Chapter 2 Part 2 (Turbine - Solar)

CHAPTER 2
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION

TECHNOLOGIES
B E V 3 0 3 0 3 P O W E R G E N E R AT I O N , T R A N S M I S S I O N A N D D I S T R I B U T I O N
1
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conventional Power Generation Technologies
2.3 Renewable Energy Sources
2.4 Distributed Generations
2.5 Economics of Power Generation
2
2.3.1 Hydropower Plant
3
1) Introduction
2) Choice of Site for Hydropower Plant
3) Constituents of Hydropower Plant
4) Small Hydropower
5) The Environmental Impacts of Hydropower
4
(1) Introduction
A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level
for the generation of electrical energy
These plants are generally located in hilly areas where dams can be built
conveniently and large water reservoirs can be obtained
Water head is created by constructing a dam across a river or lake
From the dam, water is led to a water turbine
The water turbine captures the energy in the falling water and changes the
hydraulic energy (product of head and flow of water) into mechanical energy
at turbine shaft
The turbine drives the generator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy
Hydropower are becoming very popular because the reserves of fuels (coal and
oil) are depleting day by day
5
(1) Introduction
6
(1) Introduction
Sayano-Shushenskaya Hydropower Bakun, Sarawak Hydropower
7
(1) Introduction
Advantages Disadvantages
No fuel is required as water is used as the It involves high capital cost due to
source for generating electricity construction of dam
It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or Skilled and experienced hands are
ash is produced required to build the plant
It is comparatively simple in construction It requires high cost transmission lines as

and requires less maintenance the plant is located in hilly areas which
quite away from consumers
8
(2) Choices of Site
Such plants should be built at a place (e.g. river,

Availability of water
canal) where adequate water is available
There are wide variations in water supply from a river

Storage of water or canal during the year. This makes it necessary to
store water by constructing a dam in order to
ensure the generation of power throughout the year
Cost and type of land The land for the construction of the plant should be
available at a reasonable price
The site selected for a hydropower plant should be

Transportation facilities accessible by rail and road so that necessary
equipment and machinery could be easily
transported
Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 9

(3) Constituents of Hydropower Plant
1. Hydraulic structures
2. Water turbines
3. Electrical equipment

(3) Constituents of Hydropower Plant: Hydraulic Structures
1. Hydraulic structures:
Dam
Spillways
Headworks
Surge tank
Penstock
Accessory works

DAM
Dam is a barrier which stores water and creates water head. Dams are built of
concrete or stone masonary, earth or rock fill

SPILLWAYS
During heavy rainfall in the catchment area the river flow exceeds the storage
capacity of the reservoir.
In order to discharge the surplus water from the storage reservoir into the river on the
down-stream side of the dam, the spillways are used

HEADWORKS
Consists of the diversion structures at the head of an intake. They generally include
booms and racks for diverting floating debris, sluices for by-passing debris and
sediments and valves for controlling the flow of water to the turbine
SURGE TANK
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank (open at the top) in which water level rises or
falls to reduce the pressure swings in the conduit

PENSTOCKS
Penstocks are open or closed conduits which carry water to the turbines. They are
generally made of reinforced concrete or steel

(3) Constituents of Hydropower Plant: Water Turbines
Water turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water into mechanical
energy.
The principle types of water turbines are:
Impulse turbines
Reaction turbines

IMPULSE TURBINES
Such turbines are used for high heads (greater than 450m).
In an impulse turbine, the entire pressure of water is converted into kinetic energy in a
nozzle and the velocity of the water jet drives the wheel (Pelton wheel)

REACTION TURBINES
Reaction turbines are used for low and medium heads (below 450m).
Water enters the runner partly with pressure energy and partly with velocity head.
The types of reaction turbines are:
Francis Turbines
Kaplan Turbines
Francis Turbines Kaplan Turbines

FRANCIS TURBINES
It consists of an outer ring of stationary guide blades
fixed to the turbine casing and an inner ring of rotating
blades forming the runner.
The guide blades control the flow of water to the
turbine.
Water flows radially inwards and changes to a
downward direction while passing through the runner.
runner, both pressure and velocity of water are

reduced.
This causes a reaction force which drives the turbine.

KAPLAN TURBINES
It is used for low heads and large quantities of water.
It is similar to Francis turbine except that the runner of
Kaplan turbine receives water axially.
Water flows radially inwards through regulating gates
all around the sides, changing direction in the runner
to axial flow.
This causes a reaction force which drives the turbine.

(3) Constituents of Hydropower Plant: Electrical Equipment
The electrical equipment of a hydropower plant includes generators, transformers,
circuit breakers and other switching and protective devices

Electrical Energy Generated from Hydropower Plant
1. Weight of water available (W),

W = Volume of water x density x g
Mass of 1m3 of water is 1000 kg;

Mass = Volume of water x Weight of 1m3 of water
g = 9.81
Electrical energy available,

E = W x H x overall
Where H is the head in meter and overall is the overall efficiency
22
Electrical Energy Generated from Hydropower Plant
2. Water flow or discharge (Q)
Q = Volume of water / second
Weight of water available, W = Q x density x g
Power produced,
P=WxHx overall
23
Example 2.1
A hydropower plant is supplied from a reservoir of capacity 5 x 106 m3 at a head
of 200 m. Find the total energy available in kWh if the overall efficiency is 75%.
Answer: [2.044 x 106 kWh]
24
Example 2.2
Water for a hydro-electric station is obtained from a reservoir with a head of 100 m.
Calculate the electrical energy generated per hour per m3 of water if the
hydraulic efficiency is 0.86 and electrical efficiency is 0.92.
Answer: [775 kWh]
25
Example 2.2
26
TUTORIAL
1. A hydropower plant is supplied from a reservoir of capacity 9 x 108 m3 at a head of

250 m. Calculate the total energy available in kWh if the overall efficiency is 80%.
Answer: [4.905 x 108 kWh]
27
(4) Small Hydropower
Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale serving a small
community or industrial plant
Small hydro can be subdivided into
Mini hydro less than 1,000 kW
Micro hydro less than 100 kW
Small hydro plants may be connected to conventional electrical distribution
networks as a source of low-cost renewable energy
28
Small hydropower projects can be developed anywhere, but mountainous terrain
offers the best potential
29
UTHM Micro hydro power project at Taman Negara Rompin, Johor
30
Austria and Switzerland are both big users of small hydropower in Europe
This represents a valuable resource since communities located in mountainous terrain
often cannot be connected to national grid
Small hydropower plants are conceptually similar to their larger siblings but the
difference is the investment involved
Normally have to use off-the-shelf turbine designs and generators in order to keep
costs down
Energy efficiency tends to be lower a study by the United Nation Development
Programme (UNDP) and World Bank in Ecuador found that systems
31
Under 50 kW had a maximum efficiency of 66% rising to 70% for units in the 50 500
kW range and 74% for units between 500 kW and 5 MW
Head height is an important factor in determining small hydro economics
With higher head sites generally cheaper to develop
An impulse turbine is the best choice where the head height is above 30 m
A head height of less than 2.5 m is difficult to exploit
Dam and barrage structures are also similar in small and large projects but many
small schemes use simpler design
32
Run-of-river designs are popular since they involve the minimum of civil works
33
(5) Environmental Impacts of Hydropower
The environmental effects of hydropower project, particularly involving a dam and
reservoir, are significant and must be taken into account when a project is under
consideration
Inundation
Sedimentation
Greenhouse gases
34
35
36
INUNDATION
After dam construction, area of land behind it is inundated to create storage lake
It is the loss of this land that normally leads to greatest controversy
Most significant effect of a reservoir to displace people living in the area to be
flooded
A hydropower scheme is usually intended to improve the local standard of living and
that yardstick should be applied to the displaced people these people should be
better off after displacement than they were before
Financial support should be built into the project budget
Effects on plant and animal life in the area must also be taken into account
Unique habitats need replacing with new habitats in the region of the reservoir
Effect on fish, particularly migratory fish such as salmon and eels must be studied
37
SEDIMENTATION
Another effect of a dam or barrage is to change the sedimentation regime in a river
When a dam is built across a river the reservoir behind it reduces the flow rate of the
river and much sediment can precipitate onto the reservoir floor
In worst case this will lead to the eventual filling of the reservoir with sediment
Erosion rates may increase in the riverbed below the dam
More seriously, important eco structures which rely on the sediment and its nutrients
may become seriously disrupted or even destroyed
38
GREENHOUSE GASES
While many of the effects of a hydropower project are negative, the greenhouse
emissions should, on the face of it, be positive
The generation of hydropower does not involve creation of carbon dioxide
Unfortunately the situation is not that simple because a reservoir can become the
source of methane this gas is an even more efficient greenhouse gas than carbon
dioxide
A reservoir will become a source of methane if it contains a great deal of organic
material
In the worst case a hydropower plant can produce more greenhouse emissions than
a similarly sized fossil-fueled power plant
39
2.3.2 Solar Power
40
2.3.2 Solar Power
1) Solar Energy
2) Sites for Solar Power Generation
3) Solar Technology
4) Solar Thermal Power Generation
5) Photovoltaic Devices
6) Solar PV System Designs
7) Environmental Considerations
41
2.3.2 Solar Power
(1) Solar Energy
Solar energy is the most important source of energy available to the earth
Solar energy is radiant energy that is produced by the sun.
The sun makes energy in its inner core in a process called nuclear fusion.
The process of fusion most commonly involves hydrogen isotopes combining to form
a helium atom with transformation of matter.
This matter emitted as radiant energy.
The sun energy takes around eight minutes to travel the 93 million miles to Earth.
At speed of light = 3.0 X 108 m/s or 1.86 x 105 miles/s.
Only small part of radiant energy (light) that emits into space reach the Earth, but
that is more than enough to supply all our energy needs.
Therefore it considered as renewable energy source.
People use solar energy to heat building, water & to generate electricity.
42
2.3.2 Solar Power
(1) Solar Energy
Solar energy is radiant energy that is
produced by the sun
43
2.3.2 Solar Power
(1) Solar Energy
The energy radiated by the sun is around:
7% ultraviolet light
47% visible light
46% infrared light
Its energy content at the distance of the earth from the sun is around 1.4kW/m2
Each year around 1500 million TWh of solar energy reaches the earth
44
2.3.2 Solar Power
(1) Solar Energy
Not all this energy reaches the surface of the earth
Shorter wavelength ultraviolet radiation absorbed in the atmosphere
Longer wavelength energy absorbed by water vapour and carbon dioxide
Dust particles scatter more radiation, dispersing some of it back into space
Clouds reflect light back to space
Hence, only around 46% of the energy, 700 million TWh actually reaches the earth
surface
Global solar electricity generating capacity according to European Union estimates:
Less than 800MW of installed capacity in 1995
Between 1995 and end 2003 2600MW
Beginning of 2004 3400MW
45
2.3.2 Solar Power
(1) Solar Energy
Solar energy can be used to generate electricity.
Electricity can be generated directly from light using an electronic device called a
solar cell
46
2.3.2 Solar Power
(2) Sites for Solar Power Generation
In principle, solar power can be generated anywhere on the earth but some regions
are better than others
Places where the sun shines frequently and regularly are preferable to regions the
brighter the sunlight, the greater the output and the more advantageous the
economics of the generating plant
Solar power does not necessarily require large contiguous areas of land in order to
generate electricity small panels can be made in small modular units which can be
incorporated into buildings so that power generation can share space used for other
purposes
Distributed generation of this type has many advantages
47
2.3.2 Solar Power
(3) Solar Technology
Photovoltaic or solar cell

A solid-state device like a transistor or microchip.
It uses the physical characteristics of a semiconductor such as silicon to
turn the sunlight directly into electricity.
Solar thermal generation

Involves using the sun simply as a source of heat.
This heat is captured, concentrated and used to drive a heat engine.
The heat engine may be a conventional steam turbine, in which case
the heat will be used to generate steam, but it could be a gas turbine or
a sterling engine.

2.3.2 Solar Power
(3) Solar Technology
A major weakness: it can only generate electricity when the sun is shining.
During night, there is no sunlight so no electricity.
To overcome this problem, a solar power station must either have some form of
conventional fuel back-up, or it must incorporate energy storage.
Solar cells frequently coupled with rechargeable batteries in order to provide
continuous power in remote locations.
Solar thermal power plants can also be designed with heat storage systems which
allow them to supply power in the absence of sun.
49
2.3.2 Solar Power
(4) Solar Thermal Power Generation
The development of modern solar thermal power technology began in 1970s and
was finally proved in the late 1980s with a series of commercial solar thermal power
plants in California
Modern solar thermal research has concentrated on three different approaches to
converting solar energy into electricity
Parabolic trough-shaped mirror
Solar tower
Solar dish
50
2.3.2 Solar Power
Parabolic trough-shaped mirror
Solar tower
Solar dish
51
2.3.2 Solar Power
PARABOLIC TROUGH-SHAPED MIRROR
To focus the energy contained in sunlight onto an energy collector at the focus of
the parabola.
These parabolic trough solar units can be deployed in massive arrays to provide a
large generating capacity
52
2.3.2 Solar Power
PARABOLIC TROUGH-SHAPED MIRROR
Parabolic troughs use long reflecting troughs that focus the sun light onto a pipe
located at the focal line.
A fluid circulating inside the pipe collects the energy and transfer it to a heat
exchanger which produces steam to drive the turbine.
Largest parabolic trough is located in the Mojave in California (354 MW)
53
2.3.2 Solar Power
SOLAR TOWER
Employs a solar energy collector mounted atop a large tower.
A field of mirrors is used to direct sunlight onto the collector where the concentrated
heat is used in a power generation system
54
2.3.2 Solar Power
SOLAR TOWER
55
2.3.2 Solar Power
SOLAR DISH
Comprises a parabolic dish with a solar heat engine mounted at its focus.
Dishes are usually only 10 50 kW in capacity but can achieve high-energy
conversion efficiency
These generators are small mobile units that can be operated individually or in cluster
(in urban and remote locations)
56
2.3.2 Solar Power
SOLAR DISH
57
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
Global PV Installed Capacity
58
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
Photovoltaics (PV) or commonly known as solar cell is a method of generating
electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using
semiconductors
Solar cell is made from a thin layer of semiconducting material it will absorb
photons of radiation in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum
Each photon of light energy is absorbed by an electron within the solid material
In absorbing the energy, the electron acquires an electrical potential
This potential can be made available as electrical energy (electric current)
59
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
60
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
Silicon = 0.6 V
61
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
SOLAR CELL
The current is produced at a specific fixed voltage called the cell voltage
The cell voltage is a property of semiconducting material for silicon is around 0.6 V
The energy contained in light increases as the frequency increases from infrared
through red to blue and ultraviolet light
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Photons in sunlight are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon
Electrons (-ve) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing electric potential difference
Current flows through the material to cancel the potential and electricity is captured
Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in
a single direction
An array of solar cells converts solar energy into direct current (DC) electricity
62
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
63
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
SOLAR CELL MATERIALS
Crystalline silicon - the most prevalent bulk material, also know as solar grade silicon
64
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
SOLAR CELL MATERIALS
Thin films sandwiched between two panes of glass to make a module
Lower conversion efficiencies
4 thin film technologies - Cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide
(CIGS), amorphous silicon (A-Si) and dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC)
65
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
SOLAR CELL DEPLOYMENT
66
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
PV MODELLING
Solar Cell Model
I-V Characteristics Curve
67
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
IV CURVE
I-V curve characteristics for different irradiations level at 25 C
68
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
60-WATT POLY / MULTICRYSTALLINE PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE
69
2.3.2 Solar Power
(5) PV Devices
UTILITY PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAYS
Construction involve enormous number of
individual solar cells, mounted in solar
panels, and the solar panels themselves
mounted in groups, each group having its
own support structure
Fitted with a system to track the sun across
the sky
Costs are high
70
2.3.2 Solar Power
(6) Solar PV System Designs
Three main solar PV system designs:
PV System: Stand Alone
PV System: Grid Connected
Hybrid System
71
2.3.2 Solar Power
PV SYSTEM: STAND ALONE
Stand-alone systems rely on solar power
only.
These systems can consist of the PV
modules and a load only or they can
include batteries for energy storage.
72
2.3.2 Solar Power
PV SYSTEM: GRID CONNECTED
73
2.3.2 Solar Power
PV SYSTEM: GRID CONNECTED
Grid-connected PV systems have become increasingly popular for building
integrated applications.
They are connected to the grid via inverters, which convert the DC power into AC
electricity.
In small systems as they are installed in residential homes, the inverter is connected to
the distribution board, from where the PV-generated power is transferred into the
electricity grid or to AC appliances in the house.
These systems do not require batteries, since they are connected to the grid, which
acts as a buffer.
74
2.3.2 Solar Power
PV SYSTEM: HYBRID SYSTEM
Hybrid systems consist of combination of PV modules and a complementary method
of electricity generation such as a diesel, gas or wind generator
75
2.3.2 Solar Power
(7) Environmental Considerations
Solar power considered to be one of the most environmentally benign methods of
generating electricity
Neither solar thermal nor solar PV power plants generate any atmospheric emissions
during operation
A PV installation makes no noise either, and a solar thermal plant very little
76
TUTORIAL
1. Describe the two (2) methods can be used to harvest energy from the sun.
2. Differentiate between solar thermal and photovoltaic for electricity generation.
3. Discuss the limitation OF solar energy
4. Explain the potential of solar energy in Malaysia
77
THANK
YOU
78

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CHAPTER 2

ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION

Sayano-Shushenskaya Hydropower Bakun, Sarawak Hydropower

It is comparatively simple in construction It requires high cost transmission lines as

Such plants should be built at a place (e.g. river,

There are wide variations in water supply from a river

The site selected for a hydropower plant should be

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 9

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 10

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 11

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 12

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 13

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 14

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 15

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 16

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 17

Francis Turbines Kaplan Turbines

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 18

runner, both pressure and velocity of water are

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 19

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 20

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 21

1. Weight of water available (W),

Mass of 1m3 of water is 1000 kg;

Electrical energy available,

Where H is the head in meter and overall is the overall efficiency

2. Water flow or discharge (Q)

Q = Volume of water / second

Weight of water available, W = Q x density x g

Answer: [2.044 x 106 kWh]

Answer: [775 kWh]

1. A hydropower plant is supplied from a reservoir of capacity 9 x 108 m3 at a head of

Answer: [4.905 x 108 kWh]

Photovoltaic or solar cell

Solar thermal generation

Power Generation, Transmission And Distribution (BEF36003) 48

Parabolic trough-shaped mirror

Solar Cell Model

I-V Characteristics Curve

I-V curve characteristics for different irradiations level at 25 C

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