Civil Engineering Maintenance (Cve 309) : Delivered By: Ing. Leticia Osae Adum Atu, Doce February, 2022

CIVIL ENGINEERING
MAINTENANCE (CVE 309)

LECTURE 7
Delivered by: Ing. Leticia Osae Adum

loadum@atu.edu.gh
ATU, DoCE
February, 2022
1
BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONSDING
MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS
FOUNDATIONS
Site Conditions
Site Investigations
It is important that site investigations are always carried out before any extensions
and alterations are added to a building. This aspect is becoming more and more
important as areas that were not previously used are also being considered for
development. If the conditions at the site is severe, special measures may be
required.
Johnson (1986) has developed a comprehensive site visit checklist that can be used
when inspecting potential sites to reduce the chance of overlooking potential dangers.
2
FOUNDATIONS
Site Conditions
Site Investigations
Below are some key questions that need to be answered during a site investigation;
1. Are there signs of damage to existing buildings?
2. Are any existing buildings supported on special foundations?
3. Are there signs of landslip or erosion of slopes, such as surface rippling or tension
cracks on the surface (clay slopes of gradients greater than 1:10 can be subject to
creep)?
4. Is there evidence of imported soil, tipped material or rubbish? 3

FOUNDATIONS
Site Conditions
Site Investigations
5. Is there evidence of existing services crossing the site?
6. How was the site used previously?
7. Is the site situated in a known area of coal or mineral extraction?
8. Will demolition prior to development affect the stability of adjoining buildings?
4
FOUNDATIONS
Site Conditions
Site Investigations
Some signs to look out for during site investigations and their implications include;
Slopes steeper than 1 in 10 may be subject to creep and this could result in heavy
pressures on walls.
In limestone or chalky areas, craters or gentle pits usually indicate swallow holes caused by
the collapse of sandy or loamy soil into the cracked rocks below. .
A polygonal pattern of cracks about 25 mm wide on the ground surface during the
dry season indicates a shrinkable soil.
5
FOUNDATIONS
Site Conditions
Site Investigations
Shallow depressions around mature trees in open ground, repairs to paved surfaces
close to trees in built up areas, and broken kerbs may indicate shrinkage due to
drying.
Large cracks that are nearly parallel to each other are usually due to deeper seated
movements, such as those caused by mining, brine pumping, or landslides.
Low-lying sites may be liable to flood, particularly where they are within the flood
plain of a river, and the highest recorded flood levels need to be obtained.
6
FOUNDATIONS
Site Conditions
Site Investigations
Some clays contain sulphates and these may cause corrosion of buried concrete,
iron and steel. Where the presence of sulphates is suspected, the groundwater
should be analyzed.
Stickiness when wet and cracking when dry may indicate a clay with
shrinkage/swelling properties.
Note the location, species, height, girth and condition of any trees.
Bounciness underfoot or any evidence of past flooding can signify a high water table.
7
FOUNDATIONS
Site Conditions
Soils
Before any decisions are made with regards to design of foundations, the
characteristics of the soil present on the site needs to be established. Boreholes or
inspection pits should be excavated on the site to obtain samples for soil testing,
noting the depths in each case. Soil conditions have an important influence on
foundation design and the subsequent behaviour of buildings. Most soils consist of
solid particles of varying shapes and sizes with the spaces between filled by water or
air.
8
FOUNDATIONS
Site Conditions
Soils
Large particles such as sand are held together primarily by their own weight and have
little strength when loose, while fine particles such as clay hold a lot of water in the film
between the particles which bind them together. Clay becomes stronger and shrinks
when it dries, but swells and loses strength when wet. A foundation load increases
external pressure on the soil, squeezing out water from between the soil particles. When
the particles are large, as in the case of sand, the water moves fast and the soil settles
fairly quickly after the load is applied. In contrast, clay provides resistance to the
release of water, and settlement can continue for years after construction. 9
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Movements resulting from loading
The characteristics of the soil and the imposed load on it determines the extent of
movement of the foundation. It is difficult to assess the extent of settlement of
individual foundations due to the complex soil quality, which does not settle evenly
even with evenly loaded soil. The most significant movement will occur within 5 years,
but it has been suggested that the compression of the foundations of large structures
can continue for about 20 years after construction. Shallow foundations such as
strips, slabs, and slab foundations under normal load increase the pressure on the
ground to a depth and width equal to 1.5 times the width of the foundation. 10
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Movements resulting from loading
Different load patterns can result in different settlements only if there is a change in
ground support. The main exceptions are bays, rear additions, and internal dividers,
which can be built on smaller, shallower foundations. There is often differential
movement between these features and the main enclosing walls.
11
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Movements resulting from other causes
Movements of foundations can also result from seasonal weather changes, growth or
removal of vegetation, earth flows and subsidence. The problems are accentuated
with soils composed of fine particles and so different soil conditions are considered
separately.
Clay soils: For shallow foundations on clays, movement is mostly due to the
shrinkage and swelling of the soil when drying and wetted respectively. Where clays
are firm enough to support buildings of several storeys they are known as firm
shrinkable clays 12
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Clay soils: The roots of trees and shrubs penetrate soil to considerable depths and
extract moisture when rainfall is low in the dry season, causing drying out of the soil.
To some extent the building protects the clay from seasonal drying and wetting, and
movement is more likely under outer walls and corners. Shrinkage of clay occurs both
horizontally and vertically, so there is a tendency for walls to be drawn outwards in
addition to settling and for cracks to open between the clay and the sides of the
foundations. These cracks permit water to-enter during the following rainy season and
to soften the clay against or beneath the foundations 13
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Clay soils: Buildings should not in general be erected closer to single trees than their
height at maturity, or one-and-a-half times their height in the case of groups or rows of
trees. New trees should not be planted too close to existing buildings. Constant
pruning of growing trees is often necessary to restrict their height and avoid risk of
damage to buildings.
When trees are felled to clear a site for building, a considerable time should be
allowed for the clay to regain water previously extracted by the tree roots. Otherwise
the clay as it swells may lift the building 14
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Clay soils: Boilers and furnaces inadequately insulated from the clay beneath may
dry and shrink the clay, resulting in the fracture of the concrete foundation slab
through lack of support. Short-bored pile foundations are often well suited for use in
shrinkable clay, although narrow strip (trench fill) foundations may provide a
satisfactory alternative
15
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Sandy soils: Dense beds of sand form excellent foundation soils, but underground
water can wash out the finer particles, leaving coarser material in a less stable
condition.
16
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Organic soils and made-up ground: Peat and other soils containing a considerable
proportion of organic matter in the form of decaying vegetation vary in volume as their
water content changes, and are also readily compressible. Made-up ground mostly
continues to undergo settlement for many years unless it is good material, carefully
placed and adequately compacted in thin layers. Poorly compacted fill does not
provide a suitable ground for foundations, therefore there is the need to penetrate the
fill down till the much firmer ground beneath is reached. Thus piled foundations are
17
usually used.
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Organic soils: The risks posed to the structure of a building on unconsolidated fill or
on soft ground are very serious. Further settlement and cracking may occur after
repairs have been carried out. Movements are often extensive and their timing
unpredictable with settlements of this kind.
18
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Large scale movements
Some foundation movements occur in good foundation soil owing to natural or
geological phenomena, artificial agencies or a combination of them. For instance, clay
soils on slopes exceeding 1 in 10 are likely to move downhill, though slowly, while in
chalk and limestone areas, cavities in the bedrock can be formed by underground
streams or watercourses dissolving the rock. If a sandy overburden falls into the
cavity, a vulnerable 'swallow hole' is formed at the surface.
19
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Large scale movements
Large settlements occur in mining areas as the ground subsides over excavations .
Normally the ground surface stretches as the front of a subsidence approaches and
buildings start to tilt towards it. Subsequently the tilt decreases but settlement
increases as the ground below is affected, which can result in fractures to the
structure, sagging of arches, collapse of beams and fracture of pipe joints. Provided
structural damage is not severe, the building will slowly return to an essentially vertical
position but at a lower level. Small brick dwellings on comparatively thin reinforced
concrete rafts can usually resist moderate movements without undue damage 20
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Design of foundations
With light traditional buildings, strip foundations, having a width equal to about twice
the thickness of the loadbearing wall, will not impose a pressure in excess of the
permissible bearing pressure on any soils, except very soft clays and silts, peats and
made-up ground. For most soils, considerations of bearing capacity will only arise with
heavier buildings where, for example, heavy load concentrations are imposed on pier
or pad foundations.
21
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Design of foundations
The depth to which foundations have to be excavated is largely dependent on the
following three factors.
Secure adequate bearing capacity;
In the case of clay soils to penetrate below the zone where shrinkage and swelling
due to seasonal weather changes are likely to cause appreciable movement;
In fine silts and sands, to penetrate below the zone in which trouble may be
expected from frost
22
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Concrete in foundations
The strength of concrete is influenced by a number of factors. These include;
Proportion and type of cement;
Type, proportions, gradings and quality of aggregates;
 water content;
Method and adequacy of batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and
curing concrete.
Most concrete foundations contain regular Portland cement, which may vary
depending on the circumstances. 23
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
For instance, in sulphate-bearing soils and groundwaters'" it is advisable to use a
special cement, such as sulphate-resisting Portland cement.
It is expedient to specify mixes in terms of cement content in kg/m³ of fresh concrete
or compressive strength at 28 days. Typical examples are grade C15 (7.5 N/mm2) or
120 kg/m³ of cement for plain concrete or grade C20 (20 N/mm²) or 220 kg/m³ of
cement for reinforced concrete with dense aggregate.
24
Foundation Problems
The water content should be kept as low as possible consistent with sufficient
workability and water-cement ratios are usually in the range of 0.40 to 0.60. To secure
satisfactory results, the concreting materials must be properly batched, adequately
mixed, carefully transported and placed, adequately compacted and properly cured.
Premature failures of concrete foundations may arise through weak concrete or
insufficiently mixed or unsuitable materials, or through the foundations being of
inadequate cross-section or supported on a weak formation. Hence there are many
ways in which the concrete may fail and ample precautions must be taken to ensure
sound work. 25
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Modification of existing foundations to take increasing loads
It is often necessary, when carrying out alterations to existing buildings, to check on
the adequacy of foundations . This check is carried out by digging down and exposing
the foundations at suitable points and noting the size, depth and general condition of
the existing concrete foundations. In a few cases it may even be found that the walls
merely rest on brick footings with no underlying concrete foundations .
Where it is found that the existing foundations are insufficient to carry the additional
loads, measures must be taken to increase the strength of the foundations.
26
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation Problems
Modification of existing foundations to take increasing loads
This is usually done by constructing new foundations under the existing foundations in
lengths of 900 to 1200 mm as underpinning. If existing foundations are of adequate
thickness and quality, walls can be underpinned by installing raked mini-piles through
the footings, generally alternating between the inside and outside of the building. The
majority of small-diameter mini-piles are formed of driven steel casings filled with
cement grout and provided with nominal reinforcement by a single central bar. In clay
soils, casings are not normally necessary and augered, cast in grout or concrete piles
can be used. 27
SETTLEMENT OF BUILDINGS
Causes of Settlement
Buildings may settle for a variety of reasons, including inadequate foundations, low-
bearing or shrinkable clay soil, presence of large trees near the buildings, and the
undertaking of extensive excavations or mining nearby. If it can be established that
the cracks appeared or that they open and widen during the dry season and partially
close in the rainy season, and that windows and doors which jam become easier to
open, then the distortion can usually be attributed to shrinkage of clay below the
foundations. Where there are fast-growing trees within 30m of the building, or
vigorous shrubs or creepers within 1.50 m of it, then the drying action of the roots on
the soil is likely to be substantial and windows and doors may remain jammed. 28
Remedial Measures for Settled Buildings
Remedial measures are generally difficult and expensive. Each case should be
considered individually on its merits and where movements are detected in the early
stages, further damage can sometimes be prevented at little cost. The repairs are
best covered under four main headings.
Movements associated with direct climatic drying (no tree roots).
Movements associated primarily with the drying action of tree roots
Mining subsidence.
Other forms of settlement
29
Movements associated with direct climatic drying (no tree roots).
Differential movements may be eliminated by underpinning all the external walls to a
depth of at least 900 mm . It is unwise to underpin a fractured corner in isolation as
this may accentuate relative movements in the remainder of the building. It is
generally necessary to underpin the whole of the external walls, either by continuous
underpinning placed in alternate sections or by separate blocks of underpinning so
placed in relation to door and window openings as to take full advantage of the
strength of the existing brick walls. Before any underpinning work is commenced the
building should be carefully examined and any urgent repairs carried out. 30
'Tell-tales' should be fixed over existing cracks to show any further movement. In
particular, the thickness and structural condition of the walls to be underpinned should
receive special consideration, as well as the nature of the ground under the existing
foundations. The wall to be underpinned should first be supported with flying or raking
shores, loads reduced as far as practicable, and holes then excavated alongside and
under the existing foundations in a suitable sequence, so that the sections being
worked at anyone time will be as far distant from one another as possible.
31
The lengths of excavated sections are usually about 1.00 to 1.50 m, so that the
existing wall can bridge the gap satisfactorily with a minimum of support. The sum
total of unsupported lengths should not exceed one-quarter of the wall length or one-
sixth in the case of heavily loaded walls.
Underpinning of foundations may prove too costly, particularly where the damage is
not severe or the building is very old. In these circumstances it may be considered
adequate to reduce further movements by surrounding the building with a relatively
impervious apron of precast slabs or in situ concrete to a width of 1.50 m. 32
After the laying of the apron, the ground should be left to absorb moisture for a rainy
season before the cracks in the building are repaired. This does not provide a
completely satisfactory solution and is very much a compromise.
33
Movements associated primarily with the drying action of tree roots
The treatment in this case is usually more difficult. Where the trees have not reached
maturity it is good practice to cut them down and kill the stump, probably using sodium
chlorate. The ground under the fractured part of the building will slowly swell up during
wet weather and tend to lift the building and partially close the cracks. The filling of the
cracks should be delayed for at least one wet season to permit this movement to take
place.
If the trees have reached maturity and the building is fairly old, it is unlikely that further
movements will occur except in exceptionally dry spells. In this situation it would be best
34
to leave the trees in position and merely fill up the cracks in the building.
Movements associated primarily with the drying action of tree roots
When repairing cracks to brickwork and similar walling materials , the horizontal gaps
should first be wedged tight by driving in pieces of slate or tile at intervals to give support
to the upper parts of the structure. The outside face of the cracks may then be filled with
mortar and pointed. Plaster cracks should be cut back to a reasonable width and filled
with gypsum plaster gauged with lime. The proportion of lime is varied to produce a
plaster of similar hardness and suction to the existing material.
It is not often economical to underpin buildings badly affected by trees as it is frequently
necessary to underpin to a depth approaching 3 m and the cost of this work may exceed
35
the value of the property.
Mining subsidence
Ground subsidence often results from the extraction of minerals. A combination of
horizontal movements at the surface coupled with vertical movements can cause
serious damage to buildings.
A subsidence wave may first cause tension in buildings at the crest, followed by
compression in the trough. The worst effects are with thick seams in shallow
workings.
36
Mining subsidence
Tensile stresses cause lengthening of structures with fractures in walling at butt joints
and at the corners of window and door openings, followed by the fracture of pipe
joints and displacement of beams.
Compressive stresses may result in buckling of walls and the arching of pipes and
paving materials. The use of flexible pipes or pipes with flexible joints, with provision
for movement where they pass through the structure, is advisable in areas liable to
subsidence. An ideal type of foundation in this situation is a reinforced concrete slab
resting on a bed of friable material such as sand. 37
Mining subsidence
Fibreboard, hardboard or wallboard should replace plaster as a finish to ceilings and
partitions. Steel frameworks should have flexible joints such as pin joints. With
dwellings, smaller units are more stable than larger ones; for example, semi-detached
houses are less vulnerable than terraced houses. Outbuildings should ideally be
independent of the main structures and projecting bays, porches and the like are best
avoided. Breaks in long buildings should extend through the foundations. Paved
surfaces should be of flexible materials, such as tarmacadam and asphalt.
38
Mining subsidence
Door openings constitute points of weakness and are best located in short walls,
avoiding front and back doors opposite one another and doors in adjoining dwellings
from being placed side by side.
The traditional method of underpinning previously described is not well suited for
dealing with buildings subject to mining subsidence, as it does not provide a solution
to the problem of continued settlement after underpinning nor does it return the
building to a truly level and upright position.
39
Mining subsidence
The following methods are used in various situations
Underpinning with concrete stools and ground beams.
Underpinning by jacking
Pedatified foundations
Other forms of settlement
40
Thank you
41

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CIVIL ENGINEERING

MAINTENANCE (CVE 309)

Delivered by: Ing. Leticia Osae Adum

1. Are there signs of damage to existing buildings?

2. Are any existing buildings supported on special foundations?

4. Is there evidence of imported soil, tipped material or rubbish? 3

5. Is there evidence of existing services crossing the site?

6. How was the site used previously?

7. Is the site situated in a known area of coal or mineral extraction?

8. Will demolition prior to development affect the stability of adjoining buildings?

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