Folk Songs of Uttar Pradesh

Author(s): Nisha Sahai-Achuthan

Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Autumn, 1987), pp. 395-406
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology
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 Folk Songs of Uttar Pradesh

Nisha Sahai-Achuthan

T he State of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.)' in India has an unbroken record o

its rich cultural traditions-both in classical, semi-classical and folk
music, which can be traced back to the mythological past. The traditio
the folk-songs of U.P. is large and diverse; it is significant both for its m
and the cultural/anthropological details, which appear to be interest
That this has been handed down from generation to generation since t
immemorial, has been possible through the unique oral tradition whic
particularly dominant in the villages. In recent times efforts have been m
to compile and record the folk-songs of this region, but they remain at b
scattered and isolated. This, along with some of the reasons which hav
counted for the decline of folk-songs will be discussed in the conclud
part of this article.
Folk-songs are an integral part of the folk-culture of Uttar Prade
There appears to be no theme of village life on which folk-songs have
been sung-birth of a child, separation of lovers, marriage, departure of th
bride, ploughing of fields, etc., thus virtually covering the entire life-cyc
from birth to death. The folk-songs of this state hence include a large var
ety of songs, which could be placed under three broad categories-seas
songs, which are sung in different parts of the season; ceremonial so
sung on different ceremonies; and occasional songs, sung on certain o
sions. Some songs are sung by women alone and some sung only by m
there is also individual and group singing. In group singing in particu
there is an enhanced accent on rhythm, which effect is obtained by u
such folk-instruments as the Chimta and the Manjira. Other instrum
used with folk-songs are the Flute, Conch, Sarangi, Ektara, Rabab an
Dholak, representing a mix of the wind, string, and the percussion.2 W
most of the songs are based mainly on folk tunes, the music of some
these bears a close resemblance to classical Ragas like Pilu, Bahar, Durga
and Khamaj.3 Some of the different styles in which folk songs are sung are
called Nirguna, Jhumar, Purbi, etc.4
The poetry of the folk songs of Uttar Pradesh, couched in village
dialects, is powerful and very expressive. The major folk-language dialects

395

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396 Ethnomusicology, Fall 1987

of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) include Awadhi, Braj-Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Kannau-

ji, Bundeli, Kaurvi, Garhwali, Kumauni and Ruheli.5 Of these, major work
has been done in the first three dialects. Folk songs from Eastern Uttar Pra-
desh are in the Bhojpuri dialect, and most of them are set in the Purbi-Dhun
(Eastern-tune)-a typical folk tune of this part of the State.6

Seasonal Songs
The impact of the seasons on the life of the village folk, is reflected, for
example, in the songs of the rainy season known as Kajris, Barahmasas,
Sawans and Bidesias. The themes of most of these songs relate to love and
separation. Kajris dwell on such themes as the separation of women-folk
from their beloved, for it is believed that the gloom cast by the rains inten-
sifies their feeling of loneliness. In these songs are also highlighted the
moods and pangs of separation of the women folk, and the rains are said to
evoke in them a longing for their beloved. In these contexts, quite often,
birds are symbolically used as thematic material-while the cries of the bird
Papiha7 remind the separated women of their husbands, the Kaga [crow] is
often described as the messenger carrying the message to the Videsia, that is
the lover, in far away lands. The message so carried, reads as follows:

Barsan laagi boondiya,

Pyaare bina laage na
Jeeyara Mora
Chaar Maheena Barakha ke aaye
Ajhu na aaye hamar Sainyaan.8

As for the musical aspects of these songs, Kajris fall in the category of
folk songs, which are set in the semi-classical mold. The tradition of the
Kajris from Mirzapur and Benares9 has been maintained and brought into
the classical fold by such eminent musicians from the Benares gharana
[School] as Rasoolan Bai, Sidhdheshwari Devi and Girija Devi. The musical
content of these, show distinct traces of classical Ragas like Kamoda, Jhin-
jhoti, and Malhara, and very often the Alaps (introductory part of a classi-
cal song), employed are in the semi-classical, traditional style.
The Phalgun (early Spring) songs announce the festive advent of the
spring, and the Holi? songs, based generally on Ragas Kafi and Basant
dwell mainly upon the Radha-Krishna theme.

Aaj Khelo Shyama Sanga hori

Kunwar Kanhaiyya Sanga Sakhi Radha
Ranga bhari joree,
Sohat ri."

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 Folk Songs of Uttar Pradesh 397

These are followed by Chaitis-songs sung in the months of Chait

(middle-spring), in which the blossoming of the flowers is symbolically as-
sociated with romance and fertility. The Chaiti, though primarily sung as a
solo song, is often also sung as a chorus by two groups facing each other-
members of the first group singing the first line of the song, followed by the
second group singing in a chorus. The song then progresses, reaching a cres-
cendo where members of both the groups join in.
Manik hamaro herai le ho Rama
Jamuna main,
Kehu nahin khojela hamaro
Padarath ho Rama,
Jamuna main.'2

The music of this category of seasonal folk songs is rich in content, and
the tunes of most of these are based on classical Ragas. To sum up, Kajri
are usually based on Malhar, Kamod and Jhinjhoti; Holis on Basant and
Kafi; and Chaitis on Bahar and Khamaj.

Ceremonial Songs
Among these are the Sanskara songs, which relate to major Sanskara
(ceremonies) in the life of man, from birth to death. Some of these are the
Sohars, Annaprasana, Mundan, Yagyopaveet and Vivah songs, as ex-
plained below. Songs sung on the birth of a child are known as Sohars and
are usually sung by women in a chorus. The birth of Lord Rama has been
vividly described in the Sohars written by poet Tulsidas. Again, there are
special songs sung on the occasion of Annaprasana, when the child first
tastes cereals, and on the Mundan ceremony when the child's head is shaved
for the first time. Mundan songs highlight the role of the Nand (husband's
sister), who is presented with ornaments by her Bhabhi (sister-in-law) on
this occasion. Again, there are songs sung on the occasion of the Yagyopa-
veet,'3 in which the mother exhorts the son to fulfil the duties of Bram-
hacharyal4 and to begin his Vidya-Adhyayana (pursuit of knowledge).
While the singing of some of these Sanskara songs has been on the de-
cline, the Vivah-songs relating to marriage are still frequently sung. This is
so despite the otherwise commercialized nature of the marriage prep-
arations characterizing the city weddings-with pre-fabricated Mandaps
[canopies], paper-flower decorations and beauty-salons for "instant-bridal-
makeup" for the bride. There are special songs for the engagement ceremo-
ny too. On the bridegroom's side, songs are sung on the Tilak and Ghur-
Charhi15 ceremonies; the Sehras and Bannas,'6 which are songs sung for the
bridegroom on these occasions, are immensely popular all over the State.

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398 Ethnomusicology, Fall 1987

On the bride's side, the ritual of the ceremonial bath of the bride, along
with the traditional Uptan (applying of face-pack) and oil massage, is at-
tended by a series of songs in which blessings are showered on the bride.
There are the colorful Mehndi17 songs, sung by friends of the bride on the
Mehndi ceremony, and the Bannis'8 which are songs for the bride sung by
the older women of the house.
Songs are sung when the Mandap'9 is pitched (usually a week before
the marriage) and also when lamps are lit under it virtually every evening till
the marriage ceremony is over. At the time of the arrival of the bridegroom,
garlands are exchanged by the bride and bridegroom. Songs are also sung to
shower blessings on the bridal couple at the Panigrahan and Saptapadi20
Sanskaras. Another very interesting and colorful variety of marriage songs
are those sung by women from the bride and bridegroom's parties. These
are "competitive" songs in which each party taunts and mocks at the other,
very often hurling abuses, sometimes even verging on vulgarity. In certain
parts of the State, these songs are categorized as Dadaria songs; however,
the themes of the Dadaria songs also relate to many other experiences of
marriage. And finally there are the heart-rending Gavana or Vidai2 songs
sung on the departure of the bride from her Naihhar [parental house]. The
proverbial four Kahars22 holding the palanquin of the bride and singing the
Kaharwas23 find occasional mention in these songs. The Lacharis are songs
sung by the bride's friends, advising her on how to receive her husband.
There are also a variety of songs relating to married life, in which are
expressed the whole gamut of the bride's experiences with her husband and
other members of the joint family. Often these are songs of woes and sor-
row sung by the lonely bride, for back in the villages the over-bearing at-
titude of her husband's family often makes life unbearable for her. The
constant nagging of the sister-in-law "Nanadiya Kaahe maare bol,"24
particularly if the bride is unable to bear a child-all find an echo in these
songs. Her loneliness is further heightened if her husband is cruel to her or
spends more time with his other wives-a situation not uncommon in the
one-time polygamous rural society. Perhaps the only person in the family
whose sympathy the bride might have received is the Devar (the husband's
younger brother), and this special Devar-Bhabhi (sister-in-law) relationship
finds an occasional mention in these folk songs.
As for the music of the folk songs in the category of ceremonial songs
(described above), it is less classical in form as compared to the music of the
seasonal songs. Set in typical folk-tunes, the enhanced effect of the rhythm
in these songs is obtained through the use of short beats on the traditional
folk instruments. However, of the songs in this category, some of the mar-
riage songs do appear to be cast in the semi-classical mold.

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 Folk Songs of Uttar Pradesh 399

Occasional Songs
In this category are songs mainly sung by peasants, craftsmen and
herdsmen. These are mainly group songs sung in a fast tempo, and they also
include dance-songs such as the Karma, sung by the tribal people of the
Mirzapur region. The Ahirs, or herdsmen of the state sing the popular Birha
in which the pasture and cow are frequent themes. These songs are usually
prefixed and suffixed with long high-pitched taans [musical embellish-
ments] sung in a chorus. The Jantsar, Nirai, Ropni and Kolhu are names of
some of the songs sung by the peasants at the time of sowing, threshing,
reaping and harvesting; the songs sung at harvesting in particular are
marked by a gay and festive mood. The Alha songs of the Bundelkhand
region (of the State) recount the heroic deeds from mythological tales as
well as of the medieval wars.
Loris [lullabys] are another category of songs which form an integral
part of the folk-tradition, and which can perhaps be placed under the rubric
of occasional songs. These are cradle songs sung by mothers and are like
lyrical rhapsodies, the music of which is soft and very tender. Cradle songs
in the Bhojpuri dialect in particular seem to have this lyrical charm which
makes them very appealing.

Re Chanda -mama,
Hare awa, Pare awa,
Sone ke katorwa main,
Doodh bhaat khene awa,
Babua ke muhawa main ghutook.25

Lullabys in the Brij-bhasha dialect dwell upon, the themes of the childhood
stories of Makhan-chor [butter-stealer] Lord Krishna and his mother
Yashoda.

Conclusion
The imperceptible urbanization of rural culture, the impact of film mu-
sic, and the general apathy of city dwellers to this rich folk-tradition, a
however some of the factors responsible for the gradual decline of fol
songs. There is also a lamentable lack of anthologies of our folk songs. Th
first attempts at compilation were made by European folk-lorists like S
George Grierson, Dr. Verrier Elwin, W.C. Archer, D. Hutton, Von-Furer
Haimen-Dorf and Dr. Balce. Among Indian folk-lorists, Devendra Satyar-
thi has made pioneering efforts to promote the cause of folk-music. Others
who have done valuable work are Komal Kothari, Ram Naresh Tripathi,
Surya Kiran Pareek, S.C. Dube, Krishna Dev Upadhyaya and poets like
Chandra Shekhar Misra and Sumitranandan Pant. The Uttar Pradesh Lok-

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400 Ethnomusicology, Fall 1987

Sahitya-Samiti [folk-literature-committee] has compiled folksongs from

different parts of the State and the valuable anthologies compiled by the
Folk music and Folk-lore Research Institute at Calcutta are also worthy of
mention.
The trend among most folk-lorists however has been to study the litera-
ry-cum-sociological content of the folk-slongs and not so much its musico-
logical aspects, such as for example, the recording of folk tunes, its no-
tations and rhythms, musical instruments employed etc. In this context the
efforts made by the U.P. Soochna-Kendra [Information Centre] and the
Sangeet Natak Akademi, [Academy of the performing arts] at Lucknow
and New Delhi, to record folk-songs of U.P. in their authentic form, is wor-
thy of mention. HMV (a recording company) has also brought out a series
of three records entitled "Folk songs of Uttar Pradesh." The "folk" ele-
ment in these has however been diluted by the commercialized touch of
"Film" music.
However, for preserving such a rich tradition of folk songs it is
necessary that still further efforts be made for compilations of many more
such anthologies and for systematically recording these in their authent
form through the most modern methods and techniques available today
Recent initiatives taken by the Government of India to computerize data on
the diverse cultural traditions-both classical and the folk-from different
parts of the country appear to be a timely step in this direction.26 In fact, a
series of initiatives have been taken recently in the field of culture by the
Government at the behest of Prime Minister Gandhi, which have focused
inter alia on the promotion and preservation of the folk culture and tradi-
tions.27

Notes
1. Situated in Northern India, Uttar Pradesh is the largest state of the Indian Union. His-
torically and culturally, this region has been the cradle of the ancient Indian civilization and the
seat of the successive Hindu and Muslim empires.
2. See description of these in the appendix.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. The names of these dialects are derived from the regions they represent. For exam
Awadhi is a dialect of the Awadh region in Central U.P. All these are dialects of the Hin
guage-which has the status of the National language-as spoken in different parts of the
of U.P.
6. Bhojpuri folk-songs in particular seem to have gained an immense popularity with mu-
sic directors of Hindi films too.
7. Papiha is a bird somewhat akin to the Cuckoo and is associated with the rainy season in
the folksongs.

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 Folk Songs of Uttar Pradesh 401

8. The free translation of this verse is as follows:

The raindrops are beginning to fall

I am restless since my beloved is away
The four months of the rainy season are over
But my husband has not yet returned.

9. Mirzapur and Benaras are two cities in eastern U.P.; the Benaras gharana [school] rep-
resents a distinct style of rendition of the North Indian semi-classical/classical music.
10. Holi is a festival in the harvest season in which water-colour is sprayed on each other.
11. Let us play Holi with Lord Krishna
The Prince among sheperds
Who is with his consort Radha
Besmeared with colour, what a handsome couple they make.
12. Oh Lord Rama, my jewel is lost
In the river Jamuna,
Nobody is searching my jewel
Which is lost in the river.
13. Yagyopaveet (Thread-tying ceremony)
14. Bramhacharya is the first of the four ashrams (phases) in a man's life, starting ap-
proximately from age twelve until age twenty-five.
15. The Tilak ceremony is held a few days prior to the wedding, in which gifts-usually
including the wedding attire for the groom-are sent by the bride's side to the bridegroom's.
The Ghur-Charhi which literally means "mounting the horse," is a ceremony, when the bride-
groom departs on a horse for the bride's house for the wedding ceremony.
16. Sehra literally means the headgear of the bridegroom, and Banna stands for the bride-
groom.
17. The Mehndi [henna] ceremony is one, where henna-paste is applied on the bride's
hands and feet in floral designs, as part of the bridal make-up.
18. Banni means the bride.
19. Mandap is a canopy bedecked with flowers, and under which the bridal couple sits for
the wedding ceremony.
20. These are Vedic rituals forming a part of the Hindu wedding ceremony, performed
around the sacred fire under the Mandap, by taking the proverbial seven steps (Saptapadi).
21. Vidai, literally means farewell, and gavana means departure.
22. Kahar is a sub-caste among the Sudras (untouchables) who are traditionally water-
carriers and palanquin-bearers.
23. Kaharwa is a Taal (see Appendix) with just four beats, which imparts the characteris-
tic rhythmic effect to folk-songs sung against this beat.
24. "Oh-Sister-in-law why are you nagging me."
25. Uncle-moon* is coming and going . . .
Coming to the golden vessel,
To eat milk and rice
Here goes the morsel in the mouth of the child.

*(whose reflection is being shown to the child in the eating vessel.)

26. The computerization scheme of the Government would be undertaken largely under
the aegis of the proposed Indira Gandhi Centre for Arts at New Delhi, in which an entire de-
partment would focus on the tribal and folk-traditions.
27. These include inter-alia the Apna Utsav [People's festival]-a cultural extravaganza
held in New Delhi in November 1986, and the Lok-Parva [folk-festival] held at Lucknow (state
capital of U.P.) in October 1986.

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402 Ethnomusicology, Fall 1987

Appendix

A. Styles in which folk-songs are sung.

Jhumar: This is a style popular in the villages, where the folk-songs
are accompanied by group dancing.
Nirguna: These folk-songs are based on the poetry of Nirguna
poets, like Kabir, Raidas, etc.
Purbi: These are based on the Purbi-Dhun [Eastern-melody]-a
popular folk tune, which however is different from the
classical Raga Purvi.

B. Folk instruments generally used with folk-songs.

Name Type of Description
Instrument

1. Ektara String It is a very basic instrument with a

single string which is plucked by the
forefinger. The string serves as the
drone as well as the rhythmic accompa-
niment to the chanting of mendicants
and wandering minstrels all over India
(p.42)

2. Chimta Percussion It is a rhythmic instrument consisting

of two flat blades of iron with pointed
ends. One end of both is joined to-
gether by an iron ring. A series of
circular metal rings are loosely fixed to
the two arms of the instrument. It is
held in both the hands and the blades
pressed to give the rhythmic effect,
which is more or less similar to that
produced by the Khartal-another such
folk instrument commonly used. These
are used in devotional and social music
(p.52).

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 Folk Songs of Uttar Pradesh 403

3. Dholak Percussion This is an oblong-shaped instrument

with drums on both ends; the Chimta
and Khartal are usually supplemented
by the Dholak.

4. Manjira Percussion This is a pair of metallic cymbols used

for rhythmic purposes. They are flat,
circular discs usually connected by a
cord or cotton-thread passing through a
hole in their centres. The Manjira pro-
duces a pleasant sound and is usually
used in devotional music (p.52).

5. Rabab String It is a popular stringed instrument of

the plucked variety. It is made of
wood, and has a double belly-the first
being covered with parchment and the
second with wood. It has four principal
strings with a number of sympathetic
strings. "It appears that the Indian
Rabab exercised a considerable influ-
ence on the history of stringed instru-
ments in the West, since it was through
it that the bow was introduced to the
West" (p.28).

6. Sarangi String The Sarangi is about 61 cm. long, with

three main strings and about 35 to 40
sympathetic strings. "There is reason to
believe that the Sarangi must have re-
mained a folk-instrument for centuries
. . .before it acquired its present form
as late as the 17th century" (p.29).

Source:
S. Krishaswami, Musical Instruments of India (New Delhi, 1977: Publica-
tions Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of
India, New Delhi).

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404 Ethnomusicology, Fall 1987

C. Description of the Ragas in which folk-songs are usually sung

Name Melodic Characteristics Description

1. Bahar Ascent: N S, G M, P G This is an exquisite

(p.23) M, DNS seasonal melody, usually
Descent: S, N P, M P, sung in the Drut Laya
GM, RS [fast tempo].
Pakad: M P, G M, D, N
S (Pakad, literally mean-
ing "catch," is the catch-
tune of the Raga, identi-
fying its main features
which distinguish it from
other Ragas.)

2. Basant Ascent: S G M D R S It is a seasonal raga,

(p.62) Descent: R N D, P, M usually sung in the sea-
GMDM
G M D M son of Basant (early
GRS Spring). It is a fascina-
Pakad: MI D, R S, R, ting melody sung with
N, D P, lq G, themes relating to the
M G Basant season, such as
the blossoming of the
yellow daffodils-the
color yellow being the
leitmotif of the Basant
season.

3. Durga Ascent: S R, M R, P D S It is usually sung at

(pp.14,18) Descent: S D P, D M night and is a sweet,
R S. emotive raga.
Pakad: P D P, D M,
M R S.

4. Jhinjhoti Ascent: D S, R M G, It is a sweet melody,

(p.18) MPDNS. more suited to the fe-
Descent: S, N, D, P, male voice and has an
M, GR S. easy, light style.

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 Folk Songs of Uttar Pradesh 405

Pakad: D S, R M G, P,
M G, R S, N,
D P.

5. Kafi Ascent: S R G, M, P, This again is a very

(p.22) DNS. sweet Raga, of the night
Descent: S N D, P, M G variety, usually sung
R S. around mid-night. Holi's
Pakad: SS, R R, G G, (discussed under season-
MM, P al songs) are generally
sung in Raga Kafi.

6. Kamod Ascent: S R, P, M P, This is a popular melo-

(p.50) D P, N DS dy, suitable for all styles
Descent: S, N D, P, M P as well as for male and
DD P, GM P female voices.
GMR S.
Pakad: R, P M P, D P,
GM RS.

7. Khamaj Ascent: S G M P, D N S. This raga is of a night

(p.16) Descent: S N D P, M G variety, usually sung
R S. around mid-night and is
Pakad: N D, M P D, very melodious.
M G

8. Malhara Ascent: S R M, P, D S. There are several varie-

(Goud) Descent: S N P, M P, ties of the raga Malhara,
(pp. 23, GM RS. most of which are sung
28, 29) Pakad: R G R, M G R during the monsoon. Be-
S, P M P D S, ing a seasonal raga, the
D PM. themes of this melody
are usually the rains,
along with a highly emo-
tive content. Of the dif-
ferent varieties of Mal-
hara, Goud Malhara is
the most popular.

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406 Ethnomusicology, Fall 1987

9. Peelu Ascent: N S G, R G, M This raga is usually sung

(p.23) P, DP, N D P, around mid-day and is
S. employed mainly for
Descent: S N D P, M G, themes which have a
RNS. character of intense
Pakad: N S G, N S, longing and fervent
P D N S. appeal.

Source:
Ram Avtar "Vir," Theory of Indian Ragas (New Delhi, 1980: Pankaj Pub-
lications).

Notes:
1. The dot below the notation refers to the lower octave.
2. The dot above the notation refers to the higher octave.
3. The sign-, resembling a hyphen below the notation is equivalent to "flat"
in western notation, and the sign, corresponds to the Western "Sharp".
4. Given below is a chart of the corresponding notations in the Hindustani
(North Indian), Italian and Western forms.

Hindustani (Transliterated S R G M P D N S
from the Devanagri Script)

Italian Do Re Me Fa Sol La Si Do

Western C D E F G A B C

5. Taal: This is a cyclic arrangem

Acknowledgement:
I would like to thank Dr. S.S. A
Music College, Lucknow (State C
of Northern India-for providing
dix, and for certains clarification
raised by me therein; he also pro
tions.

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