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File Organization
The File is a collection of records. Using the primary key, we can access the records. The type
and frequency of access can be determined by the type of file organization which was used for a
given set of records.
File organization is a logical relationship among various records. This method defines how file
records are mapped onto disk blocks.
File organization is used to describe the way in which the records are stored in terms of
blocks, and the blocks are placed on the storage medium.
The first approach to map the database to the file is to use the several files and store only one
fixed length record in any given file. An alternative approach is to structure our files so that we
can contain multiple lengths for records.
Files of fixed length records are easier to implement than the files of variable length records.

Objective of file organization

 It contains an optimal selection of records, i.e., records can be selected as fast as possible.
 To perform insert, delete or update transaction on the records should be quick and easy.
 The duplicate records cannot be induced as a result of insert, update or delete.
 For the minimal cost of storage, records should be stored efficiently.
Types of file organization:
File organization contains various methods. These particular methods have pros and cons on the
basis of access or selection. In the file organization, the programmer decides the best-suited file
organization method according to his requirement.
Types of file organization are as follows:

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DBMS File Organization

 Sequential file organization
 Heap file organization
 Hash file organization
 B+ file organization
 Indexed sequential access method (ISAM)
 Cluster file organization

Indexing in DBMS
 Indexing is used to optimize the performance of a database by minimizing the number of
disk accesses required when a query is processed.
 The index is a type of data structure. It is used to locate and access the data in a database
table quickly.

Index structure:
Indexes can be created using some database columns.

 The first column of the database is the search key that contains a copy of the primary key
or candidate key of the table. The values of the primary key are stored in sorted order so
that the corresponding data can be accessed easily.
 The second column of the database is the data reference. It contains a set of pointers
holding the address of the disk block where the value of the particular key can be found.

Indexing Methods

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Ordered indices
The indices are usually sorted to make searching faster. The indices which are sorted are known
as ordered indices.

Example: Suppose we have an employee table with thousands of record and each of which is 10
bytes long. If their IDs start with 1, 2, 3....and so on and we have to search student with ID-543.

 In the case of a database with no index, we have to search the disk block from starting till
it reaches 543. The DBMS will read the record after reading 543*10=5430 bytes.
 In the case of an index, we will search using indexes and the DBMS will read the record
after reading 542*2= 1084 bytes which are very less compared to the previous case.

Primary Index
 If the index is created on the basis of the primary key of the table, then it is known as
primary indexing. These primary keys are unique to each record and contain 1:1 relation
between the records.
 As primary keys are stored in sorted order, the performance of the searching operation is
quite efficient.
 The primary index can be classified into two types: Dense index and Sparse index.

Dense index
 The dense index contains an index record for every search key value in the data file. It
makes searching faster.

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 In this, the number of records in the index table is same as the number of records in the
main table.
 It needs more space to store index record itself. The index records have the search key
and a pointer to the actual record on the disk.

Sparse index
 In the data file, index record appears only for a few items. Each item points to a block.
 In this, instead of pointing to each record in the main table, the index points to the records
in the main table in a gap.

Clustering Index
 A clustered index can be defined as an ordered data file. Sometimes the index is created
on non-primary key columns which may not be unique for each record.
 In this case, to identify the record faster, we will group two or more columns to get the
unique value and create index out of them. This method is called a clustering index.
 The records which have similar characteristics are grouped, and indexes are created for
these group.

Example: suppose a company contains several employees in each department. Suppose we use a
clustering index, where all employees which belong to the same Dept_ID are considered within a
single cluster, and index pointers point to the cluster as a whole. Here Dept_Id is a non-unique
key.

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The previous schema is little confusing because one disk block is shared by records which
belong to the different cluster. If we use separate disk block for separate clusters, then it is called
better technique.

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Secondary Index
In the sparse indexing, as the size of the table grows, the size of mapping also grows. These
mappings are usually kept in the primary memory so that address fetch should be faster. Then the
secondary memory searches the actual data based on the address got from mapping. If the
mapping size grows then fetching the address itself becomes slower. In this case, the sparse
index will not be efficient. To overcome this problem, secondary indexing is introduced.

In secondary indexing, to reduce the size of mapping, another level of indexing is introduced. In
this method, the huge range for the columns is selected initially so that the mapping size of the
first level becomes small. Then each range is further divided into smaller ranges. The mapping of
the first level is stored in the primary memory, so that address fetch is faster. The mapping of the
second level and actual data are stored in the secondary memory (hard disk).

For example:

 If you want to find the record of roll 111 in the diagram, then it will search the highest
entry which is smaller than or equal to 111 in the first level index. It will get 100 at this
level.

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 Then in the second index level, again it does max (111) <= 111 and gets 110. Now using
the address 110, it goes to the data block and starts searching each record till it gets 111.
 This is how a search is performed in this method. Inserting, updating or deleting is also
done in the same manner.

Indexed sequential access method (ISAM)

ISAM method is an advanced sequential file organization. In this method, records are stored in
the file using the primary key. An index value is generated for each primary key and mapped
with the record. This index contains the address of the record in the file.

If any record has to be retrieved based on its index value, then the address of the data block is
fetched and the record is retrieved from the memory.

Pros of ISAM:
 In this method, each record has the address of its data block, searching a record in a huge
database is quick and easy.
 This method supports range retrieval and partial retrieval of records. Since the index is
based on the primary key values, we can retrieve the data for the given range of value. In
the same way, the partial value can also be easily searched, i.e., the student name starting
with 'JA' can be easily searched.

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Cons of ISAM
 This method requires extra space in the disk to store the index value.
 When the new records are inserted, then these files have to be reconstructed to maintain
the sequence.
 When the record is deleted, then the space used by it needs to be released. Otherwise, the
performance of the database will slow down.

Advantages of ISAM indexes

1. Because the whole structure is ordered to a large extent, partial (LIKE y%) and range
(BETWEEN 12 and 18) based retrievals can often benefit from the use of this type of
index.
2. SAM is good for Static tables because there are usually fewer index levels than B-tree.

Disadvantages of ISAM indexes

1. SAM is still not as quick as Some (hash organization, dealt with later, is quicker).
2. Overflow can be a real problem in highly volatile tables.
3. The sparse index means that the lowest level of index has only the highest key for a
specific data page, and therefore the block (or more usually a block header), must be
searched to locate Specific rows in a block.

B+ Tree
 The B+ tree is a balanced binary search tree. It follows a multi-level index format.
 In the B+ tree, leaf nodes denote actual data pointers. B+ tree ensures that all leaf nodes
remain at the same height.
 In the B+ tree, the leaf nodes are linked using a link list. Therefore, a B+ tree can support
random access as well as sequential access.

Structure of B+ Tree
 In the B+ tree, every leaf node is at equal distance from the root node. The B+ tree is of
the order n where n is fixed for every B+ tree.
 It contains an internal node and leaf node.

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Internal node
 An internal node of the B+ tree can contain at least n/2 record pointers except the root
node.
 At most, an internal node of the tree contains n pointers.

Leaf node
 The leaf node of the B+ tree can contain at least n/2 record pointers and n/2 key values.
 At most, a leaf node contains n record pointer and n key values.
 Every leaf node of the B+ tree contains one block pointer P to point to next leaf node.

Searching a record in B+ Tree

Suppose we have to search 55 in the below B+ tree structure. First, we will fetch for the
intermediary node which will direct to the leaf node that can contain a record for 55.

So, in the intermediary node, we will find a branch between 50 and 75 nodes. Then at the end,
we will be redirected to the third leaf node. Here DBMS will perform a sequential search to find
55.

B+ Tree Insertion
Suppose we want to insert a record 60 in the below structure. It will go to the 3rd leaf node after
55. It is a balanced tree, and a leaf node of this tree is already full, so we cannot insert 60 there.

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In this case, we have to split the leaf node, so that it can be inserted into tree without affecting
the fill factor, balance and order.

The 3rd leaf node has the values (50, 55, 60, 65, 70) and its current root node is 50. We will split
the leaf node of the tree in the middle so that its balance is not altered. So we can group (50, 55)
and (60, 65, 70) into 2 leaf nodes.

If these two has to be leaf nodes, the intermediate node cannot branch from 50. It should have 60
added to it, and then we can have pointers to a new leaf node.

This is how we can insert an entry when there is overflow. In a normal scenario, it is very easy to
find the node where it fits and then place it in that leaf node.

B+ Tree Deletion
Suppose we want to delete 60 from the above example. In this case, we have to remove 60 from
the intermediate node as well as from the 4th leaf node too. If we remove it from the
intermediate node, then the tree will not satisfy the rule of the B+ tree. So we need to modify it to
have a balanced tree.

After deleting node 60 from above B+ tree and re-arranging the nodes, it will show as follows:

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Hashing

In a huge database structure, it is very inefficient to search all the index values and reach the
desired data. Hashing technique is used to calculate the direct location of a data record on the
disk without using index structure.

In this technique, data is stored at the data blocks whose address is generated by using the
hashing function. The memory location where these records are stored is known as data bucket
or data blocks.

In this, a hash function can choose any of the column value to generate the address. Most of the
time, the hash function uses the primary key to generate the address of the data block. A hash
function is a simple mathematical function to any complex mathematical function. We can even
consider the primary key itself as the address of the data block. That means each row whose
address will be the same as a primary key stored in the data block.

DBMS Hashing

The above diagram shows data block addresses same as primary key value. This hash function
can also be a simple mathematical function like exponential, mod, cos, sin, etc. Suppose we have
mod (5) hash function to determine the address of the data block. In this case, it applies mod (5)
hash function on the primary keys and generates 3, 3, 1, 4 and 2 respectively, and records are
stored in those data block addresses.

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DBMS Hashing

Types of Hashing:

Static Hashing

Dynamic Hashing

Static Hashing
In static hashing, the resultant data bucket address will always be the same. That means if we
generate an address for EMP_ID =103 using the hash function mod (5) then it will always result
in same bucket address 3. Here, there will be no change in the bucket address.

Hence in this static hashing, the number of data buckets in memory remains constant throughout.
In this example, we will have five data buckets in the memory used to store the data.

Operations of Static Hashing

 Searching a record

When a record needs to be searched, then the same hash function retrieves the address of the
bucket where the data is stored.

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 Insert a Record

When a new record is inserted into the table, then we will generate an address for a new record
based on the hash key and record is stored in that location.

 Delete a Record

To delete a record, we will first fetch the record which is supposed to be deleted. Then we will
delete the records for that address in memory.

 Update a Record

To update a record, we will first search it using a hash function, and then the data record is
updated.

If we want to insert some new record into the file but the address of a data bucket generated by
the hash function is not empty, or data already exists in that address. This situation in the static
hashing is known as bucket overflow. This is a critical situation in this method.

To overcome this situation, there are various methods. Some commonly used methods are as
follows:

1. Open Hashing
When a hash function generates an address at which data is already stored, then the next bucket
will be allocated to it. This mechanism is called as Linear Probing.

For example: suppose R3 is a new address which needs to be inserted, the hash function
generates address as 112 for R3. But the generated address is already full. So the system searches
next available data bucket, 113 and assigns R3 to it.

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2. Close Hashing
When buckets are full, then a new data bucket is allocated for the same hash result and is linked
after the previous one. This mechanism is known as Overflow chaining.

For example: Suppose R3 is a new address which needs to be inserted into the table, the hash
function generates address as 110 for it. But this bucket is full to store the new data. In this case,
a new bucket is inserted at the end of 110 buckets and is linked to it.

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Dynamic Hashing
 The dynamic hashing method is used to overcome the problems of static hashing like
bucket overflow.
 In this method, data buckets grow or shrink as the records increases or decreases. This
method is also known as Extendable hashing method.
 This method makes hashing dynamic, i.e., it allows insertion or deletion without resulting
in poor performance.

How to search a key

 First, calculate the hash address of the key.
 Check how many bits are used in the directory, and these bits are called as i.
 Take the least significant i bits of the hash address. This gives an index of the directory.
 Now using the index, go to the directory and find bucket address where the record might
be.

How to insert a new record

 Firstly, you have to follow the same procedure for retrieval, ending up in some bucket.
 If there is still space in that bucket, then place the record in it.
 If the bucket is full, then we will split the bucket and redistribute the records.

For example:
Consider the following grouping of keys into buckets, depending on the prefix of their hash
address:

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The last two bits of 2 and 4 are 00. So it will go into bucket B0. The last two bits of 5 and 6 are
01, so it will go into bucket B1. The last two bits of 1 and 3 are 10, so it will go into bucket B2.
The last two bits of 7 are 11, so it will go into B3.

Insert key 9 with hash address 10001 into the above

structure:
 Since key 9 has hash address 10001, it must go into the first bucket. But bucket B1 is full,
so it will get split.
 The splitting will separate 5, 9 from 6 since last three bits of 5, 9 are 001, so it will go
into bucket B1, and the last three bits of 6 are 101, so it will go into bucket B5.
 Keys 2 and 4 are still in B0. The record in B0 pointed by the 000 and 100 entry because
last two bits of both the entry are 00.
 Keys 1 and 3 are still in B2. The record in B2 pointed by the 010 and 110 entry because
last two bits of both the entry are 10.
 Key 7 are still in B3. The record in B3 pointed by the 111 and 011 entry because last two
bits of both the entry are 11.

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Advantages of dynamic hashing

 In this method, the performance does not decrease as the data grows in the system. It
simply increases the size of memory to accommodate the data.
 In this method, memory is well utilized as it grows and shrinks with the data. There will
not be any unused memory lying.
 This method is good for the dynamic database where data grows and shrinks frequently.

Disadvantages of dynamic hashing

 In this method, if the data size increases then the bucket size is also increased. These
addresses of data will be maintained in the bucket address table. This is because the data
address will keep changing as buckets grow and shrink. If there is a huge increase in data,
maintaining the bucket address table becomes tedious.
 In this case, the bucket overflow situation will also occur. But it might take little time to
reach this situation than static hashing.

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