructed with travel
typically from 1 mm to 30 cm although this range
has been extended to 0.1 mm to 250 cm in
certain devices. Linearity errors as low as 0.1 %
are achievable relatively easily.
24
Advantages
• Rugged
• Zero breakaway force/torque
• Step-less characteristic
• Relatively insensitive to loading effects
• Virtually infinite life
• Maintenance free
• Linear law
• High sensitivity
• Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
• Extremely limited travel with rotary types

• A special AC reference is required
• Output signal is alternating requiring
conversion to D.C. before it is usable in
most control systems
• D.C. version now available.
25
Ferrous
core
Ferrous
core
VC
VAC
applied
VAC
applied
x
Non-
Ferrous Vo
Rod
Half Bridge Differential Inductor
Non-
Ferrous
Rod x
Full Bridge Differential Inductor
Ferrous
core
V1 Vo=V1-V2
S1
VAC
applied P
V2
x S2
Non-
Ferrous
Rod
Differential Transformer
26
• In each of these cases, the applied A.C. voltage is sinusoidal and
has a frequency lying between 50 Hz and 20 KHz (typically 1KHz-5
KHz)
• In case of the differential inductor, the device is connected in an
A.C. Wheatstone bridge arrangement, which is balanced electrically
at the null position for the core(s) so that V0=0. As the cores are
offset by input displacement x, the self and mutual inductances of
the windings vary so that the bridge becomes unbalanced and V0
changes. In the case of differential transformer, the two identical
windings are connected in series opposition so that when the core is
in the null position, V1=V2 and V0=0. When the core is offset by input
displacement x, the magnetic coupling with the primary increases for
one secondary and decreases for the other so that V0 changes.
LVDT
Nickel-iron
alloy
27
Output voltage vs input displacement characteristic
• Typically V0 will nominally be in phase V0 In phase

with VAC for positive values of x and (RMS)
nominally in anti-phase with VAC for
negative values of x.
• In practice, due to the effects of
magnetizing current, core losses and x
winding impedances, there will be small
parasitic phase shifts present, so that the Anti phase
phase of V0 will not be precisely 0 deg or
180 deg relative to VAC. Output voltage vs input displacement
• In addition, the presence of ferrous characteristic
material in the magnetic circuit will cause
a small amount of harmonic distortion in
the output voltage waveform.
On-off Displacement Transducers

• One of the simplest and cheapest on-off sensors is the
“Microswitch”.
• This is a snap action type of electromechanical switch
which normally is fully enclosed and may be activated
by either a lever or a plunger mechanism.
• Greater life and reliability can be achieved using Microswitch
Proximity switches which operate without physical
contact being made.
• This may be achieved by
– The introduction or removal of a magnetic field.
– The change in reluctance of a magnetic circuit.
– The change in permittivity of the dielectric of a capacitor Inductive
– The change in physical dimensions of a capacitor Proximity switch
– The change in back pressure within a nozzle supplied,
through a restriction, with compressed air.
– The change in reflection, refraction or transmission of the
light beam.
– The change in reflection, refraction or transmission of an
ultrasonic beam
Photoelectric
Proximity switch
28
Reference Transducers
• The most commonly used devices for setting manually
the reference variable are
– Potentiometers
– Synchro and Resolver Transmitters
– Rotary switches
– Push-button, key and toggle switches
• Reference pots are generally required to have an
accuracy similar to that associated with servo pots.
• A reasonably high level of friction often can be a definite
advantage
• Loading errors can be as significant a problem as with
feedback pots so that unloading buffer amplifier should
be incorporated.
• Stable power supply.
Velocity Transducers
• D.C. Tachogenerator
• A.C. Drag Cup Tachogenerator
29
Stepper motors
• Stepper motors have been used principally for
drives in computer peripherals viz. floppy disc
head positioners, incremental magnetic tape
drives, printer drives, etc.
• They mostly have been small in physical size but
develop a high torque/inertia ratio and a fast
response.
• They also have been used as torque motors for
hydraulic servovalves in high power
servosystems.
• More recently higher power stepper motors have
been developed for industrial applications such
as machine tools, industrial robots, robot
cameras, etc.
Stepper motors
• A stepper motor has a stator containing a

number of poles carrying field winding, together
with a rotor which, in most cases, is a permanent
magnet or which is slotted and made from soft
iron.
• Accordingly they are classified as two types viz.
Permanent magnet motor and Variable
reluctance motor
• By energizing the stator windings in sequence,
the axis of the magnetic field is stepped around
and the rotor axis tracks this motion.
30
Stepper motors
• The drive circuit normally accepts a train

of pulses, each pulse representing a
quantum in step angle, together with a
signal indicating the direction of motion
required.
• The circuits use this information to
establish a pattern of voltages which is
then applied appropriately to the stator
windings.
Operational features of a Variable

Reluctance Stepper Motor
• A VRSM consists of a
single or several stacks
of stators and rotors
– stators have a common
frame and rotors have a
common shaft
• Both stators and rotors
have toothed structure
• The stator and rotor
teeth are of same size
and therefore can be
aligned.
• The stators are pulse
excited.
31
Longitudinal cross-sectional view of 3
stack variable reluctance motor (VRSM)
Stator a Stator b Stator c
Rotor a Rotor b Rotor c
Stator and rotor teeth

300
150
Rotor
Stator
32
• As the stator is excited, the rotor is pulled into

the nearest minimum reluctance position i.e. the
position where stator and rotor teeth are aligned.
• The static torque acting on the rotor is a function
of the angular misalignment θ.
• There are two positions of zero torque
θ =0 for rotor and stator teeth aligned
and θ =360/(2Τ)=180/Τ (T=number of rotor teeth)
for rotor teeth aligned with stator slots.
At θ=0 is a stable position and thus the rotor locks into
the stator at θ=0 or multiple of 360/T.
• In a multiple stack rotor, number of phases

equals number of stacks.
• If phase a stator is excited, the rotor will move in
the clockwise direction
• Pulse train with sequence abcab will make the
rotor go through incremental motion in the
clockwise direction while bacba will make it
move in the anticlockwise direction.
• Directional control is only possible with 3 or
more phases.
33
Use of stepper motor in control systems
Programmed
input Logic Stepper Load
Computer
driver motor
Open loop application
• The stepper motor is a digital device whose output in

shaft angular displacement is completely determined by
the number of input pulses. Consequently there is no
need for a feedback device to determine the position of
motor shaft.
Use of stepper motor in control systems
• In closed loop (position feedback) mode, the motor

is used like a conventional servomotor.
Pulse • A signal from output is fedback and is used to
generator operate a gate controlling the pulses from a pulse
generator
Load
Logic Stepper Gear
Gate
driver motor train
Synchros
θr
Closed loop mode

34
Advantages of stepper motors when
contrasted with D.C. servomotor
• Steppers do not require linear power
amplifier
• Feedback transducers are optional
• Steppers can respond directly to digital
control data – no need for A to D converter
• Steppers exhibit extremely short starting
and stopping times
• Steppers have a very wide speed range
Disadvantages of stepper motors
• It is the most difficult of all motor types to

analyze and specify
• It has low power efficiency associated with
high internal heat generation.
• It displays a tendency to oscillate about
the equilibrium point.
35
Details on permanent magnet type
stepper motor
• The rotor is a permanent magnet
• The rotor is rather large in order that an adequate field
can be developed: this gives rise to relatively high polar
moment of inertia and a low maximum stepping rate
(typically 300 to 400 steps/second)
• Because of stator construction, the angular step size will
be large: typically 30 deg or 60 deg.
• Damping is inherent, due to generator action which
induces emfs in the stator coils whenever the rotor tends
to oscillate.
• This type of stepper stepping torque is proportional to
the stator current
Details on Variable Reluctance type

stepper motor
• The rotor is made from unmagnetized soft iron and is
cylindrical but with slots.
• The rotor can be small and light and the resulting low
polar moment of inertia yields a high maximum stepping
rate (typically 700 to 800 steps/second) and fast starting
and stopping.
• Because of the rotor construction, the angular step size
will be smaller than the permanent magnet type:
Typically 15 deg.
• The damping effect is negligible due to the absence of
any generator action.
• The stepping torque is proportional to the square of the
stator current
36

Synchro, Servo, LVDT, Stepper

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Synchros

• One of the most widely used error sensing

• The synchro depends on

Synchro transmitter –winding orientation

• The rotor winding is connected to the source of excitation

vs1n , vs 2 n , vs 3 n are the voltages

The three terminal voltages of the stator are

Relationships between rotor position and vs2n

vs 2 n = KVr sinωct vs 2 n = 0.866KVr sinωct vs 2 n = 0

vs 2 n = − KVr sin ωct

Rotor at zero degree

Position and polarity of

Position and polarity of

R2 Positions and polarities of

Position and polarity of

Position and polarity of

Positions and polarities of

Rotor turned 120 degree clockwise

Position and polarity of

Position and polarity of

R2 Positions and polarities of

Synchro transmitter and receiver

• The polarities of the rotor magnetic fields are similar .

Synchro transmitter and receiver operation

Synchro transmitter and receiver operation

• When the transmitter and repeater rotor coils are in

• In balanced condition, the only current in the system is the exciting

• The synchro control transformer is used to

Synchro control transformer construction

• Structurally, the stator of the synchro control

• The stator current is therefore limited to a low value only

Synchro control transformer: Principle of operation

• The synchro transmitter-control transformer pair

Synchro control transformer

• Let the rotor of the transmitter rotate through an angle θ in the

• For small angular displacement of two rotor positions,

Synchro error detector output

• The output of the synchro is a modulated signal

are preferred because they Control

• Under normal operating conditions, fixed voltage from a constant

shorting rings at the ends)

A.C. servomotor torque speed characteristics

Suitable for Conventional induction

Small X/R Shape of the characteristic

0 Syn. speed Speed, rpm

1000 2000 3000 4000 Speed, rpm

A.C. servomotor torque speed characteristics

Linear portion of curve extends to high V22=V1=Rated voltage

Region approximately linear

V22 Control voltage V22

• The various assumptions to derive the

Transfer function of A.C. Servomotor

• The range of devices available to provide

• The displacement is Rectilinear or Rotary

• Velocity transducers are also known as

• Could be wire-wound or carbon

• They can be subdivided into

Differential Inductors and Transformers

• Rotary versions have a very little travel (typically

• Extremely limited travel with rotary types