Unit I.

Introduction to Art Appreciation

 Lesson 1
What Is Art: Introduction and Assumptions

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

1. understand the role of the humanities and the arts in man’s attempt at fully realizing his
end;
2. clarify misconceptions about art;
3. characterize the assumptions of the arts; and
4. engage better with personal experiences of and in art.

Art is something that is perennially around us. Some people may deny having to do with
the arts but it is indisputable that life presents us with many forms of and opportunities for
communion with the arts. A bank manager choosing what tie to wear together with his shirt and
shoes, a politician shuffling her music track while comfortably seated on her car looking for her
favorite song, a student marveling at the intricate designs of a medieval cathedral during his field
trip, a market vendor cheering for her bet in a dance competition on a noontime TV program all
manifest concern for values that are undeniably, despite tangentially, artistic.

Despite the seemingly overflowing instances of arts

around people, one still finds the need to see more
and experience more, whether consciously or
unconsciously. One whose exposure to music is only
limited to one genre finds it lacking not to have been
exposed to more; one whose idea of a cathedral is
limited to the locally available ones finds enormous
joy in seeing other prototypes in Europe. Plato had
Figure 1. A Medieval Cathedral
the sharpest foresight when he discussed in the Sym

Let’s Get Down to Business

Why Study the Humanities?
 For as long as man existed in this planet, he has cultivated the land, altered the conditions
of the fauna and the flora, all in order to survive. Alongside these necessities, man also marked
his place in the world through his works. Through his bare hands, man constructed
infrastructures that will tend to his needs, like his house. He sharpened swords and spears. He
employed fire in order to melt gold. The initial meaning of the word art has something to do with
all these craft.

The word “art” comes from the ancient Latin ars which means “craft” or specialized form
of skill, like carpentry or smithying or surgery” (Collingwood 1938, 5). Art the suggested the
capacity to produce an intended result for carefully plans step or method. When a man wants to
build a house, plans meticulously to get to what the prototype promises, executes the steps to
produce the said structure, he is engaged in art. The Ancient World did not have any conceived
notion of art in the same way that we do now. To them, art only meant using bare hands to
produce something that will be useful to one’s day-to-day life.

Arts in Medieval Latin came to mean something different. It meant ‘any special form of
book-learning, such as grammar or logic, magic or astrology” (Collingwood 1938, 6). It was only
during renaissance that the word reacquired a meaning that was inherent in its ancient form-craft.
Early renaissance artists saw their activities merely as craftsmanship, devoid of a whole lot of
intonations that are attached to the word now. It was seventeenth century when the problem and
idea of aesthetics, the study of beauty, began to unfold distinctly from the notion of technical
workmanship that is the original
conception of the word “art”. It was
finally in the eighteenth century when
the word has evolved to distinguish
between the fine arts and useful arts. The
fine arts would come to mean “not
delicate or highly skilled arts, but
‘beautiful’ arts” (Collingwood 1938).
This is something that is more akin to
what is now considered art.
Figure 1. Cave Paintings

The humanities constitute one of the oldest and most

important means of expression developed by man (Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960, 3).
Human history has witnessed how man evolved not just physically but also culturally, from cave
painters to men of exquisite paintbrush users of the present. Even if one goes back to the time
before written records of man’s civilization has appeared, one can find cases of man’s attempts
of not just crafting tools to live and survive but also expressing his feelings and thoughts. The
Galloping Wild Boar fond in the cave of Altamira, Spain is one such example. In 1879, a
Spaniard and his daughter were exploring a cave when they saw pictures of a wild boar, hind and
bison. According to experts, these paintings were purported to belong to Upper Paleolithic Age,
several thousands of years before the current era. Pre-historic men, with their crude instruments,
already showcase and manifested earliest attempts at recording man’s innermost interests,
preoccupations, and thoughts. The humanities, then, ironically, has started even before the term
has been coined. Human persons have long been exercising what it means to be a human long
before he was even aware of his being one. The humanities stand tall in bearing witness to this
magnificent phenomenon. Any human person, then, is asked to participate, if not totally partake
in this long tradition of humanizing himself.

Assumptions of Art
I. Art is universal.
Literature has provided key works of art. Among the most popular ones being
taught in school are the two Greek epics, the lliad and the Odyssey. The Sanskrit
pieces Mahabharata and Ramayana are also staples in this field. These works,
purportedly written before the beginning of recorded history, are believed to be man’s
attempt at recording stories and tales that have been passed on, known, and sung
throughout the years. Art has always been timeless and universal, spanning
generations and continents through and through.

In every country and in every generation, there is always art. Oftentimes, people
feel that what is considered artistic are only those which have been made long time
ago. This is a misconception. Age is not a factor in determining art. An “…art is not
good because it is old, but old because it is good” (Dudley, Faricy, and Company
1960, 4). In this Philippines, the works of Rizal and Francisco Balagtas are not being
read because they are old. Otherwise, works of other Filipinos who have long died
would have been required in Junior High School too. The pieces mentioned are read
in school and have remained to be with us because they are good. They are liked and
adored because they meet our needs and desires. Florante and Laura never fails to
teach high school students the beauty of love, one that is universal and pure. Ibong
 Adarna, another Filipino masterpiece, has always captured the imagination of the
young with its timeless lessons. When we recite the Psalms, we feel in communion
with King David as we feel one with him in his conversation with God. When we
listen to a kundiman or perform folk dances, we still enjoy the way our Filipino
ancestors whiled away their time in the past. We do not necessarily like kundiman for
its original meaning. We just like it. We enjoy it. Or just as one of the characters in
the movie “Bar Boys” thought, kundiman makes one concentrate better.

The first assumption the about the humanities is the art has been crafted by all
people regardless of origin, time, and place, and that it stayed on because it is like and
enjoyed by people continuously. A great piece of work will never be obsolete. Some
people say that art is art for its intrinsic worth. In John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism,
enjoyment in the arts belongs to a higher good, one that lies at the opposite end of
base pleasures. Art will always be present because human beings will always express
themselves and delight in these expressions. Men will continue to use art while art
persists and never gets depleted.

II. Art is not nature.

In the Philippines, it is not entirely novel to hear some consumers of local movies
remark that these movies produced locally are unrealistic. They contend that local
movies work around certain formula to the detriment of substance and faithfulness to
reality of the movies. These critical minds argue that a good movie must reflect
reality as closely as possible. Is that so?

Paul Cezanne, a French painter, painted a scene from reality entitled “Well and
Grinding Wheel in the Forest of the Chateau Noir. ” The said scene from the forest is
inspired by a real scene in the forest which photograph is available to us. Comparing
the two, one can see that Cezanne’s landscape is quite different from the original
scene. Cezanne has changed some patterns and details from the way they were
actually in the photograph. What he did is not nature. It is art.

One important characteristic of art is that it is not nature. Art is man’s expression
of his reception of nature. Art is man’s way of interpreting nature. Art is not nature.
Art is made by man whereas nature is given around us. It is in this juncture that they
can be considered opposites. What we find in nature should not be expected to be
 present in art too. Movies are not meant to be direct representation of reality. They
may, according to the moviemaker’s perception of reality, be a reinterpretation, or
even distortion, or even distortion of nature.

This distinction assumes that all of us see nature, perceive its elements in myriad,
different, yet ultimately valid ways. One can only imagine the story of the five blind
men who one day argue against each other on what an elephant looks like. Each of
the five blind men was holding a different part of the elephant. The first was touching
the body and thus, thought that an elephant is like a wall. Another was touching the
beast’s ear and was convinced that an elephant is like a fan. The rest were touching
other different parts of the elephant and concluded differently based on their
perception. Art is like each of these men’s view of the elephant. It is based on an
individual’s subjective experience of nature. Artists are not expected to duplicate
nature just as even scientists with their elaborate laboratories cannot make nature.

Once this point has been made, a student of humanities can then ask further
questions such as: What reasons might the artist have in creating something? Why did
Andres Bonifacio write “Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa”? What motivation did Juan
Luna have in creating his masterpiece, the Spolarium? In whatever work of art, one
should always ask why the artist made it. What is it that he wants to show?

III. Art involves experience.

 Getting this far without a satisfactory definition of art can be quite weird for
some. For most people, art does not require a full definition. Art is just experience.
By experience, we mean the “actual doing of something” (Dudley, Faricy, and
Company 1960, 6). When one says that he has an experience of something, he often
means that he knows what that something is about. When one claims that he has
experienced falling in love, getting hurt, and bouncing back, he in effect claims that
he knows the (sometimes) endless cycle of loving. When one asserts having
experienced preparing a particular recipe, he in fact asserts knowing how the recipe is
made. Knowing a thing is different from hearing from others what the said thing is. A
radio DJ dispensing advice on love when he is talking about. A choreographer who
cannot execute a dance step himself is a bogus. Art is always art an experience.
Unlike fields of knowledge that involve data, art is known by experiencing. A painter
cannot claim to know how to paint if he has not tried holding a brush. A sculptor
cannot produce a work of art if one is to know art, he must know it not as fact or
information but as experience.”

A work of art then cannot be abstracted from actual doing. In order to know what
an artwork is, we have to sense it, see it, or hear it, see AND hear it. To fully know
the Rizal monument in Luneta, one must go to Luneta and see actual sculpture. In
order to know Beyonce’s music, one must listen to it. One must have heard her songs
and to actually experience them. A famous story about someone who adores Picasso
goes something like this, ‘Years ago, Gertrude Stein was asked why she bought the
pictures of the then unknown artist Picasso. ‘I like look at them,’ said Miss Stein”
(Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960). At the end of the day, one fully gets acquainted
with art if one immerses himself into it. In the case of Picasso, one only learns about
Picasso’s work by looking at it. That is precisely what Miss Stein did.

In matters of art, the subject’s perception is of primacy. One can read hundreds of
reviews about a particular movie, but at the end of the day, until he sees the movie
himself, he will be in no position to actually talk about the movie. He does not know
the movie until he experiences it. An important aspect of experiencing art is its being
highly personal, individual, and subjective. In philosophical terms, perception of art is
always a value judgment. It depends on who the perceiver is, his tastes, his biases,
and what he has inside him. Degustibus non disputandum est (Matters of taste are not
 matters of dispute). One cannot argue with another person’s evaluation of art because
one’s experience can never be known by another.

Finally, one should also underscore that every experience with art is accompanied
by some emotion. One either likes or dislikes, agree or disagrees that the work of art
is beautiful. A stage play or motion pictures is particularly one of those art forms that
evokes strong emotions from its audience. With experience comes emotions and
feelings, after all. Feelings and emotions are concrete proofs that the artworks has
been experiences.

Let’s Wrap It Up
Humanities and the art have always been part of man’s growth and civilization. Since the
dawn of time, man has always tried to express his innermost thoughts and feelings about reality
through creating art. Three assumptions on art its universality, its not being nature, and its need
for experience. Art is present in every part of the globe and in every period of time. This is what
is meant by its universality. Art not being nature, not even attempting to simply mirror nature, is
the second assumption about art. Art is always a creation of the artist, not nature. Finally, without
experience there is no art. The artsis has to be foremost, a perceiver who is directly on touch with
art.

Lesson 2
Art Appreciation: Creativity, Imagination, and Expression
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

1. Differentiate art from nature

2. Characterize artistic expression based on personal experiences with art.
3. Discuss the nature of art’s preliminary expression; and
4. Categorize works of art by citing personal experiences.

It takes an artist to make art. One may perceive beauty on daily basis. However, not every
beautiful thing can be seen or experienced may truly be called a work of art. Art is a product of
man’s creativity, imagination, and expression. No matter how perfectly blended the colors of a
sunset are and no matter how extraordinarily formed mountains are, nature is not considered art
simply because it is not made by man. Not even photographs or sketches of nature, though
captured or drawn by man, are works of art, but mere recordings of the beauty in nature (Collins
& Riley 1931, 3). An artwork may be inspired by nature or other works of art, but an artist
invents his own forms and patterns due to what he perceives as beautiful and incorporates them
in creating his masterpiece.

Perhaps not everyone can be considered an artist, but surely all are spectators of art. In
deciding what pair of shoes to buy, we carefully examine all possible choices within our budget
and purchase the one that satisfies our beauty and practical standards. We are able to distinguish
what is fine and beautiful from what is not, what has good quality from poor, and that gives us a
role in the field of art appreciation.
Let’s Get Down to Business
Art Appreciation as a Way of Life
Jean-Paul Sartre, a famous French Philosopher of the twentieth century, described the
role of art as a creative work that depicts the world in a completely different light and
perspective, and the source is due to human freedom (Greene 1995, 382). Each artworks beholds
beauty of its own kind that the artist sees and wants the viewers to perceive. More often than not,
people are blind to this beauty and only those who have developed a fine sense of appreciation
can experience and see the art the same way the artist did. Because of this, numerous artworks go
unnoticed, artists are not given enough credit, and they miss opportunities that are supposed to be
meant for them. It sometimes takes a lifetime before their contribution to the development of art
is recognized. Hence, refining one’s ability to appreciate art allows her to deeply understand the
purpose of an artwork and recognize the beauty it possesses (Collins & Riley 1931, 6).

In cultivating an appreciation of art, one should also exercise and develop her taste for
things that are line and beautiful. This allows individuals to make intelligent choices and
decisions in acquiring necessities and luxuries, knowing what gives better value for time or
money while taking into consideration the aesthetic and practical value (Collins & Riley 1931,
7). This continuous demand for aesthetically valuable things influences the development and
evolution of art and its forms.

Frequently museums, art galleries, performing art theaters, concert halls, or even malls
that display art exhibitions which are free in admission during leisure time will not only develop
an understanding of the art, but will also serve as a rewarding experience. Learning to appreciate
art, no matter what vocation or profession you have, will lead to a fuller and more meaningful
life (Collins & Riley 1931, 7).

The Role of Creativity in Art Making

Creativity requires thinking outside the box. It is often used to solve problems that have
never occurred before, conflate function and style, and simply make life a more unique and
enjoyable experience. In art, creativity is what sets apart one artwork from another. We say
something is done creatively when we have not yet seen anything like it or when it is out of the
ordinary. A creative artist does not simply copy or imitate another artist’s work. He does not
imitate the lines, flaws, colors, and patterns in recreating nature. He embraces originality, puts
his own flavor into his work, and calls it his own creative piece.

Yet, being creative nowadays

can be quite challenging. What you
thought was your own unique and
creative idea may not what it seems to
be after extensive research and knowing
that the idea has been coincidentally
devised before by someone else in
another part of the world. For instance,
the campaign ad “It’s More Fun in the
Philippines” used by the Department of Figure 1. “It’s More Fun in the Philippines”
By The Misadventures of Maja
Tourism (DOT) boomed popularity in 2011, but later
on it was found out that it was allegedly plagiarized from Switzerland’s tourism slogan “It More
Fun in Switzerland,” back in 1951. In DOT’s defense, former DOT Secretary Ramon Jimenez Jr.
claimed that it was “purely coincidental.” Thus, creativity should be backed with careful research
on related art to avoid such conflicts.

Art as a Product of Imagination, Imagination as a Product of Art

Where do you
ideas in making creative solutions begin? It all starts in the
human mind. It all begins with imagination.
German physicist
and humanity demonstrates that knowledge is actually derived
from imagination. He emphasizes this idea through his words.
 “Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now
know and understand, while imagination embraces the entire world, and all world, and all there
Figure 5. “Imagination” by Bob Wierdsma ever will be to know and understand.”
Imagination is not constrained by the walls of the norm, but
goes beyond that. That is why people rely on curiosity and imagination for advancement.
Through imagination, one is able to craft something bold, something new, and something better
allows endless possibilities.
In an artist’s mind sits a vast gallery of artworks. An artworks does not need to be a real
thing, but can be something that is imaginary (Collingwood 1938, 130). Take for example a
musician who thinks of a tune in his head. The making of this tune in his head makes it an
imaginary tune, an imaginative creation, an imaginary art (Collingwood 1938, 134). It remains
imaginary until he hums, sings, or writes down the notes of the tune on paper. However,
something imaginary does not necessarily mean it cannot be called art. Artist use their
imagination that gives birth to reality through creation.

In the same way that imagination produces art, art also inspires imagination. Imagine
Figure 6. “Cave Paintings” by Thomas Quine

being an empty room surrounded by blank, while walls and floor. Would you be inspired to work
in such a place? Often times you will find coffee shops, restaurants, libraries with paintings hung
or sculptures and other pieces of art placed around the room to add beauty to the surroundings.
This craving and desire to be surrounded by beautiful things dates back to our early ancestors
(Collins and Riley 1931, 5). Cave walls are surrounded by drawings and paintings of animals
they hunted: wild boars, reindeers, and bison (Figure 3). Clays were molded and stones were
carved into forms that resemble men and women; burial jars were created with intricate designs
on them, but also because beauty gave them joy (Collins and Riley 1931, 4).
Art as Expression
There may have been times when you left something is going on within you, you try to
explain it but do not to know how. You may only be conscious about feeling this sort of
excitement, fear, or agitation, but you know that just one word is not enough to describe the
nature of what you truly feel. Finally, you try to release yourself from this tormenting and
disabling start by doing something which is called expressing oneself (Collingwood 1938, 109).
Supposed this feeling is excitement. It is frustrating to contain such feelings, so you relieve it by
expressing through shouting or leaping in excitement. An emotion will remain unknown to a
man until he expresses them.

Robin George Collingwood, an English philosopher who is best known for his work in
aesthetics, explicated in his publication The Principles of Art (1938) that what an artist does to
an emotion is not to induce them, but express them (109). Through expressions, he is able to
explore his own emotions and at the same time, create something beautiful out of it.
Collingwood further illustrated that expressing emotions is something different from describing
emotions. In his example, explicitly saying “I am angry” is not an expression of an emotion, but
a mere description (111). There is no need in relating or referring to a specific emotion, such as
anger, in expressing one’s emotion. Description actually destroys the idea of expression, as it
classifies the emotion, making it ordinary and predictable. Expression on the other hand,
individualizes (112). An artist has the freedom to express herself the way she wants to. Hence,
there is no specific technique in expression. This makes people’s art not a reflection of what is
outside or external to them, but a reflection of their inner selves.

There are countless ways of expressing oneself through art and below is a list of popular
art expressions including, but is not limited to the following:

Visual Arts
Creations that fall under this category are those that appeal to the sense of sight and are
mainly visual in nature. Artist produce visual arts driven by their desire to reproduce things that
they have seen in the way that they perceived the (Collins and
Riley 1931, 149). We will not be too strict on the definition
since there are other artistic disciplines that also involve a visual
aspect, such as performance arts, theater, applied arts, which

Figure 7. Camellia in Old Chinese Vase on

Black Lacquer Table by John La Farge
will be discussed in detail later on. Visual Arts is the kind of art form that the population is most
likely more exposed to, but its variations are so diverse they range from sculptures that you see
in art galleries to the movie you saw last night.

Some mediums of visual arts include paintings, drawings, letterings, printing, sculptures,
digital imaging, and more.

Film
Film refers to the art of putting together successions of still images in order to create an
illusion of movement. Filmmaking focuses on its aesthetic, cultural, and social value and is
considered both as an art and an industry. Films can be created by using one or a combination of
some or all of these techniques: motion-picture camera, also known as movie camera, animation
techniques, computer-generated imagery (CGI), and more. Filmmaking simulates experiences or
creates one that is beyond the scope of our imagination as it aims to deliver ideas, feelings, or
beauty to its viewers.

The art of filmmaking is so complex it has to take into account many important elements
such as lighting, musical score, visual effects, direction, and more. This is why in famous film
festivals and awards such as the Metro Manila Film Festival and Oscars, a long list categories is
considered to recognize excellence in the art of filmmaking.

Performance Art
Performance art is live art and the
artist’s medium is mainly the human body
which he or she uses to perform, but also
employs other kinds of art such as visual
art, props, or sound. It usually consists of
four important elements: time, where the
performance took place, the performer’s or
performers’ body, and a relationship
Figure 8. Performance Art
between the audience and the performer/performers (MoMa
Conceptual Art). The fact that performance art is live makes it intangible, which means it cannot
be bought or traded as a commodity, unlike the previously discussed art expressions.

Poetry Performance
 Poetry is an art form where the artist expresses his emotions not by using paint, charcoal,
or camera, but expresses them through words. These words are carefully selected to exhibit
clarity and beauty and to simulate strong emotions of joy, anger, love, sorrow, and the list goes
on. It uses a word’s emotional, musical, and spatial values that goes beyond its literal meaning to
narrate, emphasize, argue, or convince. These words, combined with movements, tone, volume,
and intensity of the delivery, add to the artistic value of the poem. Some poets even make poems
out of their emotions picked up from other works of art, which in turn produces another work of
art through poetry.

Architecture
As discussed, art is the pursuit and
creation of beautiful things whilst
architecture is the making of beautiful
buildings. However, not all buildings are
beautiful. Some building only embody the
functionality it needs, but the structure,
lines, forms, and colors are not beautifully
expressed. Thus, not all buildings can be
considered architecture. Take, for
Figure 9. The Grand Thẻậtre de Bordeaux
example, the Grand Theatre de Bordeaux (Figure
11) where the functionality of the theater remains, but the striking balance of the lines, colors,
and shapes completes the masterpiece. Buildings should embody these three important elements-
plan, construction, and design-if they wish to merit the title architecture (Collins and Riley 1931,
107).

Dance
Dance is series of movements that follows the rhythm of
the music accompaniment. It has been an age-old debate whether
dance can really be considered an art form, but here we primarily
describe dance as a form of expression. Dancing is a creative
form which allows people to freely express themselves. It has no
rules. You may say that choreography does not allow this, but in

Figure 10. Olga Spessiva in Swan Lake

Costume
art expression, dancers are not confined to set steps and rules but are free to create and invent
their own movements as long as they deem it graceful and beautiful.

Literary Art
Artists who practice literary arts use words-not
paint, musical instruments, chisels-to express themselves
and communicate emotions to the readers. However,
simply becoming a writer does not make one a literary
artist. Simply constructing a succession of sentences in a
meaningful manner is not literary art. Literary art goes
beyond the usual professional, academic, journalistic and
other technical forms of writing. It focuses on writing
using a unique style, not following a specific format or

Figure 11. “William Shakespeare” by

norm. It may include both fiction and non-fiction such as
tonynetone
novels, biographers, and poems. Examples of famous
literary artists and their works include The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupery and Romeo
and Juliet by William Shakespeare.

Theater
Theater uses live performers to present accounts or
imaginary events before a live audience. Theater art
performances usually follow a script, though it should not be
confused with literary arts. Much like in filmmaking, theater
also consider several elements such as acting, gesture,
lighting, sound effects, musical score, scenery, and props.
The combination of these elements is what gives the
strongest impression on the audience and the script thus
Figure 12. Macbeth
becomes a minor element. Similar to performance art,
since theater is also a live performance, the participation of the viewer is an important element in
theater arts. Some genre of theater include drama, musical, tragedy, comedy, and improvisation.

Applied Arts is incorporating elements of style and design to everyday items with the aim
of increasing their aesthetical value. Artists in this field bring beauty, charm, and comfort into
many things that are useful in everyday life (Collins and Riley 1931, 95). Industrial design,
interior design, fashion, and graphic design are considered applied arts. Applied is often
compared to fine arts, where the latter is chiefly concerned on aesthetic value. Through
exploration and expression of ideas, consideration of the needs, and careful choice and
techniques, artists are able to combine functionality and style.

Let’s Wrap It Up
Art is a product of a man’s creativity, imagination, and expression. An artwork may be
inspired by nature or other works of art, but an artist invents his own forms and patterns due to
what he perceives as beautiful, and incorporates them in creating his masterpiece. Perhaps not
everyone can be considered an artist, but surely all are spectators of art, which gives us all a role
in the field of art appreciation. Refining one’s ability to appreciate art allows him to deeply
understand the purpose of an artwork and recognize the beauty it possesses.

Creativity is what sets apart one artwork from another. A creative artist does not simply
copy or imitate another artist’s work. He does not imitate the lines, flaws, colors, and patterns in
recreating nature. While through imagination, an artist is able to craft something bold, something
new, and something better in the hopes of creating something that will stimulate change. In the
same way that imagination produces art, art also inspires imagination. Lastly, through
expression, an artist able to explore his own emotions, at the same time, create something
beautiful out of it. Expressing emotions is something different from describing emotions,
description actually destroys the idea of expression, as it classifies the emotion, making it
ordinary and predictable. Expression on the other hand, individualizes.

Some forms of art expression include visual arts, film, performance art, poetry
performance, architecture, dance, literary arts, theater arts, and applied arts.
 Lesson 3
Functions and Philosophical Perspectives on Art

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. distinguish between directly functional and indirectly functional art;
2. explain and discuss the basic philosophical perspectives on the art;
3. realize the function of some arts forms in daily life; and
4. apply concepts and theories on beauty and aesthetics in real life scenarios

The Greek philosopher Aristotle claimed that every particular substance in the world has
an end, telos in Greek, which translates to “purpose”. Every substance, defined as a formed
matter, according to fixed path toward its aim. A seed is bound to become a full-grown plant. A
cocoon can look forward to flying high when it morphs into a butterfly. A baby will eventually
turn into a grown man or woman.

This telos according to Aristotle is

intricately linked with function. For a thing to
reach its purpose, it has to also fulfill a
function. Man, in Aristotle’s view of reality, is
bound to achieve a life of fulfillment and
happiness, or in Greek, eudaimonia. All men

Figure 13. Aristotle

move toward this final end. Happiness, however, the supposed end of man, is linked with his
function, which is being rational. One can only be happy when he is rational. This means that to
Aristotle, plants can never be happy because they are not rationl, as well as tables and chairs.
Man’s natural end, telos, is connected with his function, which is his rationality.

Moreover, the telos and function of a thing are both related to a thing’s identity. What
makes a table is the fact that it does perform its function and thereby, reach its telos. If a table
does not have a surface on which we can put on our books or our plates and glasses, then it
ceases to be table. The same goes for the human being. What makes a human neing a human
being, according to some schools of thought, is its capacity for thinking, its supposed function.
Without this function, the human being ceases to be a human being. The telos, the function, and
the “whatness” of a thing are all interconnected.

In contemporary life, the connection between the end, the function, and the “whatness” of
a thing have become closer and more interlaced, suggesting sometimes that the end is the
function and vice versa, and that they determine what kind of a thing a thing is. When one sees a
new kitchen appliance in the department store, one tries to know first what functions the
appliance has. After knowing these functions, one can claim to know the purpose of the
appliance and then begins to realize what appliance one is holding in his arms.

Does art necessarily have an end? When an artist creates a work of art, does she have an
end in mind? What function does an artwork perform? Does it have any purpose? Do all
artworks have a function? Does the function make an object a work of art? This lesson is an
attempt to clarify these questions.

Let’s Get Down to Business

Functions of Art
When one speaks of function, one is practically talking about the use of the object whose
function is in question. An inquiry on the function of art is an inquiry on what art is for.
Alternatively, the answer to the question “what is it for” is the function of whatever “it” in the
question refers to. Suppose one asks, what is the Rizal monument for? Why was it erected in
Luneta, or what then was called Bagumbayan? Is it for pure sentimental value? In this string of
questions, the inquirer is hoping to get the function of the piece of art in Luneta.
 When it comes to function,
different art forms come with
distinctive functions. There is no
one-to-one correspondence
between an art and its function.
Some art forms are more functional
than others. Architecture, for
example, as an art is highly functional just Figure 14. Jewelry-making in Maalaysia like most
applied arts. A building as a work of art is obviously
made for a specific purpose. The Taj Mahal, a massive mausoleum of white marble built in Agra
was constructed in memory of the favorite wife of the then emperor, Shah Jahan. On the other
hand, jewelry-making as an art is known by its product. The name of the art in these applied arts
is basically denoted by its specified function. In this and other such functional arts, “…function
is so important that it has usurped the name of the art on the identification of individual works”
(Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960). Other examples are paintings, poems, and statues. The
name of the art basically points toward the direction of the product or its function.

On the other end of the spectrum, one can only think of painting and literature s those
forms of art which have a least to do with purely practical values. When one examines and thinks
of painting or a work of literature such as a poem or a novel, one looks at the value of the art in
itself and not because of what it can do and benefit us. Unlike practical arts where the value of
the art (in pottery, jewelry-making, architecture, among others) in question lies in the practical
benefits one gains from it (a pot, a jewelry, or a house or building), with painting and literature,
one can only look at the value of the product of art in and for itself. A poem is beautiful
regardless of its possible ramifications in the society. Joyce Kilmer’s “Trees” has maintained its
popularity through the years regardless of its application or practical benefit. This definitely is
not to say that paintings and literary works can never have any function. The two masterpieces of
our national hero, Dr. Jose P. Rizal, the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo served as a
catechist for Filipino revolutionaries to gather strength in rejecting the oppressive of the
Spaniards in the Philippines in the nineteenth century. The novels accrued value and as
consequence, function, that is over and beyond its literary worth. They are functional “in so far
as they are designed to accomplish some definite end” (Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960). In
the case of Rizal’s novels, they spelled out country’s independence. They continue to be
treasured even a hundred years after their supposed functions.

Roughly and broadly, the functions of art are classified into three: personal (public
display, expression), social (celebration, to, affect collective behavior), and physical (utilitarian).
Let us try to understand each of these three.

Personal Functions of Art

The personal functions of art are varied and are highly subjective. This means that it
depends on the person-the artist who created the art. An artist may create an art out of the need
for self –expression. This is the case for an artist who needs to communicate an idea to his
audience. It can also be a mere entertainment for his intended audience. Oftentimes, the artist
may not even intend to mean anything with his work.

An art may also be therapeutic. In some orphanages and home for abandoned elders, art
is used to help residents process their emotions or while away their time. Recently, the use of
adult coloring books to de-stress has been apparent too with a lot of designs being sold in
bookstores nationwide. These all fall under personal
Figure 15. An Adult Coloring Book
functions of art.

Social Functions of Art

Art is considered to have a social function if and when it addresses a particular collective
interest as opposed to a personal interest. Political art is a very common example of an art with a
social function. Art may convey message of protest, contestation, or whatever message the artist
intends his work to carry. Oftentimes, art also depict social conditions. Photography, as an art
form, delivers this kind of functions by taking photos of subjects in conditions that people do not
normally take a look at or give attention to. Pictures of poverty may carry emotional overtones
that may solicit action or awareness from their audience. Moreover, performance art like plays,
or satires can also rouse emotions and rally people toward a particular end. In this end more, the
social function of art is apparent.

Physical Function of Art

The physical functions of art are easiest to
spot and understand. The physical functions of art
can be found in artworks that are crafted in order to

Figure 16. A Japanese Raku bowl

serve some physical purpose. A Japanese raku bowl that serves a physical function in a tea
ceremony is an example. Architecture, jewelry-making, in even interior design are all forms of
arts that have physical function.

Other Functions of Art

Music as an art is also interesting to talk about in relation to function. Music in its
original form was principally functional. Music was used for dance and religion. Unlike today
when one can just listen to music for the sake of music’s sake, the ancient world saw music only
as an instrument to facilitate worship and invocation to gods. Music also was essential to dance
because music assures synchronicity among dancers. Moreover, music also guarantees that
marches, in the case of warriors, are simultaneous.
Today, music has expanded its function and coverage. Music is listened to and made by
people for reasons that were foreign to early civilizations. There is now a lot of music that has no
connection whatsoever to dance or religion. Serenade is one example. People composes hymns
of love to express feelings and emotions. Music is also used as wonderful accompaniment to
stage plays and motion pictures. Interestingly, piece of music can mean a multitude of meanings
to different people, proof that as an art, music has gone a long way.
Sculpture, on the other hand, is another functional art form that has long existed for
various purposes. Just like music, from the early days of humanity, sculptures have been made
by man most particularly for religion. People erect
statues for the divine, in the Roman Catholic world,
the employment of sculptures for religious purposes
has remained vital, relevant, and symbolic.
Sculptures were also made in order to
commemorate important figures in history. Jose
Rizal’s monument in Luneta and Andres Bonifacio’s
Monumento in Caloocan are common examples. In
the University of the Philippines, the iconic statue Figure 17. Pope Francis Commemorative Coin
Oblation by Guillermo E. Tolentino has remained a
pillar of the university and constant of reminder of the need to offer oneself up selflessly for the
country.
Coins are also manifestations of sculpting’s function. Every can in the Philippines
features a relief of a famous hero or personality. Recently, the Central Bank of the Philippines
produced special, commemorative coins for certain personalities like Pope Francis and the Jesuit,
Horacio de la Costa.

Another art from that readily lends itself to multiple functions is architecture. In fact,
architecture might be the most prominent functional art form. Buildings are huge, expensive, and
are not easily constructed and replaced. Unlike other forms of art like pots, furniture, poetry, or
even paintings, buildings take so much time to erect and also to destroy. A lot of investment is
put into making megastructures like the pyramids of Giza, the acropolis, of the great cathedrals
of the medieval world. One cannot simply dismiss taking into consideration the function of a
building before construction.

It is also in
architecture where one can
find the intimate connection
of function and form. In
planning out an
architectural structure, one
has to seriously consider the
national conditions like
Figure 18. A Spanish House in the Philippines
topography and climate of
the place of erection and the social conditions such as the purpose of the building itself. In the
Philippines, climate is a huge factor in building a house. Spanish colonial houses were designed
to allow for air to circulate inside the house. Large windows were staples then. Capiz shells were
also utilized to allow for light to enter the house even if the windows were closed. Moreover,
social conditions such as purpose play a huge role in architecture. To Christians, a church is
primarily a place of worship and assembly. Regular ceremonies, where members of the church
are expected to come regularly, are held inside the church. A huge, spacious church therefore is
necessitated by this social condition. Indeed, in whenever art serves a particular function, the
form has to be determined by the function.

Does Art Always Have to Be Functional?

While it has been shown that most arts are functional, still there are some which are not.
The value of a work of art does not depend on function but on the work itself. The plays of
Aeschylus, the poetry of Robert Frost and Edgar Allan Poe are still counted as examples of great
works of art despite their not having a known function. In those whose functions are ascertained
however, it is different story. A functional object cannot be claimed to be beautiful unless it can
perform its function sufficiently. Consider a house that cannot even protect its resident from the
nasty weather outside or a spoon that spills the food on it. Adequate performance of function
partly determines the beauty of a design in these functional art forms.
 Despite these however, efficiency cannot be mistaken as beauty. While it certainly
determines beauty in some works of art, an efficient functional object is not necessarily beautiful.
Art demands so much more than mere efficiency. What then really comprise beauty and art?
What makes something truly beautiful? What really makes a work of art? What really is art? The
next section attempts to provide different perspectives on the nature of art.

Philosophical Perspective on Art

Art as an Imitation
Plato (2000) in his masterpiece, The Republic, particularly paints a picture of artists as
imitators and art as mere imitation. In his description of the ideal republic, Plato advises against
the inclusion of art as a subject in the curriculum and the banning of artists in the Republic. In
Plato’s metaphysics, or view of reality, the things in this world are only copies of the original,
the eternal, and the true entities that can only be found in the World of Forms. Human beings
endeavor to reach the Forms all throughout this life, starting with formal education in school.
From looking at “shadows in the cave,” men slowly crawl outside to behold the real entities in
the world. For example, the chair that one sits on is not real chair. It is an imperfect copy of the
perfect “chair” in the World of Forms. Much is true for “beauty” in this world. When on ascribes
beauty to another person, he refers to an imperfect beauty that participates only in the Form of
Beauty in the World of Forms. Plato was convinced that artist merely reinforce the belief in
copies and discourage men to reach for the real entities in the World of Forms.

Plato was deeply suspicious of arts

and artists for two reasons: they appeal to the
emotion rather than to the rational faculty of
men and they imitate rather than lead one to
reality. Poetry and painting, the art forms that
Plato was particularly concerned with, do not
have any place in the ideal state that Socrates
(as the protagonist) in Plato’s dialogue
Figure 19. Plato
envisions. First, Plato is critical of the effects of art, specifically,
poetry to the people of the ideal state. Poetry rouses emotions and feelings and thus, clouds the
rationality of people. Poetry has a capacity to sway minds without taking into consideration the
use of proper reason. As such, it leads one further away from the cultivation of the intellect
which Plato campaigned for. Likewise, Socrates is worried that art objects represent only the
things in this world, copies themselves of reality. As such, in the dialogue, Socrates claims that
art is just an imitation of imitation. A painting is just an imitation of nature, which is also just an
imitation of reality in the World of Forms.

The arts then are to be banished, alongside the practitioners, so that the attitudes and
actions of the members of the Republic will not be corrupted by the influence of the arts. For
Plato, art is dangerous because it provides a petty replacement for the real entities that can only
be attained through reason.

Art as a Representation
Aristotle, Plato’s most important student in philosophy, agreed with his teacher that art is
a form of imitation. However, in contrast to the disgust that his master holds for art. Aristotle
considered art as an aid to philosophy in revealing truth. The kind of imitation that art does is not
antithetical to the reaching of fundamental truths in the world. Talking about tragedies for
example. Aristotle (2016) in the Politics claimed that poetry is a literary representation in
general. Akin to other art forms, poetry only admits of an attempt to represent what things might
be. For Aristotle, all kinds of art including poetry, music, dances, painting, and sculpture do not
aim to represent reality as it is. What art endeavors to do is to provide a vision of what might be
or the myriad possibilities in reality. Unlike, Plato who thinks that art is an imitation of another
imitation. Aristotle conceives art as representing possible versions of reality.

In the Aristotelian worldview, art serves two particular purposes. First, art allows for the
experience of pleasure. Experiences that are otherwise repugnant can become entertaining in art.
For examples, a horrible experience can be made an object of humor in a comedy. Second, art
also has an ability to be instructive and teach its audience things about life, thus it is cognitive as
well. Greek plays are usually of this nature.

Art as Disinterested Judgment

In “Critique of Judgment,” Immanuel Kant
considered the judgment of beauty, the cornerstone of art, as
something that can be universal despite its subjectivity. Kant
mentioned that judgment of beauty, and therefore, art, is
innately autonomous from specific interests. It is the form of
the art that is adjudged by one who perceives art to be
beautiful or more so, sublime. Therefore, even aesthetic judgment for Kant is a cognitive
activity.

Kant recognized that judgment of beauty is subjective. However, Kant advanced the
proposition that even subjective the proposition that event subjective judgments are based on
some criterion for the said judgment. In the process, Kant Figure 20. Immanuel Kant

responds to the age-old question at how and in what sense can a judgment of beauty which
ordinarily is considered to be a subjective feeling, be considered objective or universal. How is
this so? For Kant, when one judges a particular painting as beautiful, one in effect is saying that
the said painting has induced a particular feeling of satisfaction from him and that he expects the
painting to rouse the same feeling from any one. There is something in the work of art that
makes it capable of inciting the same feeling of pleasure and satisfaction from any perceiver,
regardless of his condition. For Kant, every human being after the perception of the free play of
his faculties should recognize the beauty that is inherent in a work of art. This is a kind of
universality that a judgment of beauty is assumed by Kant to have. And so, when the same
person says that something is beautiful, he does not just believe that the thing is beautiful for
him, but in a sense, expects that the same thing should put everyone in awe.

Art as a Communication of Emotion

The author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy, provided another
perspective on what art is. In his book, What is Art (2016). Tolstoy defended the production of
the sometimes truly extravagant art like operas despite extreme poverty in the world. For him, art
plays a huge role in communication to its audience’s emotions that the artist previously
experienced. Art then serves as a language, a communication device that articulates feelings and
emotions that are otherwise unavailable to the audience. In the same way that languages
communicates information to the other people, art communicates emotions. In listening to music,
in watching an opera, in reading poems, the audience is at the receiving end of the artist
communicating his feelings and emotions.

Tolstoy is fighting for the social dimension of art. As a purveyor of man’s innermost
feelings and thoughts, art is given a unique opportunity to serve as a mechanism for social unity.
Art is central to man’s existence because it makes accessible feelings and emotions of people
from the past and present, from one continent to another. In making these possibly latent feelings
and emotions accessible to anyone in varied time and location, art serves as a mechanism of
cohesion for everyone. Thus, even at present, one can commune with early Cambodians and their
struggles by visiting the Angkor Wat or can definitely feel for the early royalties of different
Korean dynasties by watching Korean dramas. Art is what allows for these possibilities.

Let’s Wrap It Up
Art has remained to be relevant in our daily lives because most of it has played some
form of function for man. Since the dawn of the civilization, art has been at the forefront of
giving color to man’s existence. The different functions of art may be classified as either
personal, social, or physical. An art’s function is personal if it depends on the artist herself or
sometimes still, the audience of the art. There is a social function in art if and when it has a
particular social function, when it addresses a collective need of a group of people. Physical
function, finally, has something to do with direct, tangible uses of art. Not all products of art
have function. This should not disqualify them as art though. As mentioned and elucidated by
some of the most important thinkers in history, art may serve either as imitation, representation, a
disinterested judgment, or simply a communication of emotion

Lesson 4
Subject and Content

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. differentiate representational art and non-representation art;
2. discuss the difference of between an artwork’s subject from its content;
3. identify the subject matter and content of specific examples of art; and
4. enumerate the sources of the subjects of some of the most recognizable works of art in
Philippines art history.
 In the Philippines, which is predominantly a non-museum-going public, looking at art has
always been a tricky business. This is true not just for novices, but at times, confronts even the
long-time art aficionados. One of the major hurdles that spoil an individual’s engagement with
artwork is the notion that in order to appreciate it, one must be able to extract a specific image;
isolate the artist or maker’s intention; and unearth a particular meaning. Failure to do so
automatically implies a failure of comprehension and therefore, failure of the experience. This
however relegates art engagement and therefore appreciation to the very few who had training
and instruction in producing and in reading art. This should not be the case.

In most cases, there are clues that mediate between the artwork and the viewer, allowing
the viewer to more easily comprehend what he is seeing. These clues are the three basic
components of a work of art: subject, form, and content. These components are largely
inseparable from each other, and usually related to each other.

In this chapter, subject and content will be discussed, while form will be better examined
in Chapter 6. To differentiate them briefly, subject refers to the visual focus or the image that
may be extracted from examining the artwork; while content is the meaning that is
communicated by the artist or the artwork. Finally, the development and configuration of the
artwork-how the elements and the medium or material are put together-is the form. In simpler
terms, the subject is seen as the “what”; the content is the “why” and the form is the “how.”
Let’s Get Down to Business
In the field of the sciences, experimentation is key to proving a hypothesis or a larger
theory. Often, an experiment is done multiple times to further prove the reliability of an outcome.
Therein, empirical or observable data in the form of visible or tactile qualities, events or
occurrence, and even yielding an output or by-product must follow after step or series of
processes are carried out. In the arts, there are also observable qualities that the artwork holds
that will point to its subject, and sometimes even to its content. In order to flesh out what the
subject of the artwork is, it is important to first look at the constituent figures that are perceivable
on the surface of the canvas or the sculpture, and the manner in which the artist chose to depict
those figures. From these, the type of subject can then be inferred.

Types of Subject
One of the most iconic and recognizable paintings all over the world is a work done by
Leonardo da Vinci. A question often raised asks who the Mona Lisa is and why was da Vinci
compelled to paint her? But as scholars attempt to solve the true identity of the sitter, it is
relevant to note that there is a consensus that the Mona Lisa whoever she is based on a real
person.
 Figure 21. Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa (1503). Musẻẻ du Louvre Collection. Photo courtesy of Josh Hallett.

Portraits such as the Mona Lisa are good examples of what is called representational art.
These types of art have subjects that refer to objects or events occurring in the real world. Often
it is also termed figurative art, because as its name suggests, the figures depicted are easy to
make out and decipher. Despite not knowing who Mona Lisa is, it is clear that the painting is of a
woman that is realistically-proportioned; only the upper torso is shown; a beguiling and
mysterious smile is flashed; and that the background is a landscape probably a view from a
window. Pushing it even further, one can even imagine a scene in which da Vinci alternates
between applying dabs of paint on the canvas and looking at the sitter in order to capture her
features for the portrait.

Figure 22. Jackson Pollock, detail of Number 1A (1948). Oil and enamel paint on canvas.
On the other hand,
Museum seeing
of Modern Art a painting
(MOMA) that has
Collection. nothing
Photo courtesyin
ofit but continuous
Sharon Mollerus drips of paint or
splotches of colors either confounds the viewer or is readily trivialized as something that anyone
with access to materials can easily make. The works of Jackson Pollock, who is known for his
“action paintings,” are often subjected to these remarks. Using large-scale canvasses that were
usually laid out on the floor or resting on a wall, Pollock tilted his paint can and allowed paint to
drip. Assisting it with movement, he used other implements such as hardened brushes, knives,
sticks, and trowels to add detail, texture, and dimension to his paintings. There were no clear
figures that jot out from the canvas; there were only drips and splashes. This kind of work can be
subsumed under the category of non-representation. As the opposite of the previously discussed
type of subject, non-representational art is also often termed non-figurative art.

Non-representational art does not make a reference to the real world, whether it is a
person, place, thing, or even a particular event. It is stripped-down to visual elements such as
shapes, lines, and colors that are employed to translate a particular feeling, emotion, and even
concept.

It is in this light that representational works are often favored because they are easier to
recognize. Viewers find a greater degree of comfort when what they see registers as something
familiar. They then continue to process this understanding, sometimes even becoming confident
enough to share their insight to others. It can be argued then that an artist is faced with a strong
persuasion of creating works that veer toward representational art. However, it is not simply an
issue of assumed preference; rather, it cuts across matters relating to prevailing themes, norms,
and practices of specific historical moments.

Non-representational Art and Abstract Art

One source of confusion is the notion that non-representational art is the same as abstract
art. This is essential to discuss because it introduces the fact that representational art and non-
representational art is not aFigure 23. Pablo
clear-cut Picasso’s
divide; Head ofthey
rather, a Woman
exist(1962)
in a spectrum. An abstract work of
Pablo Picasso is a great example to illustrate this. Although he is more known for his paintings,
he also dabbled into other works including sculptures. Cut metal that is hinged on a metal based,
there is a palpable distortion of the image-whatever it is-seems to be melting. Even without
reading the title from the caption, mere seconds of looking at the combination of lines, shapes
and colors of the sculpture will point to a head of a woman. Even with the abstraction of the
image, this work is arguably representational. As a guide, an artwork, depending on the degree of
distortion or abstraction, may be judged as leaning more toward one over the other. Abstract art
is in itself a departure from reality, but the extent of that departure determines whether it has
reached the end of the spectrum which is non-representationality.

Sources and Kinds of Subject

When hit with a wall or a block, the writer is often advised to look back and take from
what he knows. From there, a well and wealth of material may be drawn. But for artists, where
do they source the subjects of their paintings? What do they paint?

For non-representational art, a higher level of perceptiveness and insight might be

required to fully grasp and feeling, emotion, or concept behind the work. It is perhaps easier to
infer where the subject matter comes from if the artwork is an example of representational art.
From the figure(s) depicted in the artwork, there is already a suggestion as to its aspiration.

However, in discussing the sources and kinds of subject in artworks. It is important to

note that these two are often inextricably related. Often, even a singular source of inspiration can
yield multiple translations. A good starting point is of course nature.

There is nothing more rudimentary than human interaction with the physical world
around the artist. Early childhood often revolves around getting to know not just the body and
what it can do, but also in getting accustomed to a multitude of sensory prompts around the artist
especially these situated in his environment.

Figure 24. Vincent Van Gogh, Die Ebene von Auvers (Wheat Fields near Auvers) (1980) Oil on canvas.
Ồsterreichische Galerie Belvedere Collection.
 Artist throughout history have explored diverse ways of representing nature: from plants
to animals, the qualities of bodies of water and the terrain of landmasses; and even the
perceivable cycles and changing of seasons. Often, these depictions are seen as expressions of
the scared or the profane, sired by reality or supplemented by the artist’s imagination. One artist
who was attuned with nature was Vincent Van Gogh. He saw art and nature as inseparable, often
finding solace and happiness in painting in it (working in the middle of unspoiled fields) and
painting from it (landscapes). In a letter to his brother Theo, he wrote “…if I felt no love for
nature and my work, then I would be unhappy.” (Hague, 26 July 1882)

Other artists with a considerable number of landscapes and seascapes are Claude Monel,
Camille Pissaro, Paul Cezanne, and JMW Turner. In the Philippines, National Artist for Painting
Fernando Amorsolo and Fabian de la Rosa gained prominence from their painted rural scenes
such as women in the fields gathered in harvest.
Breaking nature into smaller parts is Jan Van Kasser the Elder who did numerous still
lives and small-scale, highly detailed studies, and scientific illustrations of flowers, insects,
shells, fruits, garlands, and bouquets.

Figure 25. Jan Van Kassel, A Cockchafer, Beetle, Woodlice and other Insects, with a Sprig of Auricula
(early 1650s) Oil on copper. Museum of Art and Archeology, University of Oxford Collection

Greek and Roman mythology were also ripe with references: from episodes that
transport the viewer to heroic encounters of Achilles and Aeneas; warnings about man’s folly
like the vanity of Icarus, the wit and cunning Odysseus; the beauty of Aphrodite and the
athleticism of Myron. From narrations in literature, artists on the other hand gave faces to Greek
and Roman deities or the gods and goddesses whose fates are seemingly as tragic as those of
men. Some of the art forms they look on were well paintings or frescos and sculptural works
such as busts, statuaries, and ceramics and pottery, among others.
 Figure 26. Discobolus. (Roman, 2nd Century AD), after a Greek original by
The sculptor Myron of 450-440 BC.
British Museum Collection, London. Photo by Ricky Bennison

Another integral aspect of human life is the distinct relationship with a higher controlling
power. If the belief system of Greeks and Romans was polytheism with a multitude of gods and
goddesses, the Judeo-Christian tradition stems from a belief in a lone creator of the universe or
what is called monotheism. This tradition had an immense influence in Western civilization
especially in art. Guided by a host of styles and techniques, various media and art forms were
also experimented with: paintings, frescos, church architecture (over-all plan of the space,
stained glass windows, tabernacles, and altars), sarcophagus, icons and other carvings,
vestments, tapestry, illuminated manuscripts, and other sacred scriptures, among others.

Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the intricate fresco that lines the Sistine Chapel was
created by Michelangelo. The immense detail and vast surface he had to cover had him working
on it from 1508 to 1512.
 Figure 27. Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel (1508-1512).
Image source: The Vatican

Unlike in Islam for example, practicing Jews and Christians were allowed to depict their
God and other important biblical figures: laying visual foundations in inculcating the faith. But
perhaps the influence of this tradition is most intriguingly manifested in the architectural marvels
that are spread out all over the world.

The formative years of church architecture can be traced in the 4th and 5th century but
different styles and plans were developed since then. Prevailing ideas and philosophies became
resources that were used by architects to reimagine what the church should look like. For
instance, Gothic churches were characterized by three things: soaring heights (ceilings), volume
(flying buttresses and ribbed vaults), and light (bright stained glass windows, airy and pleasant
interiors). Gothic style architecture is often attributed as the brainchild of Abbot Suger. There is
a definitive sense that pointed to the feeling of awe on the part of the believer and the perceived
majesty and power of God, all of which happened during the time when religion was at the heart
of everyday life. This echoes her belief that “art was central to religious experience.”
 Figure 28. Interior of Westminster. Photo courtesy of Harland
Quarrington.

Proceeding from a kind of a hybrid between literature and sacred text is India’s miniature
paintings. In Central India, the kind of art that were produced was deeply rooted in Vedic texts
such as Upanishads, Puranas, and other important texts such as the Sanskrit epics Mahabharata
and Ramayana. Indian artists had a wide array of material to work with in showcasing not just
their artistry and skill. The significance of these paintings rests on its ability to foster devotion
and the observance of a code of ethics through the visualizations of heroic narratives. These
paintings were small in size, but were highly pictorial, stylized, and employed a good contrast of
colors. Some artists also included verse from the epics as part of the cartouche which added
interest and meaning to the paintings.

Figure 29. Shah Jahan Receiving

Historically significant events particularly in the affairs of humanity are abundant

references for art production. From early breakthroughs such as the discovery of fire and the
overthrow of geocentric theory in favor of a sun-centered universe, succeeding advancements
brought about by discovery, innovation and man’s incessant search for glory plotted a dynamic
course of history.
 Figure 30. Francisco de Goya, El Tres de Mayo (1814) Oil
on canvas. Museo del Prado Collection.

An example is Goya’s El Tres de Mayo which captures the death of Madrilenes, the local
insurgents during the Peninsular War. Former allies in the overrun of Portugal, and France turned
against Spain. Napoleonic forces invaded Madrid without much difficulty and the painting
captures the dramatic demise of its people under a firing squad.
History as a resource for artists in search of subjects bring into consideration events that
are familiar and sometimes even common or shared in world context: the establishment of
nations and states (discovery, conquests, and colonization), and the resulting ideologies that they
breed (democracy, liberty, freedom, and rights). These works serve as documentary and
commemorative artworks that illustrate subjects such as important leaders and figures; events as
they were recorded to have happened; and representations of ideologies or values.
In the history of art, it is important to remember that the source and kind of subjects were
not merely a product of the artist’s inclination and choice. A closer examination of the various
art movements and artworks created within those movements will indicate that notions of
freedom and independence, which were presumed to be enjoyed by artists, were not without
limits or restrictions. For instance, a particular kind of subject and the way it is visually
translated may be traced in relation to the art patrons (those who commission the artworks), the
favored artistic style and canons, and more importantly the norms and trends prevailing in the
artist’s milieu.
During the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, art was predominantly
representational. During the first century of their dominance, art came as an aid for
communication-a means of propagating religion to locals who spoke a different language. The
visual arts, from paintings to early sculptures such as santos and other votive figures and icons,
were created to assist Catholic ministry. Existing art and craft traditions persisted, with some
augmented and infused with foreign influences that were not limited to the Spanish culture
through contact.
The momentum that secular (or non-religious) art later gained in the 19th century can
also be attributed this contact, what with the opening of the Suez canal and the growth of an
expert economy in agriculture. The consequences of these developments was the rise of the
middle class. With their new-found economic and social mobility, patrons of the art were no
longer limited to the clergy, but brought about a demand coming from these wealthy ilustrado
families. Of interest was the increase in demand for commissioned portraits (of an individual or
an entire family), finding it necessary to document themselves in light of their elevated status.
Wearing the most intricate and elaborate of garbs, significant adornments such as jewelry and
embroidered implements, among others, completed the intended narrative. This artistic trend
cemented the distinction of artists such as Simon Flores, Justiniano Ascuncion, and Antonio
Malantic who became the foremost portraitists of the time. Here, it is evident how during the
Spanish colonial period, the subjects of artworks, even the manner in which they are translated,
were mostly dictated by the patrons who commission them, both for religious art and secular art.
Content in Art
As outlined in the beginning, in discussing works of art, the subject may simply be
referred to as the “what”-what is readily seen and relates to the artwork, its inspiration, and the
many kinds of translation. But apart from what is made explicit, to recognize and grasp the
message of the artwork, the viewer may sometimes need to go beyond what is visible. Why was
the artwork created in the first place? When this question is asked, we are after the meaning or
message that is expressed or communicated by the artwork. One of the foremost scholars that
expounded on content analysis or how meaning is arrived at is art historian Erwin Panofsky in
his seminal work “Meaning in the Visual Arts” (1955). His methodology will later identified as
iconology through the interpretation of iconography.
To take on the challenge of understanding the content of art, it must be reiterated that
there are various levels of meaning. Perhaps the most common is what we call factual meaning.
This pertains to the most rudimentary level of meaning for it may be extracted from the
identifiable or recognizable forms in the artwork and understanding how these elements relate to
one another. Conventional meaning, on the other hand, pertains to the acknowledged
interpretation of the artwork using motifs, signs, symbols and other cyphers as bases of its
meaning. These conventions are established through time, strengthened by recurrent use and
wide acceptance by its viewers or audience and scholars who study them. Finally, when
subjectivities are consulted, a variety of meaning may arise when a particular work of art is read.
These meanings stem from the viewer’s or audience’s circumstances that come into play when
engaging with art. When looking at a particular painting for example, perception and therefore
meaning is always informed (and even colored) by a manifold of contexts: what we know; what
we learned; what we experienced; and the values we stand for. It is therefore expected that
meaning may not be singular; rather, a painting may communicate multiple meanings to its many
viewers. This is what we call subjective meaning of art.
 Figure 31. Michelangelo. Creation of Adam from the ceiling of
the Sistine Chapel. Photo by Andrew Graham-Dixon (2009).

Michaelangelo’s Creation of Adam can be read using the various levels of meaning
discussed above. Here, Adam is figured with an aged God, both of them with an arm stretched
and their respective index fingers appearing to be fixed at an impending contact. Apart from God
is wearing a tunic, everyone else is nude. God is afloat, surrounded by drapery and figures
presumed to be angels and cherubs. Adam on the other hand is earth-bound, sitting and reclined,
positioned diagonally parallel to that of God. From a factual perspective, Michaelangelo depicted
a scene from the Creation Story, in particular, the creation of man. Apart from being a key
element of Michaelangelo’s fresco at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the subject matter
suggests that this is an example of biblical art.
This work is indeed iconic, and this is asserted by the conventional meaning attached to
it. Here, the specific poses of God and Adam (convex and concave postures, respectively) allude
to the correspondence of the body and the commonly held beliefs that man was created in the
image and likeness of God. During this time, the ideal of humanism were underscored and the
arts and sciences were furthered. It is therefore understandable that the classical canons of the
form of the body (ideally proportioned and muscular) are portrayed, especially by Michaelangelo
who was first and foremost of sculptor. There, the view is that the greatness of old civilizations
such as that of the Greeks and the Romans may not only replicated, but even surpassed. Some art
scholars noted how Michaelangelo exhibited just the-an elevated artistry-in that the dynamism
and energy of the figures in the frescoes in the Sistine chapel are unlike the works of
predecessors.
An interesting overlap between the conventional and subjective meanings is the proposal
from gynecologist Frank Lynn Meshberger, whose published essay appeared in the October 1990
issue of the Journal of American Medical Association. His theory is that an image and a message
were hidden in plain sight: how the silhouette of God, the shroud and the drapery that trail
behind, all seemingly align with the shape of the human brain. According to Meshberger, the
work can also be aptly called “The Endowment of Adam” for it brought to light that as God’s
creation, the most important qualities imparted to man was intellect. Like most Renaissance
artists, Michaelangelo unlocked the secrets and precision of human anatomy assisting in
dissections during his time. For Meshberger, it was with his medical background and perhaps
exposure to art and history that allow him to catch the symbol, hidden in Michaelangelo’s work.
Let’s Wrap It Up
 There is sense of panic when one is confounded with the question, “What am I seeing”?
or rather “What am I supposed to see?” Perhaps, addressing this stigma is the first step in
inviting more Filipinos to engage with art and have a more enduring appreciation for it.
In gaining the basics of deciphering the subject and content of art, it is hoped that an
individual’s sensitivity and perceptiveness to art will be developed. As discussed in the lesson,
one may begin by looking at perceivable features of the artwork. Taking note of what is apparent
will provide clues as to what the intended meaning of the artist might be. Knowing more about
the context of its creation, from the artist’s inspiration, reference, or source, will prove useful in
understanding the meaning of the artwork.
The majority of the public are consumers and not producers of art, and so ensuring the
readiness of the public to not only successfully engage with the art, but meaningfully do so, is
the primary function of art appreciation and education. Throughout this book, it is hoped that the
specialized language of art will unfold for the learning pleasure of the students, enabling the ease
and encouraging the predilection of engaging with art through its description, analysis,
interpretation, and even critique.

(https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b070sqb0)

Lesson 6
Elements and Principles of Art

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. enumerate the different elements of visual and auditory art;
2. differentiate the principles of art;
3. provide examples of the interrelatedness of some of the elements of art, and the
principles of art;
4. explain the relevance of the elements and principles of art in the study of art and its
products (artworks); and
5. illustrate examples of hybrid art and dissect what art forms are combined therein.

In the chapter on Subject and Content, it was mentioned that arts have a specialized
language. And to be able to understand this language, familiarity with some of the elements and
principles that make it legible is required. Think of it as the letters-the stringing of letters to
formulate words, and perhaps even the different pronunciations and enunciations that assist
comprehension.
 The next chapter endeavors to take art and break it into its smaller parts. Like a scientist
who takes a splice or a sample and places it under a microscope, the next lesson will allow for a
better view, not of the final picture; rather, the parts that complete it.

Let’s Get Down to Business

Elements of Art: Visual
Taking off from the scientific reference, elements of art are skin to the atoms that are
defined as the units or ‘building blocks” of matter. Together, in a variety of combinations and
formations, they have the ability to create molecules such as water, or the more complex sucrose.
These formulations are something along the lines of what happens when elements of art are
joined together, in a variety of ways. In the same line of reasoning, the elements of art are the
aspects of an artwork that can be isolated from each other.
These elements of art generally produced when something is done to the medium after
the technique is carried out. It must be underscored however, that all works of art require all
elements to be present as they are inherent in the very nature of them. For example, sculptures
automatically have the following elements with or without the decision of the artist to include
them: shape, form, and space. Without these elements, there is no sculpture to begin with.
Elements are necessary preconditions for the creation of art.
 To enumerate, the elements of art and design are following: line, shape, form, space,
color, and texture.
1. Line
A line refers to a point moving at an identification path-it has length and
direction. It also has width. It is one-dimensional however, it has the capacity to either
define the parameters of the artwork (edges) and/or become a substantial component of
the composition. Although a line is “simple,” it has variations in view of its
orientation/direction, shape, and thickness. These variations import not only the visual
elements into the artwork, but bring in suggestions as to be meaning or message being
conveyed by the artist.

a. Horizontal and Vertical Lines

These refer to the orientation of the line. Horizontal lines are normally association
with rest or calm. Landscapes often contain these elements as works like these often
connote a visual sense of being parallel to the ground. It also alludes to position of the
reclined, body at rest. Vertical lines on the other hand connote elevation or height
usually taken to mean exaltation or aspiration for action. Together, these lines
communicate stability and firmness.
b. Diagonal and Crooked Lines
Although the progression is can be seen, diagonal lines convey movement and
instability. Crooked or jagged lines on the other hand are reminiscent of violence,
conflict, or struggle.
c. Curve lines
Lines that bend or coil allude to softness, grace, flexibility or even sensuality.

2-3. Shape and Form

These two are related to each other in that they define the space occupied by the
object of art. Shape refers to two dimension: height and width, while form refers to three
dimensions: height, width, and depth. Shape provides the contour of the artwork. Shapes
can either be:
a. Geometric
Geometric shapes find their origin in mathematical propositions. As such, its
translation and use are often man-made. These include shapes such as squares,
triangles, cubes, circles, spheres, and cones, among others.
b. Organic
 Organic shapes are those readily occurring in nature, often irregular and
asymmetrical.
As for form, sculptures or ornate furniture for instance are good examples of art
objects with the element of form as their observable quality.
4. Space
In relation to shape and form is space. It is usually inferred from a sense of depth,
whether it is real or simulated. Real space is three-dimensional. Like what has been
mentioned above, sculptures are a perfect example of artworks that bear this element .
However, this can only be manifested in two-dimensional artworks through the use of
different techniques, or the use (or non-use) of area around a drawing or picture.
a. Positive and Negative Space
This is usually identified with the white space is the negative space. The positive
space on the other hand is the space where shadow is heavily used.
b. Three-dimensional Space
Like what is mentioned above, this can be simulated through a variety of
techniques such as shading. An illusion of three-dimensionality can be achieved in a
two-dimensional work.
5. Color
Color is perhaps one of the elements that best enhance the appeal of an artwork. This
element is a property of light, as it is reflected off the object. It is characterized into three:
a. Hue
This dimension of color gives its name. It can be subdivided into:
 Primary colors: red, yellow, and blue
 Secondary colors: green, orange, and violet
 Tertiary colors: six in total, these hues are achieved when primary and
secondary colors are mixed
b. Value
The brightness or darkness of the color refers to the value. Often, this is used by
artists to create the illusion of depth and solidity, a particular mood, communicate a
feeling, or in establishing a scene (i.e.day and night).
 Light colors: taken as the source of light in the composition.
 Dark colors: the lack or even absence of light.
c. Intensity
The color’s brightness or dullness is the intensity. It is identified as the strength of
color, whether it is vivid or muted.
 Bright or warm colors: positive energy
 Dull or cool colors: sedate/soothing, seriousness or calm.
6. Texture
 Like space, texture can be either real or implied. This element in an artwork allows it
to be experienced through the sense of touch (and sight.) this element renders the art
object tactile.
a. Textures In The Two-dimensional Plane
For two-dimensional works, texture can be implied through the use of technique
or of using one or a combination of other elements of art. By creating this visual
quality in the artwork, one can imagine how it the surface will feel if it was to be
touched. Some of the words used to describe texture are the following: rough or
smooth, hard or soft, hairy, leathery, sharp or dull, etc. To be able to simulate the
texture of a surface in a flat, two-dimensional plan is one important skill that an artist
must be familiar with, especially if his idea or concept necessitates it.
b. Surface Texture
This refers to texture of the three-dimensional art object.
The elements of art make it possible to engage with the visual and tactile qualities of the
artwork through a “common language” that may be widely understood. Through these elements,
there is something from which the idea, concept, message, or intended mood of the artist maybe
inferred. It offers a starting point or a baseline from which analysis may take place. This kind of
analysis is called formal analysis of art.

Planes and Perspective

It was discussed how illusions can be made and implied through techniques in visual art,
specifically in paintings, drawings, and illustrations. In order to do so, an understanding of the
notion of planes is needed, and the technique is called perspective.
In tackling the first one, planes maybe taken as picture plane or ground plane. Picture
plane is actual surface of the painting or drawing, where no illusion of a third dimension exists.
Here the elements lay flat, as if you are looking through a window into what lies on the other
side of the glass.
Once notion of the third dimension is asserted, an integral idea is ground plane, which
pertains to the theoretical horizontal plane and makes the image or picture presented seem “real”.
In Western art, one of the most important techniques developed is the ability to make a
flat surface appear three-dimensional, which has depth and space. This technique called
perspective is credited to Renaissance artists, the early proponents included Leon Battista
Alberti and Paolo Uccello architect Filippo Brunelleschi in the early fifteenth century and was
published in Alberti’s On Painting, in 1435. Often synonymous to linear perspective, it is an
illusion that uses converging lines and vanishing points that affect the size and distance of
objects relative to that of the viewer. A viewpoint may be construed as normal (view standing
up), low (view from a lower angle), of high (view looking down on a scene).
There are three types of perspective, grounded on the number of vanishing points used by
the artist:
 1. One-point perspective – often used in depicting roads, tracks, hallways or rows of trees,
this type of perspective shows parallel lines that seem to converge at a specific and lone
vanishing point, along the horizon line.
2. Two-point perspective – pertains to a painting or drawing that makes use of two
vanishing points, which can be place anywhere along the horizon line. It is often used in
depicting structures such houses of buildings in the landscape that are viewed from a
specific corner.
3. Three-point perspective – in this type of perspective, the viewer is looking at a scene
from above or below. As the name suggests, it makes use of the three-vanishing points,
each corresponding to each axes of the scene.

Elements of Art: Auditory

Together with literature, music as an art form is classified as auditory art. However, some
would argue that it is actually under the broad category of performance art. Either way, music,
much like the visual arts, has its own building blocks or elements.
Perhaps one of the most widespread forms of art, whose intersection in daily life is most
perceptible, is music. Music is sound organized in a specific time. It is considered n implement
to cultural activities, answering a specific role or function. During the when man had to hunt for
food, music was used a corral or herd animals, or as an element of specific rituals or rites.
Singing or dancing to music was also often included in opportunities for members of society to
gather and interact. Some are adept with the skill and sense to produce music, while others
consume it as listeners, audiences, and even performers.
If there is an important quality that music has, it is that it has the capacity to transcend
barriers, even that of differences in language or conventions in sound. Different demographics,
group and individuals may have specific preferences as to the genre of music. However, in order
to establish this preference, listeners often take to its elements for its evolution. Some of the
common elements of music are the following: rhythm, dynamics, melody, harmony, timbre,
texture, and form.
1. Rhythm
Often associated to the terms beat, meter, and tempo, rhythm is the element of
music that situates it in time. It is the pulse of the music. Beat is basic unit of music while
tempo refers to its speed (beats/second). Beats can be organized into a recognizable
recurrent pattern called the meter.
Classical terms are used to refer to the variations in tempo, some of which are the
following:
a. Largo – slowly and broadly
b. Andante – walking pace
c. Moderato – at moderate speed
d. Allegro – fast
e. Vivace – lively
 f. Accelerando – gradually speeding up
g. Rallentado – gradually slowing down
h. Allargando – getting slower and broadening
i. Allargando – getting slower, broadening
j. Rubato – literally “robbed time,” rhythm is played freely for expressive effect

2. Dynamics
The element of music that refers to the loudness or quietness of music is
dynamics. Classical terms are used to refer to the different levels pertaining to this:
a. pianissimo [pp] – very quiet
b. piano [p] – quiet
c. mezzo-piano [mp] – moderately quiet
d. mezzo-forte [mf] – moderately loud
e. forte [f] – loud
f. fortissimo [ff] – very loud
For composers to indicate an increase or decrease of loudness, they use the terms
crescendo for the former; and decrescendo or diminuendo for the latter.

3. Melody
Melody refers to the linear presentation (horizontal) of pitch. By horizontal, it
means that in musical notation, it is read in succession from left to right. Pitch is the
highness or lowness of musical sound.

4. Harmony
If melody is horizontal, harmony is vertical. It arises when pitches are combined
to form chords. When several noted are simultaneously played, this refers to a chord.
Harmony can be described in terms of its “harshness”: dissonance or a harsh-
sounding combination; or consonance, the smooth-sounding combination.

5. Timbre
Timbre is often likened to the color of music. It is a quality that distinguishes a
voice or an instrument from another. Dependent on the technique, the timbre may give a
certain tone or characteristic to music, much like how a painter evokes different effects or
impressions onto the canvas.

6. Texture
The number of melodies, the type of layers, and their relatedness in a composition is
the texture of music. It may be:
a. Monophonic – single melodic line
b. Polyphonic – two or more melodic lines
c. Homophonic – main melody accompanied by chords
 Akin to artworks whose style, medium, and technique emphasizes some of the elements
in visual arts, a particular composition and genre of music may emphasize the elements of music
outlined above. Some elements may even be de-emphasized or omitted altogether. Like what
was mentioned above, these elements maybe isolated from each other, however, as visual or
musical compositions, the combination of these elements in art is what we initially engage with.
Most often, elements do not only coexist in the artwork, but are fused together or overlap
with each other. In visual arts, most artworks have overlapping elements.
Principles of Art
To reiterate the appreciation and engagement of art relies substantially on being equipped
with the appropriate language that allows it to be more comprehensible. If the elements of art
were like the letters (and stringing of these letters into words, phrases, and sentences), then
principles of art would perhaps be closest to the rules of grammar and composition. Learning
these principles will lessen the intimidation and might even open up vast possibilities for the
novice looker to have a more pleasurable experience of art. These principles will provide explicit
ways in which these elements are used, how they are manipulated, how they interact, and how
they inform the overall composition of the artwork in order to assist the artist in conveying his
intention. It is the principles of art that influence the effect achieved by the elements, and the
linkages of other principles. These principles are: balance, proportion, emphasis and contrast,
unity/variety, harmony, movement, rhythm, scale, unity, and repetition and pattern.
1. Balance
This principle refers to the distribution of the visual elements in view of their
placement in relation to each other. There are three forms of balance:
a. Symmetrical – the elements used on one side are reflected on the other. This
offers the most stable visual sense to any artwork.
b. Asymmetrical – the elements are not the same (or of the same weight) on
each side, putting the heaviness on one side.
c. Radial – there is a central point in the composition, around which elements
and objects are distributed.
2. Scale and Proportion
The size of an object in relation to another, or relative to a whole composition
describes proportion. This can also refer to values such as amounts or number of
elements or objects in the composition. It can be:
a. Natural – especially for figurative artworks, it relates to the realistic size-
relations of the visual elements in the artwork. When it is the accuracy in
relation to the real world that we are after, this is what is now referred to as
the principle of scale.
b. Exaggerated – these refer to unusual size-relations of visual elements,
deliberately exaggerating the immensity or minuteness of an object.
In relation to this, there are notions in scale that differentiates when an
element is considered to be smaller than expected (diminutive); and when
something appears to be larger than what is presumed (monumental).
 c. Idealized – most common to those that follow canons of perfection, the size-
relations of elements or objects achieve the most ideal size-relations.

3-4. Emphasis and Contrast

Emphasis allows the attention of the viewer to a focal point(s), accentuating or drawing
attention to these elements or objects. This can be done through the manipulation of the elements
or through the assistance of other principles, especially that of contrast.
Contrast is the disparity between the elements that figure into the composition. One
object may be made stronger as compared to other objects (hence emphasis). This can be done in
a number of ways using the elements of art. For instance, the use of negative and positive space
is an example of contrast. Another example is the use of complementary colors in a particular
work of art.

5-6. Unity and Variety

Unless intended to ne otherwise, compositions are intended to imbue a sense of accord of
completeness from the artwork. This is unity.
Variety on the other hand is the principles that aims to retain the interest by allowing
patches or areas that both excite and allow the eye to rest.
7. Harmony
Like what is hinted above, unity and variety is related to the principle of harmony, in
which the elements or objects achieve a sense of flow and interconnectedness.
8. Movement
This refers to the direction of the viewing eye as it goes through the artwork, often guided
by areas or elements that are emphasized. These focal points can be lines, edges, shape,
and color within the work of art, among others.

9. Rhythm
This is created by an element is repeated, creating implied movement. Variety of
repetition helps in invigorating the rhythm depicted in the artwork.

10-11. Repetition and Pattern

Lines, shapes, colors, and other elements may appear in the artwork in a recurring
manner. This is repetition. While the image created out of the repetition, is called pattern. With
repetition, there is a sense of predictable that is conveyed, which in turn imbue the feelings of
security and calm.

Combined or Hybrid Art

 Looking at the elements and principles of art discussed above, it is apparent that art
maybe defined under strict lines that separate one art form of style from another. In a broad
sense, it is easy to depicter visual arts from auditory arts. In the same vein, when looking at more
specific art forms, there is a considerable ease when one is confronted with the challenge of
differentiating a painting from a sculpture, a print from drawing or a soundtrack from a poem.
However, with the complexity of contemporary times, in which experimentation and innovation
are encouraged, the arts are not production and their resultant consumption. One of the
buzzwords of the tail end of twentieth century is interdisciplinary. Rooted on the realization that
the problems of society are becoming more and more complex, it is necessary that solutions
become just as innovative wherein alternative routes to what is familiar, common, and customary
is given premium. It was also a direct upshot of postmodernist ideas in which barriers were more
porous-strict delineation of art forms were overthrown to make way for collaborations and
partnerships between fields, professionals, and creative. The idea of a single-medium-based art
seems like a strange past that no longer holds in an interdisciplinary reality we live in.
In contemporary art, these developments were mirrored in the multifaceted nature of
artworks that were created. It is not surprising that themes, subjects, and the problematic
addressed shaped and produced new kinds of articulation in which two or more art forms and
styles are combined. Some examples of combined arts include dance, theatre, installation art,
film, video art, documentary, photography, puppetry, design, and other forms of products and
productions.
These combined art forms are interesting that can be studied to understand what art forms
and styles have been combined, and furthermore, what skills, techniques, or creative processes
can be put together in order to produce interesting and innovative compositions. In combined
arts, improvisation is often tapped in addition to practical and logical considerations of creating
an artwork. From a specific vista of an art form, there is a seeming road map to creation.
However, in combined arts, the artist is challenged to deconstruct and idea or stimulus, to which
the content, narrative, technique, and art forms and styles will take from. Often improvisation or
inventiveness is necessary in order to create an artwork that is to some extent unprecedented. As
different art forms and styles are tapped, inspiration may come from numerous sources, and
documenting the process of fusing these influences may be part of the production. A clear
example of combine art is a theatrical performance that taps into a number of art forms such as
music, 2D and 3D art, literature, lighting and set design, among others.
Another movement that is reminiscent of the motivations of the Renaissance Period, and
whose emergence is hinged on the frontiers of science and technology, is called hybrid arts.
Referencing and tapping into the fields of robotics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology, natural
and computer sciences, telecommunication, information, digital and interface technologies
(software, programs, speech and face recognition, social media and online platforms, among
many other emergent developments), artists whose works tread under this movement disrupts the
norms in terms of what is considered as art, and even the way we envisage artistic production.
More than anything else, hybrid are driven the expansion of the imagination and what is possible
through the “blistering pace of scientific and technological development” (Piirma, 2014). At its
heart is an inquiry-and through information and data; the capacity of the artist to move around
platforms; and the implementation and manipulation of newfound tools in production- the artist
is able to address that inquiry.

Let’s Wrap It Up
In any art appreciation course, the module or lesson on the elements and principles of art
are considered one of the most rudimentary stages in easing the student into a meaningful
experience with art, regardless of its form. A familiarity with these building blocks of
composition and formal analysis will aid the viewer in his or her attempt to come into terms with
the intention of the artist.
The elements and principles of art are essential to any artwork. Some of them will be
more obvious than others, becoming the anchors in which the viewer may latch on to engage
with the artwork. The focal point(s) that draw the attention of the viewer is also interesting to
note, as this provides insight as to the interests and values that are of most weight to him or her.
These perhaps will help create a bridge in which a person, who may not normally find pleasure
in looking at art, may consider future engagements with it. In short, familiarity of the elements
and principles has the potential to break the barriers in which art becomes ineffable.