Energy Science and Engineering (KOE 033)

Unit 1st: Energy and its usage:

1. Energy
Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one form to another.
In Practical terms, energy is what we use to manipulate the world around us, whether by
exciting our muscles, by using electricity, or by using mechanical devices such as automobiles.
Energy comes in different forms-heat(thermal), light(radiant), mechanical, electrical, chemical,
and nuclear energy.
Various Forms of Energy:
There are two types of energy - stored (potential) energy and working (kinetic) energy. For
example, the food we eat contains chemical energy, and our body stores this energy until we
release it when we work or play.
(a) Potential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position (gravitational). It exists in various
forms.
Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. Biomass, petroleum,
natural gas, propane and coal are examples of stored chemical energy.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom- the energy that holds the nucleus
together. The nucleus of a uranium atom is an example of nuclear energy.
Stored Mechanical Energy
Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed
springs and stretched rubber bands and examples of stored mechanical energy.
Gravitational Energy
Gravitational energy is the energy of place or position. Water in a reservoir behind behind a
hydro-power dam is an example of gravitational energy. When the water is released to spin the
turbines, it becomes motion energy.
(b) Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is energy in motion-the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and sub-
stances. It exists in various forms.
Radiant Energy
radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy
includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of
radiant energy.
Thermal Energy
Thermal energy (or heat) is the internal energy in substances the vibration and movement of
atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
Motion
The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion. Wind and hydro-
power are example of motion.
Sound
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction)
waves.
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Lightning and electricity are examples of
electrical energy.
2. Energy Conversion
Energy is defined as "the ability to do work." In this sense, examples of work include moving
something, lifting something, warming something, or lighting something. The following is an
example of the transformation of different types of energy into heat and power.
Oil burns to generate heat-->
Heat boils water-->
Water turns to steam-->
Steam pressure turns a turbine-->
Turbine turns an electric generator-->
Generator produces electricity-->
Electricity power light bulbs-->
Light bulbs give off light and heat
It is difficult to imagine spending an entire day without using energy. We use energy to light
our cities and homes, to power machinery in factories, cook our food, play music, and operate
our TV.
Note: More the number of conversion stages, lesser the overall energy efficiency.
3. Grades of Energy
(a) High-Grade Energy
Electrical and chemical energy are high-grade energy, because the energy is concentrated in a
small space. Even a small amount of electrical and chemical energy can do a great amount of
work. The molecules or particles that store these forms of energy are highly ordered and
compact and thus considered as high-grade energy. High-grade energy like electricity is better
used for high grade applications like melting of meals rather than simply heating of water.
 (b) Low-Grade Energy
Heat is low-grade energy. heat can still be used to do work (example of a heater boiling water),
but it rapidly dissipates. The molecules, in which this kind of energy is stored (air and water
molecules), are more randomly distributed than the molecules of carbon in a coal. This
disordered state of the molecules and the dissipated energy are classified as low-grade energy.
4. Units of Energy
SI = International System
MKSA= Meter, Kilogram, Second Ampere
Electromagnetic units
Charge – Coulombs
Current – Amperes
Electrostatic Potential - Volts
Resistance - Ohms
Thermal units
Temperature – Kelvin (k)
Let [X] means “The units of X”
Basics: m – kilograms, l – meters, t – seconds, and Q – coulombs
By using basics, we can get the units of any physical quantity by using a definition or
physical law that relates it to something we already know….
For example: [speed] = l/t = meter/second
• Newton’s second law: Force = mass x acceleration = m l/t2 = kilogram meter/second2
1 kg m/s2 = 1 Newton
The force of gravity on you:
Fgravity= mg = 60 kg x 9.8 m/s2 = 588 N
1
• Kinetic energy: Energy = 2 mass x velocity-squared = m l2/t2 = kilogram meter2/second2
1 kg m2/s2 = 1 Joule = 1 Newton-meter
Your kinetic energy walking at 3 miles per hour:
1 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Ekinetic = 2mv2 = 2 x 60 kg ( 3 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 x 1609 x 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑)2 = 54 Joules
𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
• Power: Power = energy per unit time dE/dt [energy][time-1] = (m l2/t2) (1/t) = kilogram
meter2/second3 = kg m2/s3
1 kg m2/s3 = 1 Watt = 1 Joule/second
Power you exert climbing stairs at 0.5 meters per second
ΔE = mgΔh = 80kg x 0.5m x 9.8 m/s2 = 392 Joules
Pclimbing = ΔE/Δt = 392 Joules / 1 second = 392 Watts
• Pressure: Pressure = force per unit area dF/dA = [force][area-1] = (m l/t2) (1/t2) =
kilogram/meter second2 = kg m-1 s-2
1 kg m-1 s-2 = 1 Pascal = 1 Newton/meter2
 You, standing on the ground:
Force 588 588
Pgravity = = ~36𝑖𝑛2 = 0.023 = 25,565 Pascals
Area
𝑚𝑙
• Work and Potential energy = Fd = force x distance x l = m l2/t2
𝑡2
𝑚
• Work by Pressure = PV = pressure x volume = 𝑙𝑡 2 x l3 = m l2/t2
1 1
• Thermal Energy = 2NRT = 2nkBT
Thermal energy per degree of freedom at temperature T.
N – number of moles
R – the gas constant, R = 8.31447 Joules/mole K
T – temperature in Kelvins
n – number of molecules
kB – Boltzmann’s Constant = 1.381 x 10-23 JK-1
# Note that the mole departs from MKS units: It is a gram molecular weight, the molecular
weight of compound expressed in grams.
• Electrical Energy = Q x V
Q – Charge
V – Electrostatic Potential
Electrostatic potential → Electric field →Force and the force does work on a charge
that is moved.
How to measure electrostatic potential in SI Units?
What potential do you have to move one coulomb of charge through to get (or loss) 1
Joule of energy:
1 Joule 1 Joule/sec 1 Watt
1 Volt = = 1 Coulomb/sec = 1 Ampere
1 Coulomb
• Quantum Energy: E = hv
h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 Js
v = frequency of light
Energy of one quantum of light (photon).
[energy] = [h] [frequency]
1
[m l2/t2] = [h] x t
[h] = [energy] x [time] = Js
Einstein’s Rest Energy: E = mc2
Einstein’s relativity showed that mass itself is a form of energy with the speed of light
as the conversion factor…
[E] = [mc2] = [m l2/t2]
There’s no other quantity that is described in more different units than energy.
• Exajoules, quads, tera Watt-years Global Units
• Tonnes of coal, tons of TNT, barrels of oil, therms,
kilowatt hours Industrial Strength Units
• BTU (British thermal unit), kilocalories Human Sized Units
• Calories, foot-pounds, Joules Child Sized Units
• Ergs, electron-Volts Microworld Units
5. Unit Conversion/Units of Energy and Power
1 electron volt (eV) ≈ 1.602 x 10-19 J
1 eV per molecule ≈ 96.49 kJ mol-1
1 erg ≡ 10-7 J
1 foot-pound ≈ 1.356 J
1 calorieIT (calIT) ≡ 4.1868 J (IT – international table)
1 calorieTH (calTH) ≡ 4.184 J (TH – thermochemical)
1 BTU ≈ 1.055 kJ
1 kilocalorieIT ≈ 4.1868 kJ
1 kilowatt-hour(kWh) ≡ 3.6 MJ
1 cubic meter natural gas ~ 36 MJ
1 therm (U.S.) ≈ 105.5 MJ
1 tonne TNT (tTNT) ≡ 4.184 GJ
1 barrel of oil equivalent ≡ 5.8 x 106 BTU ≈ 6.118GJ
1 ton of coal equivalent ≡ 7 GcalIT ≡ 29.3076 GJ
1 ton of oil equivalent ≡ 10 GcalIT ≡ 41.868 GJ
1 quad ≡ 1015 BTU ≈ 1.055 EJ
1 terawatt-year (TWy) ≡ 31.56 EJ
1 watt (W) ≡ 1 joule/sec
1 foot pound per second ≈ 1.356 W
1 horsepower (electric) ≡ 746 W
1 ton of air conditioning ≈ 3.517 kW
[Symbols: ≡ definition ; ≈ four significant figures ; ~ actual value varies]
6. Scales of Energy

• Atomic energy scales are eV- energy necessary to ionize hydrogen is 13.6 eV.
• Nuclear energy scales are MeV- energy necessary to remove a proton from a typical
nucleus is ~8 MeV
2. Mechanical Energy and Transport:
It is the energy associated with the motion and position of an object. In elastic collision,
mechanical energy is conserved; while inelastic collision mechanical energy is converted in to
thermal energy.
Mechanical Energy = K.E. + P.E.
Elastic and Inelastic Collision: An elastic collision is one in which no energy is lost. A
partially inelastic collision is one in which some energy is lost, but the object does not stick
together. The greatest portion of energy is lost in the perfectly inelastic collision, when the
object stick.
Transport:
Energy transformation is also known as conversion. In this process, energy changes from one
form to another. Mechanical energy is can be converted in to heat and heat can be converted
into some mechanical energy.
3. Heat Energy:
Heat is also a form of energy like electricity, light, sound etc. Whenever there is a transfer
of energy between two bodies due to difference in their temperatures, the energy so trans-
formed is called thermal or heat energy.
Conversion between heat and mechanical energy:
Energy conversion refers to energy transformation. Mechanical energy can be converted into
heat and heat can be converted into mechanical energy.
The first law of thermodynamics tells how the thermal and mechanical energy are
transformed into each other in the course of various thermodynamics process.
Or
It states that energy may be converted from one form to another, but it is never lost from the
system.
Second law of thermodynamics
Determine the conditions in which thermal energy can be converted into mechanical work.
According to second law of thermodynamics –
dQ = dU + dW
Where dQ is heat energy given to the thermodynamics system, dU is increase in internal energy
of the system and dW is work done by the system defined as-
dW=PdV
The various process involved are-
(i) Isothermal Process - Temperature remains constant
(ii) Isochoric Process - Volume remains constant
(iii) Isobaric Process – Pressure remains constant
(iv) Adiabatic Process – Heat transfer does not take place (i.e. dQ = 0).
(v) Reversible Process – The process which can be reversed back completely is called
reversible process.

4. Electromagnetic Energy:
It is term used to describe all the different kinds of energies related to space by stars such
as the sun. They include – Radiowaves, X-rays, Gamma-Rays etc-
Electromagnetic energy storage –
Electromagnetic energy can be stored in the form of an electric or magnetic field.
Classification of stored energy-
1. The magnetic energy can be stored in solenoid and toroid. Solenoids are usually used
because they are easy to coil and no pre-compression is needed.
For a solenoid, stored energy is given by
1
E = 2 LI2
Where L is the inductance of the coil and I is current flowing.

2. The electrostatic energy can be stored by capacitor. In capacitor, a dielectric material is

placed between two plates to increase is capacity.
The energy stored is capacitor is given by
1
W = 2 CV2
Ɛ0 𝐴
Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor given by C = ; A being area of plates,
𝑑
d dielectric thickness and Ɛ0 is the permittivity of space.
So, the energy density in dielectric is
1
U = 2 ƐE2
where Ɛ is permittivity of dielectric material used.
Electrical double-layer capacitor differs from ordinary capacitor by having an
electrolyte between electrodes instead of a solid dielectric. It consists of two electrodes
with a porous separator between them. The separator is a polymer of thickness 100 μm.
The double layer capacitor are also known as supercapacitors or ultracapacitors, due
to very high capacitance compared to other capacitors.
 Applications- A combination of a battery and an electrical double layer capacitor can
be smaller, cheaper and longer-lasting than a battery alone.

3. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)-

In these systems, energy in a magnetic field is created by the flow of direct current
through a superconducting coil.
• Their primary advantage compared to other types of energy storage is their very
short reaction time and ability to produce high power for short period.
• Superconductors are of two types
(i) Low temperature super conductors
(LTSCs) →Tc = -253ˑc
(ii) High temperature super conductors
(HTSCs) → Tc = -140ˑc
Electromagnetic Energy Conversion:
The four maxwell’s equations are-

∇ ⃑ =𝜌
⃑ .E Gauss’s law in electrostatics
𝜀 0

⃑∇ . ⃑B = 0 Gauss’s law in magnetics

⃑
⃑∇ x ⃑E = -𝜕𝐵 Faraday’s law of EMI (electro-magnetic induction)
𝜕𝑡

⃑
⃑∇ x ⃑B = J + 𝜕𝐵 Ampere-Maxwell’s law
𝜕𝑡

The electromagnetic energy conversion is crucial in many applications such as energy

harvesting, non linear optics, solar cells etc.
• All visible and invisible energy travel in the form of waves called electromagnetic
energy.
• Radio stations change sound to electromagnetic wave and then radio receiver
changes the electromagnetic wave back to sound wave again. (modulation)

5. Introduction to the quantum & Energy quantization:

(i) A black body is not only filled up with radiations but with a large number of
tiny oscillators of atomic dimensions called atomic oscillators or Planck’s
oscillators. Therefore, a radiator contains simple harmonic oscillators of some
possible frequencies.
(ii) The oscillators can not emit or absorb energy continuously. This is contrary to
electromagnetic theory which allow a continuous emission or absorption of
energy.
(iii) Emission or absorption of energy takes place in discrete amounts i.e. energy of
oscillation is quantized. The energy of an atomic oscillator of frequency v can
have only certain values like 0, hv, 2hv ….. . This is an integral multiple of a
small unit of energy hv called the quantum or photon.
(iv) In general, for an oscillator of frequency v, the possible values of the energy are
given by-
 E= nhv
Where n is a positive integer and h is Planck constant.

h= 6.62607015×10−34 J⋅s

6. Energy in Chemical Systems and Process:

Energy plays a key role in chemical processes in chemical reactions, bonds between
atoms and broken and they form new bonds. Energy is absorbed to break bonds and
energy is evalued as bonds are made.
E.g., 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
The energy that is needed to break a bond is known as bond energy or bond
dissociation energy.
When we look at the entire reaction and consider both bond breaking and forming, we
need to look at the enthalpy of the system.
Enthalpy: It is the measure of the total energy of a chemical system for a given
pressure. It is represented by H.
The chemical reactions are therefore of two types-
(i) Exothermic reactions: When the energy is released as either heat or light, this
type of reactions is called exothermic reactions.
Rectants → Product + Energy
(ii) Endothermic reactions: When the energy is absorbed as either heat or light,
this type of reactions is called endothermic reactions.
Reactant + Energy → Product
Enthalpy change-
= +ΔH (endothermic)
= -ΔH (exothermic)
ΔH = Hproduct - Hreactant
ΔH = Hp - HR
Examples:
Endothermic reaction

ΔH = +ve
Exothermic reaction
C + O2 CO2 + 393.5 KJ ΔH = -ve
7. Flow of CO2
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) will potentially be an important contributor
to mitigating emission of CO2 from stationary sources. According to CCS 19% of CO2
emission will be reduced in 2050. Transport from the point of capture to a storage site
is a necessary part of a CCS system and may take place using e.g. ships or pipelines.
Experience with multi-phase flow in pipeline is abundant in the oil and gas industry.
Transport of CO2 will typically take place at high pressure, at conditions at which the
CO2 is in its super-critical phase. However, during a planned or possibly uncontrolled
depressurization, the fluid may enter the two-phase region with gas and liquid co-
existing. Due to phase change in such a situation, the fluid will cool significantly,
potentially leading to temperatures low enough to make the pipe steel brittle. This in
turn, make the pipe vulnerable to rupture and possible serve damage.
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clv- RCT-T
-
Area BPEAS

Hence, the h ewor don by hegas

WW +Wa +M
-W tW
Ayed ABcg

Thus, the work done m On Caunat ayclo Hebresented by tho

L h e Cyc
on a P-V dlagra m

SimiJasly, the nef a mauxt heoc a baerbed t h e gas

82
W 2 L iitial and inal atate
h e gas i same
 he engin is ven bby
The eciency e
Heat conveted nto oork
Heat clyqenrom h
s0u4

&2

h Toims_ tembuatvu he
Eiden engin
SouHCL and sink T, KK

The net worR done by the gas

ing e ),(2) 3 4+) . wehau

RT Ja9 V RT-12 RT2 S V RT-

Y-1 Y-L

RT ag V REeg
Nouo, i n u petnt A q n d & t e on h e same adu'abatfe cw4W BA

0 toe a

TV t,v,
imulay, 8 and C fe on h e 2ame adiabautic cu4U ,

ho Ut

T V TVs
sividng eq b
V VY-L
 V2 Vs V V4
oubsttuuthg i h eq , we qet

W- RT leg RT2 Jag

RT-T2) Jag CVz/V

The het ameunt hea absorhed by the a s um thu

Cyc d CG1-82) and ain niHal and ina

tedrs he Aystem Cgcus a e he n m , means hot

Jntenau enegy does na change ie remajns he

bame qnd henc using rat Jaw eheumodynd mid
G-92N AU- o

The
WS1- RCTL-T) Jg Cv. /V) -
e44cien c e engino giuen by
H eat conveuted int lork
Heat jken h rem h e s e H L

S-92 RCT-T) l 2 uatng an

V
40
RT ag 2

T- T
TL T
Thu enbrion shooA a t the eiienu ean engine oaperds
uhon he tembetatu the souc and ink and
a l u s o Jua han Cioo 7o) as T7CT-T2).
for an engin to haue Loo 4tena, T2 muut
zeO Ale Can het obtein a ink a
att
be inc
absolui ze0, s0 an engins ith Loo 7, 4cieny
L h a pracHcally poasihle
 Caxnaf engin worh)r
)4) Ceulculote the eictency e a

batwwn the tenp 27c 127

and
Cauna engin u given by
deny
The

HoHe, T 127+273 40o K

27+ 273 3oo K
12
100
400 400

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h eAom
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at temb and eueny
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the

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: 4oo K
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he iueny
0.2 20
 SnteanaL Comb ustion engin

The heat engine, dh which combtutton Cl he Huet) akes pla

inAil the yindl itael caUothe inteunal

Combuiton engine eato engin, diesel engina and

refra engine etc. combuutton occus autAdA the

Cytindes4 n akebra 4uHna hen engin J

Calllad
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he inteHno combeutton engino ConRizt e a Cpind i t h

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c u ad muttod dn t i n d s thragh his valus I . 0

he eu
ullt oreuhaust valu dor the spet u gaes or

the exhaut the Valves ae kept elaied b meand

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he embauatus
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suse to about Goo'c CFig L2)

 broduee at ApodRing
WorkingStroke A bauk
compressed mirtwu s þetral anol au
plug and
to a b a u 200o and
wtes The temb etcdtu sUA

1S cutmoxphaus s developed
abeut
a
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piston buheal oloon and

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4 Echaus tsoP The coLlle
enhausted ouw to
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he otmosßhouu Lhg L. t ]

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and the engnworbi. J i

he
he
nete thcut the woThig Aubatan e
Jmbor tat fo
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engin J aur, nr the peral Vobau

imeuy thet e a u l ,,
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to hea s the air

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be teken. n the indlicator ouiag ram a Ahoon in Fig s )

 rebresends he. c hasgingAtrohu, ohich he m { o
1 SA

pestrob vabeuuu qnd air entes Jh the ylindu otthe

sin uobaxic epeeation At A,
otmesphesie pruA UN an

ha working ubatan
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Caln) be V and T uspectively

ebresents the conpr eionATrakeAu ompreinod

2 A to B

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adiabaticolly
temperou e to
a u n changasLram V, to V. The
abou Goo' and he pruuw abeut 2 am 0AhouA

which the mixtun

8 to C reprsenta the Ateme, af Th
immedlately:
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som 12 to T C2oo0 )The breau maintalnod qno d

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4 Cto 9 Hebresents he worhig Atrok he mixtu el air

ind petral vab@ul erpand adiabatealuy o a original

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he exhau Valu epen andlpreszus and

S at paint ,
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 ESE- UNIT-1
Stirling Heat Engine – It is a heat engine that is operated by a cyclic compression and
expansion of air or other gas at different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of heat
energy to mechanical work. More specifically, this engine is a closed-cycle regenerative heat
engine close cycle means a thermodynamic system in which the working fluid is permanently
contained within the system, and regenerative describes the use of specific type of internal heat
exchanger and thermal store known as regenerator.
Stirling heat engines are used only in some very specialised applications like in submarines.
In closed cycle, two types of process are used-
(i) Two isothermal process
(ii) Two isochoric process (constant volume process)
 Sterling cycle is similar to Carnot cycle except that two adiabatic processes are replaced by
two isochoric processes (constant volume processes).
A suitable gas or air is used as working fluid. The system components are shown in figure.
The heat addition and rejection take place at constant temperature.
Process 4-1: The working fluid receives heat at constant volume, in a regenerative heat
exchanger from the exhaust fluid returning from the turbine. V4 = V1 ; dQ = - Cv (TE-TC)
Process 1-2: In this process, the working fluid receives heat at constant (high) temperature
and expand in turbine producing work out (WT).
P1V1 = P2V2; T2=T1=Tc; dƟ = du + dw
Process 2-3: Working fluid looses out heat at constant volume to the fluid incoming to the
turbine. V2 = V3; T3 = T4 = TE; dƟ = Cv (TE-TC); Q = mCvΔT
Process 3-4: Working fluid is compressed at constant low temperature and Q2 heat is
rejected to the ambient temperature.
P3V3 = P4V4; T3 = T4 = TE
The heat transfer in regenerative heat exchanger is accomplished reversibly by a matrix of
small tubes.
𝑇2
𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1-
𝑇1
1 𝑇𝐸
(Coefficient of performance) COP = =
𝜂 𝑇𝐸 −𝑇𝐶

Refrigeration and Heat Pumps – A refrigerator and a heat pump both are the reversed heat
engines. They are used to remove heat from a body at low temperature level and then transfer
to another body at high potential of temperature when the main purpose of the machine is to
remove heat from the cooled space, it is called a refrigerator.
Refrigerator – A refrigerator operates between the temperature of surroundings and a
temperature below that of surroundings.
Heat Pump - A heat pump operates between the temperature of the surroundings and a
temperature above that of surroundings. Heat pump are generally used to keep the room warm
in winter. The performance of a refrigerator and heat pump is expressed in terms of coefficient
of performance.

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
COP =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
(i) In refrigerator, the desired effect is the amount of heat extracted from the space
being cooled (i.e. the space at low temperature)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑄 𝑇
(COP)Ref = = 2= 2
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊 𝑇1 −𝑇2

From energy conservation principle; W = Q1 – Q2

𝑄
(COP)Ref = 2
𝑄1 −𝑄2
In heat pump, the desired effect is the amount of heat Q1 supplied to the space being
heated.

𝑄1 𝑇1
(COP)heat pump = =
𝑄1 −𝑄2 𝑇1 −𝑇2
𝑄2
=1+
𝑄1 −𝑄2
= 1+ (COP)Ref
Phase Change Energy Conversion: The amount of heat energy absorbed by a unit mass of
the substance in change of its phase (such as from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas) at a
constant temperature, is called the latent heat.
When a substance changes its phase from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas at a constant
pressure, its volume increases. Hence a part of the heat energy absorbed is used in increasing
its internal potential energy. There is no change in internal kinetic energy of the substance,
since temperature remains constant.
The work done in increasing it volume
dW = P (V2 – V1)
above equation conversion of 1 g of water into 1g of steam 100oC
Soln. P = 1 atmosphere (=0.76 m Hg)
V1 = 1 cm3
V2 = 1760 cm3
(0.76 x 13.6 x 103 x 9.8) (1760−1) x 10−6
dW = cal
4.18

= 42.6 cal (approx.)

But Latent heat of vaporization of water L = 540 cal/g
Increase in interval energy dU = dQ – dW (by first law)
= 540 – 42.6 = 497.4 cal.
Thus, out of 540 cal given to water, 42.6 cal is used in doing work in increasing the volume
against external pressure and remains 497.54 cal heat is used in increasing its internal potential
energy. (no change in kinetic energy)
e. g. (ii) conversion of 1 g water into 1 g ice at 0oC –
Soln. The heat rejected dQ = L (latent heat)
When water freezes into ice, its volume increases,
V1 = 1.00 cm3
V2 = 1.0907 cm3
dW = P (V2 – V1)
= (0.76 x 13.6 x 103 x 9.8) (1.0907 − 1) x 10−6 J
= 1.013 x 105 x 0.0907 x 10−6 J
1.013 x 105 x 0.0907 x 10−6
= cal
4.18

= 0.0022 cal (Approx.)

But latent heat of freezing of water = 80 cal/g
Change in inter interval energy dU = dQ – dW
= - L - P (V2 – V1)
= - 80 – 0.0022 cal. = - 80.0022 cal
Thus, 1 g water in freezing into ice absorbs 80 cal heat at 0oC and 0.0022 cal work is done in
increasing the volume.
 I. Steam (or Vapour) Power Cycle:
These cycles are referred to external combustion systems in which working fluid is
alternatively vaporised and condensed. Water/Steam is used for this purpose. In a vapour cycle,
the main objectives are to convert the energy present in the fuel into mechanical energy and
then to electrical energy.
The vapour is generated in a steam boiler which then enters the steam turbine, a condenser and
a feed pump.

In vapour power cycle, different processes take place,

1 2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the fluid is liquid at this
stage, the pump requires little input.
2 3: The high-pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by
external heat source to become a dry saturated vapour.
3 4: The dry saturated vapour expands through a turbine generating power. And some
condensation may occur.
4 1: The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is condensed at constant pressure to
become saturated liquid.
So, work done during this cycle
Wnet = Heat Absorbed – Heat Rejected
=q2 3 –q3 4

= (S3 – S2) T1 – (S4 – S1) T3

= (S3 – S1) (T1 – T3) (because, S1 = S2 & S3 = S4)
Now, thermal efficiency
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
η=
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
(𝑆3 − 𝑆1 ) (𝑇1 −𝑇3 )
=
(𝑆3 − 𝑆1 ) 𝑇1
𝑻𝟑
η = 1-
𝑻𝟏
Where, T1 = Higher temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure (P1 = P2)
T3 = Lower temperature corresponding to the condenser pressure (P3 = P4)
Draw backs of vapour cycle (Carnot cycle) –
1. The vapour has large specific volume and to accommodate volume, the size of the
compressor become quite large.
2. For running a large sized compressor more power is required and that results in poor
plant efficiency.
3. Carnot cycle has high specific steam consumption, large back work ratio and low work
ratio.
4. The steam at exhaust from the turbine is at low quality i.e. high moisture content, the
liquid water droplets causes pitting and hence erosion of turbine blades.

I. Gas Power Cycle –

There are different types of gas power cycles in I.C. engines-
i. Carnot cycle
ii. Otto cycle
iii. Diesel cycle
iv. Dual cycle
v. Brayton cycle
Brayton Cycle:
• It is also called ‘joule-cycle’ and ‘constant pressure’ cycle.
• It is for a prefect gas or ideal gas.
• This cycle is used as a basic for Gas Turbine Power Plants.
Layout of simple open cycle Gas turbine –

C- Compressor CC- Combustion Chamber

T- Turbine G- Generator
Isentropic Process - Adiabatic and Reversible both.
The work transfers of the system are frictionless and there is no transfer of heat or
matter.
The processes that takes place in Brayton cycle –
1 2 : Isentropic Compression (in a compressor)
2 3 : Constant Pressure heat addition (in combustion chamber)
3 4 : Isentropic expansion (in turbine)
4 1 : Constant Pressure heat rejection
Thermal efficiency for Brayton cycle is given as –
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑−𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝜂𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑛 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅
𝜂𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑛 =
𝑄𝐴
𝑸𝑹
𝜼𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 1-
𝑸𝑨

Heat added constant pressure is given by

QA = m Cp ( T3 – T2)
Heat rejected at constant pressure is given by
QR = m Cp ( T4 – T1)
𝑚 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 −𝑇1 )
So, 𝜂𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1-
𝑚 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )

(𝑇4 −𝑇1 )
𝜂𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1-
(𝑇3 −𝑇2 )

Since processes 1 2 and 3 4 are isentropic between the same pressure

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾 𝑇3 𝑃3 𝛾
=( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =( )
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑇4 𝑃4
by using P3 = P2 & P4 = P1
 𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟑 𝑷𝟐 𝜸
=( )
𝑻𝟒 𝑷𝟏
𝑃2
Let, = 𝑟𝑝
𝑃1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑇3
= (𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾
and = (𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾
𝑇1 𝑇4

𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇3
= ; =
𝑇1 𝑇4 𝑇1 𝑇2

(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) (𝑇3 − 𝑇1 )
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
(𝑇4 −𝑇1 ) 𝑇1
=
(𝑇3 −𝑇1 ) 𝑇2
𝑻𝟏
So, 𝜼𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 1-
𝑻𝟐

(Same as Carnot cycle)

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
Now, =( ) = (𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾
𝑇1 𝑃 1
𝑇1 1
Or, = 𝛾−1
𝑇2
(𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾

𝟏
So, 𝜼𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 1- 𝜸−𝟏
(𝒓𝒑 ) 𝜸

𝜸−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝜸 𝐯𝟏 𝛄−𝟏
=( ) = ( )
𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝐯𝟐
 Numerical Probbs (ated Gac PouerGcle
A Air enershe Com Pess or ot a
aAS bine plqut
pe o

oy to Cycle ot lol.325 KPa an

27'C.The Presse satio inthe cyele
i s . Calculase he amI m eperature
in th cycle
ett uenty1
Asse r = 25 z : 4
WT= Tuabiedork W 2 oupyezsorWorK
S CP=lo 325 kP lol 32S X 1oP
lo325 x lo NA2
T 27Cz 3oo K
WT 2.5 We =4
an BTyton
o r Pocess - 2

T
T

Ta-T = 300 x(GT

500 5Sk
 34

P
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