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EC 8094 – SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION
Department: Electronics and Communication Engineering

Batch/Year: 2018-22 / IV & 2019-23 /III

Created by:

Ms. B.JEYA POORNIMA Assistant Professor /ECE,RMKEC

Dr.S.MAHBOOB BASHA Assistant Professor /ECE,RMKEC
Mrs.P.LATHA Associate Professor /ECE,RMKEC
Mr.A.SIVAKUMAR Assistant Professor/ECE,RMKEC

Date:07.03.2022
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
No
1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 7

2 PRE REQUISITES 8

3 SYLLABUS 9

4 COURSE OUTCOMES 10

5 CO- PO/PSO MAPPING 11

6 UNIT I - LECTURE PLAN 12

6.1 - LECTURE PLAN 13

6.2 - ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 14

6.3 - LECTURE NOTES 15

Introduction to satellite communication 16

Historical background 17
Basic concepts of satellite communication 18
General architecture of satellite communication 21
Applications of satellites 23
Frequency allocations for satellite services 25
Satellite orbit 27
Types of satellites – LEO,MEO and GEO satellites
28

Advantages of satellite communication

34
Orbital mechanics and launchers 35
S.No Contents Page
No

Forces involved in orbital mechanics(newton’s law) 36

Keplerian orbits & Kepler’s Laws 38
Orbital elements 42
Look angle determination 46
Azimuth angle 48
Elevation angle 49
Orbital perturbations 51
Orbit determination 55
Orbital effects in communication systems performance 60
Launchers and launch vehicles 67
7 VIDEO LECTURE LINKS 90

8 E-BOOK REFERENCE & LECTURE PPT LINKS 91

9 ASSIGNMENTS 92

10 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 95

11 PART B QUESTIONS 102

12 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 107

13 REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS 109

14 CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS 111

15 ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE 113

16 TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 115

17 MINI PROJECT 117

 1. COURSE OBJECTIVES

The student should be made to:

Understand the satellite orbits and its trajectories with the definitions
of parameters associated with it.
 2. PRE REQUISITES

Subject Name : Communication theory

Subject Code : EC 8491
Semester : 04
Reason : Students should be familiar with various modulation
schemes and analysis of noise distribution.

Subject Name : Digital communication

Subject Code : EC 8501
Semester : 05
Reason : Students should be familiar with Digital modulation
technology and various multiple access schemes

Subject Name : : Antenna and Microwave Engineering

Subject Code : EC 8701
Semester : 07
Reason : Students should be familiar with Antenna design and
microwave technology used for satellite communication.
 SYLLABUS LTPC

EC8094 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 3003

UNIT I SATELLITE ORBITS 9

Kepler's Laws, Newton's law, orbital parameters, orbital perturbations, station

keeping, geo stationary and non Geo-stationary orbits – Look Angle Determination-
Limits of visibility – eclipse-Sub satellite point –Sun transit outage-Launching
Procedures - launch vehicles and propulsion.

UNIT II SPACE SEGMENT 9

Spacecraft Technology- Structure, Primary power, Attitude and Orbit control,

Thermal control and Propulsion, communication Payload and supporting
subsystems, Telemetry, Tracking and command-Transponders-The Antenna
Subsystem.

UNIT III SATELLITE LINK DESIGN 9

Basic link analysis, Interference analysis, Rain induced attenuation and

interference, Ionospheric characteristics, Link Design with and without frequency
reuse.

UNIT IV SATELLITE ACCESS AND CODING METHODS 9

Modulation and Multiplexing: Voice, Data, Video, Analog – digital transmission

system, Digital video Broadcast, multiple access: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, DAMA
Assignment Methods, compression – encryption, Coding Schemes.

UNIT V SATELLITE APPLICATIONS 9

INTELSAT Series, INSAT, VSAT, Mobile satellite services: GSM, GPS, INMARSAT,
LEO, MEO, Satellite Navigational System. GPS Position Location Principles,
Differential GPS, Direct Broadcast satellites (DBS/DTH).

TOTAL:45 PERIODS
 4. COURSE OUTCOMES

After successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

Level in
Course
Description Bloom’s
Outcomes
Taxonomy

Understand the satellite orbits and its trajectories with

K1,K2
the definitions of parameters associated with it.
C401.1

Understand principle, working and operation of various

K2
sub systems of satellite as well as the earth stations
C401.2

C401.3 Analyze and design satellite communication link K2,K3

Apply various communication techniques for satellite

K2,K3
applications
C401.4

Learn advanced techniques and regulatory aspects of

K1,K2
satellite communication
C401.5

C401.6 Understand role of satellite in various applications K2

 5. CO – PO/PSO MAPPING
Course outcome

Program
Specific
Level of CO

PROGRAM OUTCOMES Outcomes

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

C401.1 K1,K2 2- 1- - 1- - 1- - - 1- -

C401.2 K2 2 1 1- - - - - 1- - - - - -

C401.3 K2,K3 3 2 1- - - - - - - 1- 1 - -

C401.4 K3 2 1 2- - - - - - - - - - - -

C401.5 K1,K2 2 2- - - - - - 1- 1- - 1 -

C401.6 K2 3 1 2- - - - - - - 12 1 - 1

C401 3 2 3 - - 1 - - 1 - 1 2 1 1 1
6:UNIT I - LECTURE PLAN
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT 1 –SATELLITE ORBITS

Taxonomy Level
Proposed Date
No. of periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
Delivery
Mode
S.No Topic

of
1 1 PPT
Kepler's Laws CO1 K2 through
Online
2 Newton's law, 1 PPT
orbital CO1 K2 through
parameters Online
3 1 PPT
orbital
CO1 K2 through
perturbations
Online
4 station keeping, 1 CO1 PPT
geo stationary
K2 through
and non Geo-
Online
stationary orbits
5 Look Angle 1 PPT
Determination- CO1 K2 through
Limits of visibility Online
6 eclipse-Sub 1 PPT
satellite point – CO1 K2 through
Sun transit
Online
outage
7 Launching 1 CO1 PPT
Procedures -
K2 through
launch vehicles
Online
and propulsion.
8 Launching 1 CO1 PPT
Procedures -
K2 through
launch vehicles
Online
and propulsion.
9 Problem Solving 1 CO1 K3 PPT
through
Online
Total No. of Periods : 09
6.2 - ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
 6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

UNIT 1

1.Types of Orbit and orbital mechanics – Brain Storming

2.Launching Procedures and Launching Vehicles in various

countries - Case Study
 6.3 LECTURE NOTES

UNIT 1

1- INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:

Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They

are used for mobile applications such as communication to ships, vehicles,
planes, hand-held terminals and for TV and radio broadcasting.

They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region

(area) on the earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon
the preferred size of the footprint, complexity of the traffic control protocol
schemes and the cost of ground stations.

A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a
desired area. When the area is focused, then the emissions don’t go outside
that designated area and thus minimizing the interference to the other
systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage.

Satellite's antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to

best cover the designated geographical area (which is generally irregular in
shape). Satellites should be designed by keeping in mind its usability for short
and long term effects throughout its life time.

The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts

from its orbit it is subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.
 1.2.HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
Person/Agency/
Category Year Activity
Country.
Geostationary Suggestion of Geostationary satellite
concept 1945 communication feasibility A. Clark ( U.K )
1946 Detection of Lunar Echo by Radar J. Mofenson
(U.S.A.)
J.H. Trexler
1954 Passive relaying of voice by moon reflection. ( U.S.A. )
Hawaii-Washington, D.C.
Moon Reflection 1960 Communication by Moon Reflection. U.S.A. Navy.
U.S.S.R., Japan
1957 Observation of signals from Sputnik -1 Satellite. and others.
Tape-recorded voice transmission by Satellite
1958 SCORE. U.S.A. Air Force.

Low altitude Meteorological facsimile Transmission by

orbit. 1960 Satellite Tiros-1. U.S.A. NASA
Passive relaying of telephone and
1960 television by Satellite Echo-1. U.S.A. Army.
Delayed relaying of recorded voice by
1960 Satellite Courier-1B. U.S.A. Army.
Active transatlantic relaying of U.S.A., U.K.,
1962 communication by Satellite Telstar-1. France.
Communication between manned
Satellites Vostok-3 and 4; Space
1962 television transmission. U.S.S.R.

Scatter communication by tiny needles in Orbit. U.S.A. MIT.

1963 ( West Ford Project 6 )
Active transpacific relaying of U.S.A. NASA,
1963 communication by Satellite Relay 1. Japan.
USA-Europe-Africa communication by
1963 Satellite Syncom 2. U.S.A. NASA
Olympic Games television relaying by U.S.A., NASA
1964 Satellite Syncom 3 Japan.
Synchronous Commercial Communication (Semi-
Satellite. 1965 experimental) by Satellite Early Bird. INTELSAT.
1.3.BASIC CONCEPTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:

A communication satellite is an orbiting artificial earth satellite that receives a

communications signal from a transmitting ground station, amplifies and
possibly processes it, then transmits it back to the earth for reception by one
or more receiving ground stations.

Communications information neither originates nor terminates at the satellite

itself. The satellite is an active transmission relay, similar in function to relay
towers used in terrestrial microwave communications.

The commercial satellite communications industry has its beginnings in the

mid-1960s, and in less than 50 years has progressed from an alternative
exotic technology to a mainstream transmission technology, which is pervasive
in all elements of the global telecommunications infrastructure.

Today’s communications satellites offer extensive capabilities in applications

involving data, voice, and video, with services provided to fixed, broadcast,
mobile, personal communications, and private networks users.

1.3.1.Evolution of Satellite Communication:

During early 1950s, both passive and active satellites were considered for the
purpose of communications over a large distance.

Passive satellites though successfully used in the early years of satellite

communication with the advancement in technology active satellites have
completely replaced with passive satellites.
1.3.2.Passive Satellites:
A satellite that only reflects signals from one Earth station to another or from
several Earth stations to several others.
It reflects the incident electromagnetic radiation without any modification or
amplification.
It can't generate power, they simply reflect the incident power.
The first artificial passive satellite Echo-I of NASA was launched in August
1960.

Figure 1.1 - Passive Satellites

1.3.3.Disadvantages:
Earth Stations required high power to transmit signals.
Large Earth Stations with tracking facilities were expensive.
A global system would have required a large number of passive satellites
accessed randomly by different users.
Control of satellites not possible from ground.
The large attenuation of the signal while traveling the large distance between
the transmitter and the receiver via the satellite was one of the most serious
problems
1.3.4.Active Satellites:
• In active satellites, it amplifies or modifies and retransmits the signal
received from the earth.
• Satellites which can transmit power are called active satellite.
• Have several advantages over the passive satellites.
• Require lower power earth station.
• Not open to random use.
• Directly controlled by operators from ground.

Figure 1.2 - Active Satellites

1.3.5.Disadvantages:
• Requirement of larger and powerful rockets to launch heavier satellites in
orbit.
• Requirement of on-board power supply.
• Interruption of service due to failure of electronics components
1.4.GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Two major elements of Satellite Communications Systems are:

The satellite communications portion is broken down into two areas or segments:
the space segment and the ground (or earth) segment

Figure1.3-General architecture of Satellite

Communication
1.4.1.Space Segment:

The space segment includes the satellite (or satellites) in orbit in the system,
and the ground station that provides the operational control of the satellite(s)
in orbit. The ground station is variously referred to as the Tracking,
Telemetry, Command (TT&C) or the Tracking, Telemetry, Command
and Monitoring (TTC&M) station. The TTC&M station provides essential
spacecraft management and control functions to keep the satellite operating
safely in orbit. The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and the ground are
usually separate from the user communications links. TTC&M links may operate
in the same frequency bands or in other bands. TTC&M is most often
accomplished through a separate earth terminal facility specifically designed for
the complex operations required to maintain a spacecraft in orbit.

1.4.2.Ground segment:

The ground segment of the communications satellite system consists of the

earth surface area based terminals that utilize the communications capabilities
of the Space Segment. TTC&M ground stations are not included in the ground
segment. The ground segment terminals consist of three basic types:

fixed (in-place) terminals;

transportable terminals;

mobile terminals.
1.5. APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES:
Weather Forecasting

Certain satellites are specifically designed to monitor the climatic conditions of

earth. They continuously monitor the assigned areas of earth and predict the
weather conditions of that region. This is done by taking images of earth from
the satellite. These images are transferred using assigned radio frequency to
the earth station. These satellites are exceptionally useful in predicting disasters
like hurricanes, and monitor the changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state,
ocean color, and ice fields.

Radio and TV Broadcast

These dedicated satellites are responsible for making 100s of channels across
the globe available for everyone. They are also responsible for broadcasting live
matches, news, world-wide radio services. These satellites require a 30-40 cm
sized dish to make these channels available globally.

Military Satellites

These satellites are often used for gathering intelligence, as a communications

satellite used for military purposes, or as a military weapon. A satellite by itself
is neither military nor civil. It is the kind of payload it carries that enables one
to arrive at a decision regarding its military or civilian character.

Navigation Satellites

The system allows for precise localization world-wide, and with some additional
techniques, the precision is in the range of some meters. Ships and aircraft rely
on GPS as an addition to traditional navigation systems. Many vehicles come
with installed GPS receivers. This system is also used, e.g., for fleet
management of trucks or for vehicle localization in case of theft.
1.5.APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES:

Using satellites, to typically reach a distance approximately 10,000 kms away,

the signal needs to travel almost 72,000 kms, that is, sending data from
ground to satellite and (mostly) from satellite to another location on earth. This
cause's substantial amount of delay and this delay becomes more prominent
for users during voice calls.

Connecting Remote Areas

Due to their geographical location many places all over the world do not have
direct wired connection to the telephone network or the internet (e.g.,
researchers on Antarctica) or because of the current state of the infrastructure
of a country. Here the satellite provides a complete coverage and (generally)
there is one satellite always present across a horizon.

Global Mobile Communication

The basic purpose of satellites for mobile communication is to extend the area
of coverage. Cellular phone systems, such as AMPS and GSM (and their
successors) do not cover all parts of a country. Areas that are not covered
usually have low population where it is too expensive to install a base station.
With the integration of satellite communication, however, the mobile phone can
switch to satellites offering world-wide connectivity to a customer. Satellites
cover a certain area on the earth. This area is termed as a „footprint‟ of that
satellite. Within the footprint, communication with that satellite is possible for
mobile users. These users communicate using a Mobile-User-Link (MUL). The
base-stations communicate with satellites using a Gateway-Link (GWL).
Sometimes it becomes necessary for satellite to create a communication link
between users belonging to two different footprints. Here the satellites send
signals to each other and this is done using Inter-Satellite-Link (ISL).
1.6. FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS FOR SATELLITE SERVICES
Allocation of frequencies to satellite services s a complicated process which
requires international coordination and planning. This is done as per the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU). To implement this frequency
planning, the world is divided into three regions:

Region1: Europe, Africa and Mongolia

Region 2: North and South America and Greenland

Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia and south-west Pacific.

Within these regions, the frequency bands are allocated to various satellite
services.

Some of them are listed below.

Fixed satellite service:

Provides Links for existing Telephone Networks Used for transmitting television
signals to cable companies

Broadcasting satellite service:

Provides Direct Broadcast to homes. E.g. Live Cricket matches etc

Mobile satellite services: This includes services for

Land Mobile

Maritime Mobile

Aeronautical mobile

Navigational satellite services : Include Global Positioning systems

Meteorological satellite services: They are often used to perform Search

and Rescue service
1.6.1.Below are the frequencies allocated to these satellites:

Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations:

VHF: 01-0.3

UHF: 0.3-1.0

L-band: 1.0-2.0

S-band: 2.0-4.0

C-band: 4.0-8.0

X-band: 8.0-12.0

Ku-band: 12.0-18.0 (Ku is Under K Band)

Ka-band: 18.0-27.0 (Ka is Above K Band)

V-band: 40.0-75.0

W-band: 75-110

Mm-band: 110-300

μm-band: 300-3000

Based on the satellite service, following are the frequencies allocated to the
satellites:

Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations:

VHF: 01-0.3 ---Mobile & Navigational Satellite Services

L-band: 1.0-2.0 --- Mobile & Navigational Satellite Services

C-band: 4.0-8.0 --- Fixed Satellite Service

Ku-band: 12.0-18.0 --- Direct Broadcast Satellite Services

2.SATELLITE ORBIT:

Figure 1.4 - Types of satellite orbits

2.1.Orbit: The path a Satellite follows around a planet is defined as an

orbit.
Satellite Orbits are classified in two broad categories :
 Non-Geostationary Orbit (NGSO)
 Geo Stationary Orbit (GSO)
Early ventures with satellite communications used satellites in Non-
geostationary low earth orbits due to the technical limitations of the launch
vehicles in placing satellites in higher orbits.

2.1.1.Disadvantages of NGSO:
• Complex problem of transferring signal from one satellite to another.
• Less expected life of satellites at NGSO.
• Requires frequent replacement of satellites compared to satellite in
GSO .
2.1.2.Geo Stationary Orbit (GSO)
• There is only one geostationary orbit possible around the earth
• Lying on the earth’s equatorial plane.
• The satellite orbiting at the same speed as the rotational speed of the
earth on its axis.
2.1.3.Advantages:
• Simple ground station tracking.
• Nearly constant range
• Very small frequency shift .
2.1.4.Disadvantages:
• Transmission delay of the order of 250 msec.
• Large free space loss
• No polar coverage .
Note:
A geostationary orbit is a type of geosynchronous orbit. A geosynchronous orbit
can be any orbit, like with an elliptical path, that has a period equal to the
Earth’s rotational period, whereas a geostationary orbit has to be a circular
orbit and that too placed above the equator.

2.2.TYPES OF SATELLITES:

Satellite orbits in terms of the orbital height:

According to distance from earth

Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO)

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

2.2.1.Geostationary or geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO):

GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed point
from Earth, these satellites appear to be stationary. These satellites are placed in
the space in such a way that only three satellites are sufficient to provide
connection throughout the surface of the Earth (that is; their footprint is covering
almost 1/3rd of the Earth). The orbit of these satellites is circular.

There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites. Lifetime

expectancy of these satellites is 15 years.

1)The satellite should be placed 35,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms) above
the surface of the earth.

2)These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction
of motion of earth, that is eastward.

3)The inclination of satellite with respect to earth must be 00.

Geostationary satellite in practical is termed as geosynchronous as there are

multiple factors which make these satellites shift from the ideal geostationary
condition.

Gravitational pull of sun and moon makes these satellites deviate from their orbit.
Over the period of time, they go through a drag. (Earth’s gravitational force has no
effect on these satellites due to their distance from the surface of the Earth.)

These satellites experience the centrifugal force due to the rotation of Earth,
making them deviate from their orbit.

The non-circular shape of the earth leads to continuous adjustment of speed of

satellite from the earth station.

These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also,
these satellites are operating as backbones for the telephone networks.
2.2.2.Disadvantages of GEO: Northern or southern regions of the Earth
(poles) have more problems receiving these satellites due to the low elevation
above a latitude of 60°, i.e., larger antennas are needed in this case. Shading
of the signals is seen in cities due to high buildings and the low elevation
further away from the equator limit transmission quality. The transmit power
needed is relatively high which causes problems for battery powered devices.
These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones. The biggest problem
for voice and also data communication is the high latency as without having
any handovers, the signal has to at least travel 72,000 kms. Due to the large
footprint, either frequencies cannot be reused or the GEO satellite needs
special antennas focusing on a smaller footprint. Transferring a GEO into orbit
is very expensive.

Figure 1.5-GeoSynchronous Orbit

2.2.3.Advantages Of GEO :
•Minimal Doppler shift
•These factors make it ideal for satellite broadcast and other multipoint
applications
•GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular area.
•A GEO satellite’s distance from earth gives it a large coverage
area, almost a fourth of the earth’s surface.
2.2.4.Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites:

MEOs can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of
their orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages. Using orbits around
20,000 km, the system only requires a dozen satellites which is more than a GEO
system, but much less than a LEO system. These satellites move more slowly
relative to the earth’s rotation allowing a simpler system design (satellite periods
are about six hours). Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger
populations, so requiring fewer handovers.

Figure 1.6- Medium Earth Orbit

2.2.5.Advantages Of MEO:

A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer
satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network.

2.2.6.Disadvantages Of MEO:

Again, due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70–80
ms. the satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller
footprints.

A MEO satellite’s distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a
LEO satellite, though not as bad as a GEO satellite.
2.2.7.Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites:

These satellites are placed 500-1500 kms above the surface of the earth. As
LEOs circulate on a lower orbit, hence they exhibit a much shorter period that
is 95 to 120 minutes. LEO systems try to ensure a high elevation for every
spot on earth to provide a high quality communication link. Each LEO satellite
will only be visible from the earth for around ten minutes.

Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s

can be enough for voice communication. LEOs even provide this bandwidth for
mobile terminals with Omni-directional antennas using low transmit power in
the range of 1W. The delay for packets delivered via a LEO is relatively low
(approximately 10 ms). The delay is comparable to long-distance wired
connections (about 5–10 ms). Smaller footprints of LEOs allow for better
frequency reuse, similar to the concepts used for cellular networks. LEOs can
provide a much higher elevation in Polar Regions and so better global
coverage.

Figure 1.7 - Low Earth Orbit

These satellites are mainly used in remote sensing an providing mobile
communication services (due to lower latency).

The Iridium system has 66 satellites in six LEO orbits, each at an altitude of 750
km.
Iridium is designed to provide direct worldwide voice and data communication
using handheld terminals, a service similar to cellular telephony but on a global
scale.

2.2.8.Advantages Of LEO:
•A LEO satellite’s proximity to earth compared to a GEO satellite gives it a better
signal strength and less of a time delay, which makes it better for point to point
communication.
•A LEO satellite’s smaller area of coverage is less and waste of bandwidth.

2.2.9.Disadvantages:
One general problem of LEOs is the short lifetime of about five to eight years due
to atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt1. Assuming 48
satellites and a lifetime of eight years, a new satellite would be needed every two
months. The low latency via a single LEO is only half of the story.
Other factors are the need for routing of data packets from satellite to if a user
wants to communicate around the world.
Due to the large footprint, a GEO typically does not need this type of routing, as
senders and receivers are most likely in the same footprint.
2.3.Advantages Of Satellite Communication :

• Universal: Satellite communications are available virtually

everywhere.

• Versatile: Satellites can support all of today's communications

needs.

• Reliable: Satellite is a proven medium for supporting a company's

communications needs.

• Seamless: Satellite's inherent strength as a broadcast medium

makes it perfect.

• Fast: Since satellite networks can be set up quickly, companies can

be fast-to-market with new services.

• Flexible

• Expandable

• High Quality

• Quick Provision of Services

• Mobile and Emergency Communication

• Suitable for both Digital and Analog Transmission

3.ORBITAL MECHANICS AND LAUNCHERS

3.1.ORBITAL MECHANICS

To achieve a stable orbit around the earth, a spacecraft must first be

beyond the bulk of the earth’s atmosphere, i.e., in what is popularly
called space.

According to Newton's law of motion F=ma.

Where a = acceleration,

F= force acting on the object and

m= mass of the object.

It helps us understand the motion of satellite in a stable orbit.(neglecting

any drag or other perturbing forces).

(F=ma) states that the force acting on a body is equal to the mass of
the body multiplied by the resulting acceleration of the body.

Thus, for a given force, the lighter the mass of the body, the higher the
acceleration will be.

When in a stable orbit, there are two main forces acting on a satellite: a
centrifugal force due to the kinetic energy of the satellite, which
attempts to fling the satellite into a higher orbit, and a centripetal force
due to gravitational attraction of the planet about which the satellite is
orbiting, which attempts to pull the satellite towards the planet.

If these two forces are equal the satellite remains in a stable orbit.
3.2.FORCES INVOLVED IN ORBITAL MECHANICS(NEWTON’S LAW)

There are two relevant forces involved in this problem

1.Gravitational force = attraction between any two objects,
2.Centrifugal force =an outward-directed force that normally balances the inward-
directed centripetal force

Figure 1.8 - FORCES INVOLVED IN ORBITAL MECHANICS

 The problem of determining the position and path of a satellite
in space as a function of time has occupied scientists and philosophers for
thousands of years. It finally evolved on Kepler in the 17th century to
discover the properties of planetary motion from observations of our Sun
and its planets.
3.3.KEPLERIAN ORBITS:

The "Keplerian assumption" which underlies Keplerian orbits is a

first order approximation of the forces that apply to any satellite orbiting
around a central body (e.g. an artificial communication satellite around the
Earth, or a planet around the Sun). This is very useful and efficient to
describe the fundamental laws of satellite orbits. Under this assumption,
the mutual interaction between the attracting bodies is restricted to a two-
body problem (e.g. the satellite and the Earth, no moon or sun attraction),
where the only acting force is the Newtonian force (or central force) µ/r2 .
When the mass m of the satellite can be neglected with respect to the
mass M of the central body:
µ = GM where G is the gravitational constant
(µ ≈ 398 600 km3 /s2 for the Earth).
r = distance between the centre of the Earth and the satellite.
In the case of an Earth satellite, the first law of Kepler states that the
trajectory of any satellite which experiences such a central force µ/r2 is a
conic section whose focus coincides with the centre of the Earth. In the
following, we shall only deal with the ellipse since other conic sections
(parabola and hyperbola) are not of interest for Earth satellite
communications.
Kepler’s laws apply quite generally to any two bodies in space which
interact through gravitation. The more massive of the two bodies is
referred to as the primary, the other, the secondary or satellite.
3.3.1.KEPLER’S FIRST LAW:
The path followed be a satellite (in our case artificial satellite) around the primary
(a planet and in our case Earth) will be an ellipse.
“The orbit of every planer is an ellipse with sun at one of the two foci.
An ellipse has two focal points. Let us consider F1 and F2.

The center of mass of the two body system, known as the barycenter as always
cantered at one foci.

Due to the great difference between the masses of the planet (Earth) and the
satellite, center of mass always coincides with the center of Earth and hence is
always at one foci.
(Note: Ellipse: A regular oval shape, traced by a point moving in a plane so that
the sum of its distances from two other points (the foci) is constant.
Foci: The center of interest and in our case center of the ellipse.)

Figure 1.9 – Kepler’s First law

Parameters associated with the 1st law of Kepler:

Eccentricity (e): it defines how stretched out an ellipse is from a perfect circle.
Semi-Major axis (a): It is the longest diameter, a line that runs through the
center and both foci, its ends being at the widest points of the shapes. This line
joins the points of apogee.
Semi-Minor axis (b): the line joining the points of perigee is called the Semi-
Minor axis.
The value of e could be determined by: e = (√a2 – b2) / a
3.3.2.KEPLER’S SECOND LAW:

“For equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep out equal areas in its orbital
plane focused at the barycenter”.

With respect to the laws governing the planetary motion around the sun, tis
law could be stated as “A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps our equal
area during equal intervals of time”.

Figure 1.10-Kepler’s Second Law

From figure 1.10 and considering the law stated above, if satellite travels
distances S1 and S2 meters in 1 second, then areas A1 and A2 will be equal.

The same area will be covered everyday regardless of where in its orbit a
satellite is. As the First Keplerian law states that the satellite follows an
elliptical orbit around the primary, then the satellite is at different distances
from the planet at different parts of the orbit. Hence the satellite has to move
faster when it is closer to the Earth so that it sweeps an equal area on the
Earth. This could be achieved if the speed of the satellite is adjusted when it
is closer to the surface of the Earth in order to make it sweep out equal areas
(footprints) of the surface of the Earth.
3.3.3.KEPLER’S THIRD LAW:
The square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the
mean distance between the two bodies.

The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the

cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
This law shows the relationship between the distances of satellite from earth
and their orbital period.

Where T=orbital period in s; a=distance between the two bodies, in km;

µ=Kepler’s Constant =3.986004×105 km3/s2.
If the orbit is circular, then a=r, and

This demonstrates an important result:

Orbit Radius= [Constant] × (Orbit Period)2/3

Under this condition, a specific orbit period is determined only by proper

selection of the orbit radius. This allows the satellite designer to select orbit
periods that best meet particular application requirements by locating the
satellite at the proper orbit altitude.
3.4.ORBITAL ELEMENTS:
Following are the 6 elements of the Keplerian Element set commonly known as
orbital elements.

1.Semi-Major axis (a)

2. Eccentricity (e)

They give the shape (of ellipse) to the satellite’s orbit.

3.Mean anomaly (M0)

It denotes the position of a satellite in its orbit at a given reference time.

4.Argument of Perigee

It gives the rotation of the orbit’s perigee point relative to the orbit's nodes in the
earth's equatorial plane.

5.Inclination

6.Right ascension of ascending node

They relate the orbital plane’s position to the Earth.

As the equatorial bulge causes a slow variation in argument of perigee and right
ascension of ascending node, and because other perturbing forces may alter the
orbital elements slightly, the values are specified for the reference time or epoch.

The satellite orbit, which in general is elliptical, is characterized by a number of

parameters. These not only include the geometrical parameters of the orbit but
also parameters that define its orientation with respect to Earth.
The orbital elements and parameters as follows.
Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth.
It is denoted as ha.
The length of the radius vectors at apogee can be obtained from the
geometry of the ellipse:
ra =a(1+e)
In order to find the apogee heights, the radius of the earth must be
subtracted from the radii lengths,
ha = ra - R
Perigee: A point for a satellite closest from the Earth.
It is denoted as hp.
The length of the radius vectors at perigee can be obtained from the
geometry of the ellipse:
ra =a(1- e)
In order to find the perigee heights, the radius of the earth must be
subtracted from the radii lengths,
hp = rp - R
Line of Apsides: Line joining perigee and apogee through centre of the
Earth. It is the major axis of the orbit. One-half of this line’s length is the
semi-major axis equivalents to satellite’s mean distance from the Earth.
Ascending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane
going from north to south.
Descending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial
plane going from south to north.
Inclination: the angle between the orbital plane and the Earth’s
equatorial plane. Its measured at the ascending node from the equator to
the orbit, going from East to North. Also, this angle is commonly denoted
as i .
Line of Nodes: the line joining the ascending and descending nodes
through the centre of Earth.

Prograde Orbit: an orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction as

the Earth’s rotation. Its inclination is always between 00 to 900. Many
satellites follow this path as Earth’s velocity makes it easier to lunch these
satellites.

Retrograde Orbit: an orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction

counter to the Earth’s rotation.

Argument of Perigee: An angle from the point of perigee measure in the

orbital plane at the Earth’s centre, in the direction of the satellite motion.

Figure 1.11 – Orbital Parameters

Right ascension of ascending node: The definition of an orbit in space,
the position of ascending node is specified. But as the Earth spins, the
longitude of ascending node changes and cannot be used for reference. Thus
for practical determination of an orbit, the longitude and time of crossing the
ascending node is used. For absolute measurement, a fixed reference point
in space is required. It could also be defined as “right ascension of the
ascending node; right ascension is the angular position measured eastward
along the celestial equator from the vernal equinox vector to the hour circle
of the object”.
Mean anamoly: It gives the average value to the angular position of the
satellite with reference to the perigee.
True anamoly: It is the angle from point of perigee to the satellite’s
position, measure at the Earth’s centre.

Figure 1.12 – Prograde and retrograde orbit

3.5.LOOK ANGLE DETERMINATION:
The look angles for the ground station antenna are Azimuth and
Elevation angles. They are required at the antenna so that it points
directly at the satellite. Look angles are calculated by considering the
elliptical orbit. These angles change in order to track the satellite.
For geostationary orbit, these angels’ values do not change as the
satellites are stationary with respect to earth. Thus, large earth stations
are used for commercial communications, these antennas beamwidth is
very narrow and the tracking mechanism is required to compensate for
the movement of the satellite about the nominal geostationary position.
For home antennas, antenna beamwidth is quite broad and hence no
tracking is essential. This leads to a fixed position for these antennas.
The look angles of a satellite refer to the coordinates to which an Earth
station must be pointed in order to communicate with the satellite and
are expressed in terms of azimuth and elevation angles. In the case
where an Earth station is within the footprint or coverage area of a
geostationary satellite, it can communicate with the satellite by simply
pointing its antenna towards it.
The process of pointing the Earth station antenna accurately towards
the satellite can be accomplished if the azimuth and elevation angles of
the Earth station location are known. Also, the elevation angle, as we
shall see in the following paragraphs, affects the slant range, i.e. line of
sight distance between the Earth station and the satellite.
In order to determine the look angles of a satellite, its precise location
should be known. The location of a satellite is very often determined by
the position of the sub-satellite point.
The sub-satellite point is the location on the surface of the Earth that
lies directly between the satellite and the centre of the Earth. To an
observer on the sub-satellite point, the satellite will appear to be
directly overhead figure.
Sub satellite point: The point, on the earth’s surface of intersection
between a line from the earth’s centre to the satellite.
 Figure 1.13-Sub Satellite point

The following information is needed to determine the look angles of

geostationary orbit.
• Earth Station Latitude
• Earth Station Longitude
• Sub-Satellite Point’s Longitude
• ES: Position of Earth Station
• SS: Sub-Satellite Point
• S: Satellite
• Range from ES to S
Angle to be determined
3.5.1.AZIMUTH ANGLE:

The azimuth angle A of an Earth station is defined as the angle produced by the
line of intersection of the local horizontal plane and the plane passing through
the Earth station, the satellite and the centre of the Earth with the true north as
shown in figure. We can visualize that this line of intersection between the two
above-mentioned planes would be one of the many possible tangents that can
be drawn at the point of location of the Earth station. Depending upon the
location of the Earth station and the sub-satellite point, the azimuth angle can
be computed as follows:

Figure 1.14-Azimuth angle determination

 Earth station in the northern hemisphere:
A = 180◦ − A. when the Earth station is to the west of the satellite
A = 180◦ + A. when the Earth station is to the east of the satellite
Earth station in the southern hemisphere:
A = A’... when the Earth station is to the west of the satellite
A = 360◦ − A’... when the Earth station is to the east of the satellite
where A’ can be computed from

3.5.2.ELEVATION ANGLE:
The Earth station elevation angle E is the angle between the line of intersection
of the local horizontal plane and the plane passing through the Earth station,
the satellite and the centre of the Earth with the line joining the Earth station
and the satellite.
r = orbital radius,
R = Earth’s radius
θs = Satellite longitude,
θL = Earth station longitude,
θl = Earth station latitude
Figures 1.15(a) and 1.15(b) show the elevation angles for two different satellite
and Earth station positions. It can be computed from

Figure 1.15(a) – Elevation angle

Figure 1.15 (b)-Elevation angle specification

4.ORBITAL PERTURBATIONS:

Theoretically, an orbit described by Kepler is ideal as Earth is considered to be

a perfect sphere and the force acting around the Earth is the centrifugal
force. This force is supposed to balance the gravitational pull of the earth.

In reality, other forces also play an important role and affect the motion of
the satellite. These forces are the gravitational forces of Sun and Moon along
with the atmospheric drag.

Effect of Sun and Moon is more pronounced on geostationary earth satellites

where as the atmospheric drag effect is more pronounced for low earth orbit
satellites.

4.1.Effects of a non-spherical earth :

For a spherical earth of uniform mass, Kepler’s third law gives the nominal
mean motion n0 as

The 0 subscript is included as a reminder that this result applies for a

perfectly spherical earth of uniform mass. However, it is known that the earth
is not perfectly spherical, there being an equatorial bulge and a flattening at
the poles, a shape described as an oblate spheroid. When the earth’s
oblateness is taken into account, the mean motion, denoted in this case by
symbol n, is modified to
 K1 is a constant which evaluates to 66,063.1704 km2. The earth’s oblateness
has negligible effect on the semimajor axis a, and if a is known, the mean
motion is readily calculated. The orbital period taking into account the
earth’s oblateness is termed the anomalistic period (e.g., from perigee to
perigee). The mean motion specified in the NASA bulletins is the reciprocal
of the anomalistic period. The anomalistic period is

where n is in radians per second. If the known quantity is n (e.g., as is given in

the NASA bulletins), one can solve Eq. for a, keeping in mind that n0 is also a
function of a. Equation may be solved for a by finding the root of the following
equation:

As the shape of Earth is not a perfect sphere, it causes some variations in

the path followed by the satellites around the primary. As the Earth is
bulging from the equatorial belt, and keeping in mind that an orbit is not a
physical entity, and it is the forces resulting from an oblate Earth which act
on the satellite produce a change in the orbital parameters.
 This causes the satellite to drift as a result of regression of the nodes
and the latitude of the point of perigee (point closest to the Earth). This
leads to rotation of the line of apsides. As the orbit itself is moving with
respect to the Earth, the resultant changes are seen in the values of
argument of perigee and right ascension of ascending node.

Due to the non-spherical shape of Earth, one more effect called as the
“Satellite Graveyard” is seen. The non-spherical shape leads to the
small value of eccentricity at the equatorial plane. This causes a gravity
gradient on GEO satellite and makes them drift to one of the two stable
points which coincide with minor axis of the equatorial ellipse.

Working satellites are made to drift back to their position but out-of-
service satellites are eventually drifted to these points, and making that
point a Satellite Graveyard.

4.2.Atmospheric Drag:

For Low Earth orbiting satellites, the effect of atmospheric drag is more
pronounces. The impact of this drag is maximum at the point of
perigee. Drag (pull towards the Earth) has an effect on velocity of
Satellite (velocity reduces).

For near-earth satellites, below about 1000 km, the effects of

atmospheric drag are significant. Because the drag is greatest at the
perigee, the drag acts to reduce the velocity at this point, with the
result that the satellite does not reach the same apogee height on
successive revolutions. The result is that the semimajor axis and the
eccentricity are both reduced
 Drag does not noticeably change the other orbital parameters, including
perigee height. In the program used for generating the orbital elements
given in the NASA bulletins, a pseudo-drag term is generated, which is equal
to one-half the rate of change of mean motion (ADC USAF, 1980).

An approximate expression for the change of major axis is

where the “0” subscripts denote values at the reference time t0, and n 0
is the first derivative of the mean motion. The mean anomaly is also
changed, an approximate value for the change being:

This causes the satellite to not reach the apogee height successive
revolutions. This leads to a change in value of semi-major axis and
eccentricity. Satellites in service are maneuvered by the earth station back to
their original orbital position.
4.3.ORBIT DETERMINATION:

Orbit determination requires that sufficient measurements be made to

determine uniquely the six orbital elements needed to calculate the future
of the satellite, and hence calculate the required changes that need to be
made to the orbit to keep it within the nominal orbital location. The control
earth stations used to measure the angular position of the satellites also
carryout range measurements using unique time stamps in the telemetry
stream or communication carrier. These earth stations generally referred to
as the TTC&M(telemetry tracking command and monitoring) stations of the
satellite network.

4.3.1.SATELLITE ATTITUDE AND ORBIT (STATION-KEEPING)

CONTROL SYSTEMS:

To make the satellite in its orbit:

(Following controls are needed)

 Station keeping

 Attitude control

 Satellite position

 Satellite launching
4.3.2.ATTITUDE CONTROL :
It means -position the satellite for optimum performance.
Maintained by – satellite stabilization techniques and jet thrusters.
Two stabilization method – spin and three axis stabilization.

The objective of the attitude control subsystem is to maintain the antenna RF

beam pointed at the intended areas on Earth.

The axis of the antenna-bearing platform carrying the antennas is made to point
towards the Earth's centre and the antennas are mounted in relation to this
platform so as to be directed towards the area required.

The attitude control procedure involves:

measuring the attitude of the satellite by sensors;
comparing the results of these measurements with the required values;
calculating the corrections to be made to reduce errors;
introducing these corrections by operating the appropriate torque units.
This attitude control mode uses a ground-based pilot beam (beacon) which is
sensed on board the spacecraft to directly obtain the antenna orientation.

When more than one antenna is mounted on the same platform, this approach
permits independent control of the orientation of each antenna, in response to
the error signals generated by the respective sensor, tracking the same beacon
or separate beacons. Motor driven gimbals are required in this case. Such a
control system can correct the effects of relative misalignment between the
various antennas, due to mechanical errors and thermal variations. This control
method can improve the net beam pointing accuracy by a factor of 2 or 3
compared with body orientation.

In addition, if pilot beacons from two well separated earth stations are used,
direct sensing of beam rotation (yaw) error can also be obtained. Currently all
types of attitude stabilization systems have relied on the conservation of angular
momentum in a spinning element.
4.3.3.ORBIT (STATION-KEEPING) CONTROL :

On-board propulsion requirements for both geostationary and non-geostationary

(LEO, MEO and HEO) satellites account for a significant part of the total mass of a
spacecraft system, especially if the operational life extends to ten years and
beyond. The importance of these systems to the mission of space systems has
resulted in the establishment of several research and development programmes in
government (ESA, NASA, NASDA, etc.) and industry to improve performance.

A geostationary satellite is subject to disturbances which tend to change its

position in orbit. They lead to spurious orbit plane rotation and semi-major axis
and eccentricity errors. As viewed by an observer on the Earth, the satellite
displays an oscillatory movement with a periodicity of 24 hours. This motion is
characterized by a North-South component due to orbit inclination (the so-called
"figure of eight"), and an in-plane component.

In turn, this component is made up of a longitudinal drift, due to the semi-major

axis variation, and of a daily in-plane oscillation (altitude and longitude) due to the
eccentricity error. The most apparent and relevant component of the in-plane
oscillation is that in East-West direction. The objective of orbit control is to
maintain the spacecraft inside the allocated position "box" in latitude/longitude
(current Radio Regulations only limit the longitudinal variations to ±0.1°, for
satellites using frequencies allocated to the fixed-satellite or broadcasting-satellite
service).

Real time analysis of the orbit parameters would be required to effectively predict
communication coverage functions. The orbit altitude, inclination and orbit plane
spacing can affect the drift rates (ascending node and orbit plane spacings) of the
satellites and must be carefully selected based on the ultimate accuracy required in
predicting the average coverage characteristics and deviations of each satellite in
the system.
4.3.4.LIMITS OF VISIBILITY :

There will be east and west limits on the geostationary arc visible from any
given earth station. The limits will be set by the geographic coordinates of the
earth station and the antenna elevation. The lowest elevation in theory is
zero, when the antenna is pointing along the horizontal. A quick estimate of
the longitudinal limits can be made by considering an earth station at the
equator, with the antenna pointing either west or east along the horizontal, as
shown in Figure. The limiting angle is given by

Figure 1.16 –Limits Visibility

4.4.ORBITAL EFFECTS IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
PERFORMANCE:

There are a number of perbuting forces that cause an orbit to depart

from ideal Keplerian orbit. The most effecting ones are gravitational fields
of sun and moon, non-spherical shape of the Earth, reaction of the
satellite itself to motor movements within the satellites.

Thus the earth station keeps manoeuvring the satellite to maintain its
position. Within a set of nominal geostationary coordinates. Thus the
exact GEO is not attainable in practice and the orbital parameters vary
with time. Hence these satellites are called “Geosynchronous” satellites
or “Near-Geostationary satellites”.

4.4.1.Doppler Effect:

To a stationary observer, the frequency of a moving radio transmitter

varies with the transmitter’s velocity relative to the observer. If the true
transmitter frequency (i.e., the frequency that the transmitter would send
when at rest) is fT, the received frequency fR is higher than fT when the
transmitter is moving toward the receiver and lower than fT when the
transmitter is moving away from the receiver.
4.4.2 .Variation in the Orbital Distance:

Variation in the orbital distance results in variation in the range between

the satellite and the Earth station terminal. If a Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA) scheme is employed by the satellite, the timing of the
frames within the TDMA bursts should be worked out carefully so that
the user terminals receive the correct data at the correct time. Range
variations are more predominant in low and medium Earth orbiting
satellites as compared to the geostationary satellites.

4.4.3.Solar Eclipse:

There are times when the satellites do not receive solar radiation due to
obstruction from a celestial body. During these periods the satellites
operate using onboard batteries. The design of the battery is such so as
to provide continuous power during the period of the eclipse. Ground
control stations perform battery conditioning routines prior to the
occurrence of an eclipse to ensure best performance during the eclipse.
These include discharging the batteries close to their maximum depth of
discharge and then fully recharging them just before the eclipse occurs.
Also, the rapidity with which the satellite enters and exits the shadow of
the celestial body creates sudden temperature stress situations. The
satellite is designed in such a manner so as to cope with these thermal
stresses.

With reference to satellites, an eclipse is said to occur when the sunlight

fails to reach the satellite’s solar panel due to an obstruction from a
celestial body. The major and most frequent source of an eclipse is due
to the satellite coming in the shadow of the Earth (Figure a). This is
known as a solar eclipse.
 Figure1.17.a –Solar eclipse

The eclipse is total; i.e. the satellite fails to receive any light whatsoever if it
passes through the umbra, which is the dark central region of the shadow, and
receives very little light if it passes through the penumbra, which is the less dark
region surrounding the umbra (Figure b).

Figure 1.17 b – Umbra And Penumbra Specification

The eclipse occurs as the Earth’s equatorial plane is inclined at a constant angle
of about 23.5◦ to its ecliptic plane, which is the plane of the Earth’s orbit
extended to infinity. The eclipse is seen on 42 nights during the spring and an
equal number of nights during the autumn by the geostationary satellite. The
effect is the worst during the equinoxes and lasts for about 72 minutes.
The equinox, as explained earlier, is the point in time when the sun crosses the
equator, making the day and night equal in length. The spring and autumn
equinoxes respectively occur on 20–21 March and 22–23 September. During the
equinoxes in March and September, the satellite, the Earth and the sun are
aligned at midnight local time and the satellite spends about 72 minutes in total
darkness. From 21 days before and 21 days after the equinoxes, the satellite
crosses the umbral cone each day for some time, thereby receiving only a part
of solar light for that time. During the rest of the year, the geostationary
satellite orbit passes either above or below the umbral cone. It is at the
maximum distance at the time of the solstices, above the umbral cone at the
time of the summer solstice (20–21 June) and below it at the time of the winter
solstice (21–22 December). Figure 1.18 further illustrates the phenomenon.

Figure 1.18- equinox specification

Hence, the duration of an eclipse increases from zero to about 72 minutes
starting 21 days before the equinox and then decreases from 72 minutes to
zero during 21 days following the equinox. The duration of an eclipse on a
given day around the equinox can be seen from the graph in Figure 1.19

Figure 1.19-Duration of eclipse

Another type of eclipse known as the lunar eclipse occurs when the moon’s
shadow passes across the satellite (Figure 1.20).

Figure 1.20-Lunar Eclipse

 This is much less common and occurs once in 29 years. In fact, for all practical
purposes, when an eclipse is mentioned with respect to satellites, it is a solar
eclipse that is referred to.

While a solar eclipse takes place, the failure of sunlight to reach the satellite
interrupts the battery recharging process. The satellite is depleted of its
electrical power capacity. It does not significantly affect low power satellites,
which can usually continue their operation with back-up power. The high power
satellites, however, shut down for all but essential services.

4.4.4.Sun Transit Outage:

Sun transit outage is an interruption in or distortion of geostationary satellite

signals caused by interference from solar radiation. Sun appears to be an
extremely noisy source which completely blanks out the signal from satellite.
This effect lasts for 6 days around the equinoxes. They occur for a maximum
period of 10 minutes.

Generally, sun outages occur in February, March, September and October, that
is, around the time of the equinoxes. At these times, the apparent path of the
sun across the sky takes it directly behind the line of sight between an earth
station and a satellite. As the sun radiates strongly at the microwave
frequencies used to communicate with satellites (C band, Ka band and Ku
band) the sun swamps the signal from the satellite. The effects of a sun outage
can include partial degradation, that is, an increase in the error rate, or total
destruction of the signal.
Figure 1.21:Sun Transit Outage
5.LAUNCHERS AND LAUNCH VEHICLES

A satellite cannot be placed into a stable orbit unless two parameters that
are uniquely coupled together the velocity vector and the orbital height are
simultaneously correct. There is little point in orbiting the correct height
and not having the appropriate velocity component in the correct direction
to achieve the desired orbit. A geostationary satellite for example must be
in an orbit at height 35,786.03km above the surface of the earth with an
inclination of zero degrees an ellipticity of zero, and a velocity of
3074.7m/s tangential to the earth in the plane of the orbit, which is the
earths equatorial plane. The further out from the earth the orbit is greater
the energy required from the launch vehicle to reach that orbit. In any
earth satellite launch, the largest fraction of the energy expanded by the
rocket is used to accelerate the vehicle from rest until it is about 20miles
(32 km) above the earth.

To make the most efficient use of the fuel, it is common to shed excess
mass from the launcher as it moves upward on launch; this is called
staging.
5.1.Launching of Satellites:

The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known

as launching process. During this process, from earth stations we can
control the operation of satellite. Mainly, there are four stages in launching
a satellite.

First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel
for lifting the satellite along with launch vehicle from ground.

Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller

rockets. These are ignited after completion of first stage. They have their
own fuel tanks in order to send the satellite into space.

Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected
to the satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which contains the
satellite and it protects the satellite.

Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch
vehicle, when it has been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then, the
satellite will go to a “transfer orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite higher
into space.

When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit, its
subsystems like solar panels and communication antennas gets unfurled.
Then the satellite takes its position in the orbit with other satellites. Now,
the satellite is ready to provide services to the public.
Figure 1.22 –Launching Stage and orbits.

The four orbit stages involved in the satellite launch procedure are as
follows:
1. low earth orbit

2.Hohmann elliptical transfer orbit

3.Intermediate drift orbit

4.Circular Geostationary orbit

Low Earth Orbiting satellites are directly injected into their orbits. This
cannot be done in case of GEOs as they have to be positioned
36,000kms above the Earth's surface. Launch vehicles are hence
used to set these satellites in their orbits. These vehicles are reusable.
They are also known as "Space Transportation System‟ (STS).

When the orbital altitude is greater than 1,200 km it becomes expensive to

directly inject the satellite in its orbit. For this purpose, a satellite must be
placed in to a transfer orbit between the initial lower orbit and destination
orbit. The transfer orbit is commonly known as *Hohmann-Transfer Orbit.

(*About Hohmann Transfer Orbit: This manoeuvre is named for the

German civil engineer who first proposed it, Walter Hohmann, who was
born in 1880. He didn't work in rocketry professionally (and wasn't
associated with military rocketry), but was a key member of Germany's
pioneering Society for Space Travel that included people such as Willy Ley,
Hermann, and Werner von Braun. He published his concept of how to
transfer between orbits in his 1925 book, The Attainability of Celestial
Bodies.)

The transfer orbit is selected to minimize the energy required for the
transfer. This orbit forms a tangent to the low attitude orbit at the point of
its perigee and tangent to high altitude orbit at the point of its apogee.

The rocket injects the satellite with the required thrust** into the transfer
orbit. With the STS, the satellite carries a perigee kick motor*** which
imparts the required thrust to inject the satellite in its transfer orbit.
Similarly, an apogee kick motor (AKM) is used to inject the satellite in its
destination orbit.
(**Thrust: It is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newton's
second and third laws. When a system expels or accelerates mass in one
direction the accelerated mass will cause a force of equal magnitude but
opposite direction on that system.)

(***Kick Motor refers to a rocket motor that is regularly employed on

artificial satellites destined for a geostationary orbit. As the vast majority of
geostationary satellite launches are carried out from spaceports at a
significant distance away from Earth's equator, the carrier rocket would
only be able to launch the satellite into an elliptical orbit of maximum
apogee

35,784-kilometres and with a non-zero inclination approximately equal to

the latitude of the launch site.)

Generally it takes 1-2 months for the satellite to become fully functional.
The Earth Station performs the Telemetry Tracking and Command****
function to control the satellite transits and functionalities.

(****TT&C: it's a sub-system where the functions performed by the

satellite control network to maintain health and status, measure specific
mission parameters and processing over time a sequence of these
measurement to refine parameter knowledge, and transmit mission
commands to the satellite. Detailed study of TT&C in the upcoming units.)
 It is better to launch rockets closer to the equator because the Earth rotates
at a greater speed here than that at either pole. This extra speed at the
equator means a rocket needs less thrust (and therefore less fuel) to launch
into orbit. In addition, launching at the equator provides an additional 1,036
mph (1,667 km/h) of speed once the vehicle reaches orbit. This speed bonus
means the vehicle needs less fuel, and that freed space can be used to carry
more pay load.

Figure 1.23:Launching orbits

Figure depicts typical satellite launch procedure followed by space companies

such as ISRO. Following are the major steps involved in the launch process.
➨Step-1: The launch vehicle takes the satellite into low earth orbit. The satellite is
injected into desired 3-axes stabilized mode to achieve gyro condition using
commands issued by launch vehicle to carry pyro firing.
➨Step-2: After satellite reaches apogee AKM is fired for long duration to take
satellite to intermediate orbit. This intermediate orbit is referred as transfer orbit.
AKM is the short form of Apogee Kick Motor which contains liquid fuel.
➨Step-3: The second apogee motor firing is carried out so that satellite attains
needed angular velocity and acceleration for Geo-synchronization. This helps
satellite to be in LOS from central earth stations. If required it is tracked through
other countries earth stations.
➨Step-4: Further stabilization and attitude control is achieved using control of
momentum/reaction wheels. Antennas and transponders are turned on which brings
satellite into stabilized geostationary orbit. Examples of geostationary satellites are
INTELSAT, COMSAT, INSAT etc.

Figure 1.24- Launching procedure in ISRO

The satellite launch vehicle is a complex system and consists of following
functional modules:
• Propulsion systems
• Auto Piloting
• Aero dynamic structure
• Interactive Steering subsystem

Once the satellite is placed in the parking space(i.e. designated orbit), following
activities need to be performed as part of maintenance.

• Orbit maintenance

• Attitude maintenance

• Thermal management

• Power management

• battery maintenance

• Payload operations

• Software requirement.

5.2.Satellite Launch Vehicles:

• Launch vehicles are used to launch the satellites from the Earth into their
desired orbits.

• Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit based on
the requirement.

• Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but multi stage rockets.

• In order to launch the satellite into its desired orbit,

Two parameters that are very important are

 the velocity vector

 the orbital height.

In addition to the rocket stages, launch vehicles also comprise of boosters that
are used to aid the rockets during main orbital manoeuvres or to provide small
orbital corrections

Following are the two types of satellite launch vehicles.

 Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)

 Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)

5.2.1.Expendable Launch Vehicles:

Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get destroyed after leaving the satellites in
space. The following image shows how an ELV looks.

Figure 1.25 - Expendable Launch Vehicles

 ELVs are designed to be used only once and their components are not
recovered after launch. They mostly comprise of multi stage rockets
and the job of each stage is to provide the desired orbital manoeuvre.

 Most launch vehicles have multiple stage and as each stage is

completed that portion of the launcher is expended until the final
stage places the satellite into the desired trajectory. Hence the term:
expandable launch vehicle(ELV).

 As the job of the stage is completed, it is expended. The process

goes on till the satellite is placed into the desired trajectory.

 The ELV contains three stages. First and second stages of ELV raise
the satellite to an about 50 miles and 100 miles. Third stage of ELV
places the satellite in transfer orbit. The number of rocket stages can
be as many as five.

 The task of ELV will be completed and its spare parts will be fallen to
earth, when the satellite reached to transfer orbit.

5.2.2.Reusable Launch Vehicles:

 Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be used multiple times for

launching satellites. Generally, this type of launch vehicles will return
back to earth after leaving the satellite in space.

 The following image shows a reusable launch vehicle. It is also known

as space shuttle.
 Figure 1.26-Reusable Launch Vehicles
 The space shuttle , called the space transportation system (STS)by NASA,
is partially reusable. The solid rocket boosters are recovered and
refurbished for future mission and the shuttle vehicle itself is flown back to
earth for refurbishment and reuse. Hence the term: reusable launch
vehicle(RLV) for such launchers.
 The functions of space shuttle are similar to the functions of first and
second stages of ELV. Satellite along with the third stage of space shuttle
are mounted in the cargo bay. It is ejected from the cargo bay when the
space shuttle reaches to an elevation of 150 to 200 miles.

 Then, the third stage of space shuttle gets fired and places the satellite
into a transfer orbit. After this, the space shuttle will return back to earth
for reuse.

 Reusable launchers make a soft landing on earth or at sea and can be

refurbished for use on a future mission.
5.2.3.EXAMPLES OF LAUNCH VEHICLES:

EXPENDABLE LAUNCH VEHICLES:

Ariane (Europe), Atlas (USA), Delta (USA), GSLV (India), PSLV (India),
Long March (China) and Proton (Russia) are some of the launch vehicles
being used internationally to launch satellites.

The Ariane launch vehicle from the European Space Agency (ESA) has
entered the fifth generation with ARIANE-5 series.

 The ARIANE-5 ECA (Enhanced Capability-A) (Figure 3.24) launch

vehicle of the Ariane-5 series has the capacity of launching 12 tons of
payload to geostationary transfer orbit.

The GSLV launch vehicle (Figure 3.25), developed by Indian Space

Research Organization (ISRO) can launch a 2 to 2.5 tons satellite into
GTO (200 km × 36 000 km).

REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLES:

Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV) are designed to be recovered intact

and used again for subsequent launches.

The Space Shuttle from the USA is one example. It is generally used
for human spaceflight missions. Launch vehicles are also classified
according to the mass they carry into orbit.
• As an example the PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle), developed by ISRO,
India has the capability of launching a payload of 1000 to 1200 kg into polar
sun-synchronous orbit.

• Another launch vehicle developed by ISRO, GSLV (Geostationary Satellite

Launch Vehicle) has the capability to launch a 2 to 2.5 tonne payload to GTO
(200 km × 36 000 km).

Figure 1.27-Examples of launch Vehicles in various countries

5.3.NEED OF PROPULSION:
Propulsion is needed to:
a) Place payloads into orbit: launch propulsion is used;
b)Send payloads to the moon or to the planets: space propulsion is used;
c)Position, adjust and maintain orbits of spacecrafts by orbit control: auxiliary
propulsion is used;
d)Orient spacecraft by attitude control: auxiliary propulsion also called reaction-
control systems is used.

5.3.1.Payloads :
The Payload is the revenue-producing portion of a spacecraft load, e.g.,
passengers and cargo such as scientific experiments, TV transmitters, earth
observation equipment like photo cameras, etc.

5.3.2.Spacecrafts :
Spacecraft is the collective name of devices, which are designed to be placed
into space, comprising earth satellites, interplanetary and trans-solar types of
space probes. Spacecraft can be manned or unmanned.

5.3.3.Orbit control :
orbit control comprises:
1.Orbit changes: - Moving a spacecraft to a desired orbit, including plane
changes, orbit injection, deorbit, etc.
2. Orbit Maintenance or “Station Keeping”: - Keeping a spacecraft in the
desired mission orbit, i.e. compensating for effects of disturbing forces like
drag, solar wind, gravitational forces, etc.
3. Attitude control: - Changing the attitude, that is changing the orientation of
a spacecraft to the desired direction. Keeping a spacecraft to the desired
direction by compensating for disturbing torques.
5.4.SPACECRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEM:

Spacecraft propulsion is based on jet propulsion as used by rocket motors.

The principle of rocket propulsion was known as far back as 360B.C. In
the 13th century solid rocket powered arrows were used by the Chinese
military. The Second World War and the cold war advanced rocket missile
development in modern time. Later, space opened up to exploration and
commercial exploitation by satellites and robot spacecraft.

5.4.1.Characteristics of Spacecraft Propulsion Systems:

In order to fulfil attitude and orbit operational requirements of spacecraft,

spacecraft propulsion systems are characterized in particular by:

 Very high velocity increment capability (many km/s)

 Low thrust levels (1 mN to 500 N) with low acceleration levels

 Continuous operation mode for orbit control

 Pulsed operation mode for attitude control

 Predictable, accurate and repeatable performance (impulse bits)

 Reliable, leak-free long time operation (storable propellants)

 Minimum and predictable thrust exhaust impingement effects

5.4.2.Spacecraft Propulsion System Options:

Both space propulsion and auxiliary propulsion are performed by the

following two main on-board spacecraft propulsion system types:
5.4.3.Chemical Propulsion Systems:

The energy to produce thrust is stored in the propellant, which is released by

chemical reactions and the propellant is then accelerated to a high velocity by
expanding it in form of gas through a nozzle. Currently available chemical
propulsion systems can be categorized as either: hot gas or cold gas system.

5.4.4.Electric Propulsion Systems:

The energy to produce thrust is not stored in the propellant but has to be supplied
from outside by an extra power source, e.g. nuclear, solar radiation receivers or
batteries. Thrust is produced by: - Expansion of hot gas (which is heated by
electric current) in a nozzle, - Accelerating of charged particles in electric or
magnetic fields to high expulsion velocities.

Classified According to the Type of Energy Source

Figure 1.28-Propulsion Systems types

5.4.5.Electric Propulsion Systems:
Electric propulsion systems comprise the following main components:

figure 1.29 – Electric Propulsion Systems

 Storage and feed system that stores and feeds the propellant to the thrusters
to generate thrust Valves, piping which connects the propellant storage system
with the thruster Electric control unit to operate electrically the valves and
thrusters Electric power supply and power processing system.

 In order to increase propulsion system impulse performances for e.g.

interplanetary missions, exhaust velocity has to be increased beyond the 5000
m/s, which is best available from chemical rockets.

 This can be achieved by Electric Propulsion Systems that rely on externally

provided electric power to accelerate the propellant to produce useful thrust in
three ways:

Electrothermal systems (resist jet and arc-jets) Expansion of hot gas

(which is heated by electric current) in a nozzle.
Electromagnetic systems (magneto plasma dynamic (MPD)) Accelerating
of plasma by interaction of electric and magnetic fields to high
expulsion velocities.

Electrostatic systems (ion engines: Kaufman, radio-frequency, field

emission, stationary plasma) Accelerating of charged particles in electric
fields to high expulsion velocities.
5.4.6.Chemical Propulsion Systems :
Chemical Propulsion systems comprise the following main components

Figure 1.30-Chemical Propulsion Systems

 Storage and feed system that stores and feeds the propellant to the thrusters
to generate thrust Valves, piping which connects the propellant storage
system with the thruster Electric control unit to operate electrically the valves
and thrusters

5.4.7.Cold and Hot Gas Systems:

 Cold Gas Systems operate with propellants like compressed inert gas (e.g.
nitrogen: N2) or high vapor pressure hydrocarbons (e.g. propane: C3H8).

 Cold gas propulsion is just controlled pressurized gas source and a nozzle.

 The typical system operating with cold gas consists of a propellant tank, fill
valve, filter, pressure regulator, line pressure transducers and thrusters.

 The pressure regulator provides propellant at constant pressure as the tank

pressure drops.

 A relief valve is incorporated downstream of the pressure regulator to prevent

system rupture in the case of a regulator failure.

 With regard to compressed gas systems, the cold gas is stored at high
pressures in a tank.
 In order to provide completely vaporized gas, a vaporized is included
in liquid cold gas systems. Nitrogen, argon, krypton, Freon 14,
ammonia and propane have been employed in operational spacecraft,
but nitrogen has been the most common cold-gas propellant.

 Although of moderate impulse capability, cold gas systems, in

particular systems operating with compressed cold gas, are still of
interest in view of their simplicity, high reliability and repeatability of
impulse bit.

 Therefore, cold gas has many applications where simplicity is more

important than high performance.

 For increasing absolute levels of thrust and impulse requirements for

spacecraft propulsion (e.g. attitude and orbit control), cold gas
systems are inadequate and more energetic propellants generating
hot gas for mass expulsion are required.

Advantages :

Simplicity and reliability

Lowest cost propulsion system

Very low thrust (≥ 0.0045 N) and impulse bit (≥ 10-5 N) capability

Low contamination of exhaust gases (plume) on spacecraft outer

surface
5.4.8.Hot Gas Systems:

Hot Gas Systems are the most common type of propulsion systems for space
applications.

They can be divided into three basic categories defined by the physical state
of the stored propellants in the propulsion system.

In contrast to compressed gas and vaporizing liquids, liquid propellants in hot

gas systems need to be pressurized in the tank to feed the thrusters with
propellant

These systems are called pressure-fed systems.

Monopropellant Systems (Operate) The hydrazine propellant is

decomposed in a thruster by a catalyst and the resulting hot gas is expelled
through a nozzle, thus generating thrust force on the spacecraft. A typical
monopropellant system uses nitrogen or helium gas to expel the propellant
from a diaphragm tank into the chamber catalyst beds of the thrusters. Since
the pressuring gas is stored (at a pre-selected but relatively low pressure, e.g.
22 bar) in the propellant tank, the propellant pressure varies with propellant
usage.

A typical selection of the ullage volume of 25% filled with pressuring gas
(thus containing 75% propellant) will results in a propellant feed pressure
decay, and thus in a thrust decay of 4:1. This mode of operation is also
referred to as the blow-down mode, in contrast to the pressure constant
mode, which requires the storage of a high-pressure gas in a tank external to
the propellant tank (see bipropellant systems).
In a hydrazine gas generator system, the hydrazine decomposition gases are
exhausted into a gas storage tank for later gas expulsion. The catalytic
thruster and gas generator systems have identical propellant feed systems
consisting typically of propellant tank(s) with a diaphragm expulsion device(s),
propellant and gas fill valves, eventually latch valves (start valves), line
pressure transducers and filters.

Bipropellant Systems (Operate) Bipropellant systems are characterized by

the combustion of two (Bi) propellants, a fuel (e.g. MMH) and an oxidizer
(e.g. N2O4) to produce thrust.

The propellants are injected separately into the bipropellant thruster

combustion chamber where they react spontaneously (hypergolic
propellant) to perform high-temperature, low molecular weight
combustion products, which are the expelled through a nozzle.

The system basically consists of a pressurizing-gas system, propellant

tanks (with surface tension propellant management devices), propellant
lines and thrusters. Unlike hydrazine thrusters, bipropellant thrusters
accept only a limited range of propellant inlet pressure variation of ≤ 2.

Therefore, the high-pressure gas, generally nitrogen or helium is regulated to

the desired tank pressure, e.g. 17 bar. This mode of operation is also referred
to as the pressure constant mode.
The system contains check valves upstream of the propellant tanks to prevent
possible back-flow, mixing, and combustion of the propellant vapours in the
common pressuring gas line. Relieve valves are incorporated in the system
upstream of the propellant tanks to prevent system rupture in the event of a
pressure regulator failure. Filters are provided in the propellant lines directly
upstream of the thruster valves to prevent clogging of the injector or damage
of the valve seat by entrained foreign material. Finally, the system contains
pyro- or latch valves, line pressure transducers, fill and drain valves and
various test ports for system check out.

Solid Propellant System:

The solid propellant motor consists of a motor case, containing a propellant

grain, a nozzle and an igniter.

In general, solid propulsion motors can only deliver their total impulse
potential in one firing, because off-modulation is not possible.

Therefore the usage of solid propulsion is restricted to:

Orbit change (e.g. apogee or perigee maneuver)

Impart acceleration (e.g. liquid reorientation maneuvers, separation

maneuvers)
Main Performance:

Thrust level: 50 N (for e.g. spin-up/down of small satellites) ≤ 50 000 N

typical for satellite orbit transfer applications; up to 5 ·106 N for
launcher/spacecraft application.

Delivered impulse: ~10 Ns (F =50 N, e.g. spin-up/down of small satellites) ≤

107 Ns for satellite orbit transfer applications

Motor-spec. Impulse: ~ 2400 Ns/kg for F ≤ 50 N; ≤ 3000 Ns/kg for F ≤ 50

000 N

System-spec. Impulse: 2300 ÷ 2700 Ns/kg (~120 Ns/kg for F ≤ 50 N)

Advantages:

Relatively simple operation

Very high mass fraction, excellent bulk density and packaging characteristics

Good long-term storage characteristics

Disadvantages:

Not readily tested and checked-out prior to flight

Very difficult to stop and restart, throttle, pulse, etc. (hybrid)

Limited Isp performance (2400 – 3000 Ns/kg)

Limited redundancy with associated reliability and safety issue.

 7- VIDEO LECTURE LINKS

YouTube Channel :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7cpjjKWUJ9M

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WARM4fwsoT4

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/105/117105131/
TOPIC WISE ONLINE LINKS
History of Satellite:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFIXfcL43_4
Frequency Spectrum:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiD8tpYa8oA&t=4s
Introduction to Satellite Communication:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ror4P1UAv_g

Orbit Fundamentals:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2gAYqtmNJx8

Launching Procedures – launch vehicles and propulsion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbuCMYy7AeI
 8- E-BOOK REFERENCE & LECTURE PPT LINKS
E BOOK
Text Book :
https://www.srecwarangal.ac.in/ece-
downloads/IV_II%20satellite_communications_by_dennis_roddy4thedition.p
df
Reference Book 1:
http://sedighy.ir/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/ebooksclub.org__Introduction_to_Satellite_Commu
nication__Artech_House_Space_Applications_.pdf
Slide Share Link:
 https://www.slideshare.net/chappidi_saritha/satellite-communications-
15862346

https://www.slideshare.net/RAVIKIRANANANDE/orbital-mechanics-
107964423?qid=ba7710de-9ad8-45ef-813d-
1dde33448e25&v=&b=&from_search=6

Topic wise PPT’S:

Kepler's Laws and Newton's law:
https://www.slideshare.net/PadmaSree1/introduction-to-satellite-
communication
orbital parameters:
https://www.slideshare.net/SheetanshuShekhar5/orbital-parameters-of-a-
satellite
geo stationary and non Geo-stationary orbits:
https://www.slideshare.net/mkmannu/satellite-communication-18183139
Look Angle Determination:
https://www.slideshare.net/muzika2011/satellite-communication-16084026
9- ASSIGNMENTS
 9 ASSIGNMENTS

UNIT 1
SATELLITE ORBITS

Q.No Questions BT

Level
Level

CO
a) Define Satellite communication
1 b) Explain Aryabhatta
CO1 K2

2 Write short notes Frequency allocations CO1 K1

3 Discuss various types of satellites orbits and CO1 K2

list the merits.
4 a) Define Earth Station. CO1 K1
b) What is perigee

5 List out various applications of CO1 K1

satellites

6 A geostationary satellite is CO1 K2,K3

located 900 W. Calculate the
azimuth angle for an Earth
station antenna located at
latitude 350 W and longitude
1000 W.

7 Calculate time in days, hours, CO1 K3

minutes and seconds for epoch
day 324.95616765
10.PART A Q & A
 10 PART A Q & A

UNIT 1 SATELLITE ORBITS

Q.No QUESTIONS & ANSWERS BT CO
Level Level
1 What is Satellite? Mention the types. K1 CO1
An artificial body that is projected from earth to
orbit either earth (or) another body of solar
systems. Types: Information satellites and
Communication Satellites
2 State Kepler’s first law. K1 CO1
It states that the path followed by the satellite
around the primary will be an ellipse. An ellipse
has two focal points F1 and F2. The center of
mass of the two body system, termed the
barycenter is always centered on one of the foci.
e = [square root of ( a2– b2) ] / a
3 Mention the apogee and perigee height. K1 CO1
r a = a(1+e)
r p = a(1+e)
ha=ra–Rp
hp=rp–Rp

4 What is meant by azimuth angle? K1 CO1

It is defined as the angle produced by
intersection of local horizontal plane and the
plane passing through the earth station, the
satellite and center of earth
5 Write short notes on station keeping. K1 CO1
It is the process of maintenance of satellite’s
attitude against different factors that can cause
drift with time. Satellites need to have their orbits
adjusted from time to time, because the satellite is
initially placed in the correct orbit, natural forces
induce a progressive drift.
6 What are the geostationary satellites? K1 CO1
The satellites present in the geostationary orbit are called
geostationary satellite. The geostationary orbit is one in
which the satellite appears stationary relative to the earth.
It lies in equatorial plane and inclination is ‘0’. The
satellite must orbit the earth in the same direction as the
earth spin. The orbit is circular.

7 What is sun transit outage.

The sun transit is nothing but the sun comes within the
beam width of the earth station antenna. During this
period the sun behaves like an extremely noisy source
and it blanks out all the signal from the satellite. This K1 CO1
effect is termed as sun transit outage.
8 Define look angles. K2 CO1

The azimuth and elevation angles of the ground station

antenna are termed as look angles.

9 Give the advantage of geostationary orbit. K1 CO1

There is no necessity for tracking antennas to find the
satellite positions.
They are able to monitor the particular place
continuously without the necessity in change of
coordinates.
10 Define polar-orbiting satellites. K2 CO1
Polar orbiting satellites orbit the earth in such a way as to
cover the north and south polar regions.
11 Define Inclination. K3 CO1
The angle between the orbital plane and the earth’s
equatorial plane. It is measured at the ascending
node from the equator to the orbit going from east
to north.
12 State Kepler’s third law. K2 CO1
It states that the square of the periodic time of
orbit is perpendicular to the cube of the mean
distance between the two bodies.
a3= 3 / n2 Where, n = Mean motion of the satellite
in rad/sec.
3 = Earth’s geocentric gravitational constant. With
the n in radians per sec.
the orbital period in second is given by,
P = 27 / n
13 Give the types of satellite services. K1 CO1
• Fixed satellite service
• Broadcasting satellite service
• Mobile satellite service
• Navigational satellite services
• Meteorological satellite services

14 What is line of apsides? K1 CO1

The line joining the perigee and apogee through
the center of the earth is known as line of apsides.

15 Define sub-Satellite point. K1 CO1

The point on the earth vertically under the satellite
is called sub-satellite point . The height of the
terrain above the reference ellipsoid at the sub-
satellite point is denoted by Hss. The height of the
satellite above this is denoted by hss. Thus the
total height is, h= Hss+hss
16 State Newton’s First law. K2 CO1
It states that the gravitational force of attraction
between two bodies is directly proportional to the
product of their masses M and m and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance ‘r’
between them.
F= -GMm/ r 2 Where,
G = Universal gravitational constant rˆ= unit
vector.
17 Define Prograde orbit and Retrograde orbit. K1 CO1
Prograde orbit: An orbit in which the satellite
moves in same direction as the earth rotation.
It is also known as the direct orbit.
Retrograde orbit: An orbit in which the satellite
moves in counter to direction of earth rotation.
18 Write short notes on atmospheric Drag. K2 CO1
The atmospheric drag is significant for near earth
satellite below or above 1000km. This drag
reduces the velocity at the perigee because of this
the satellite does not reach the same apogee
height on successive revolution. So that the semi
major axis and eccentricity are reduced.
19 State Newton’s second law. K1 CO1
Second law of motion states that the acceleration
of the body is directly proportional to the force
acting on it and inversely proportional to the
mass. F=ma .
20 Mention the 3 regions to allocate the frequency K1 CO1
for satellite services.
• Region1: It covers Europe, Africa and Mangolia
• Region2: It covers North & South America and
Greenland.
• Region3: It covers Asia, Australia and South
West Pacific.
21 Define the terms in Eclipse. K1 CO1
During equinox periods, the earth the sun & the
satellite are in alignment with the result
that earth’ s shadow eclipses the satellite & the
sunlight fails to reach the satellite solar cells. The
eclipse effect is noticeable for periods of about four
weeks & the maximum daily eclipse duration is
about 1.20hours.

22 Define ascending node. The point where the orbit K1 CO1

crosses the equatorial plane going from south to
north.
23 What is Hohmann transfer orbit? K1 CO1
An orbital altitude greater than about 200 km is
required, it is not economical in terms of launch
vehicle power to perform direct injection, and the
satellite must be placed into transfer orbit
between the initial LEO and the final high-altitude
orbit. In most cases, the transfer orbit is selected to
minimize the energy required for transfer, and such
an orbit is known as a Hohmann transfer orbit
24 Define apogee and perigee. K1 CO1
The point farthest from the earth is known as apogee.
The point closest from the earth is known as perigee.

25 What are the basic concepts needed to determine K1 CO1

look angles and its ranges?
1. Orbital elements
2. Various measures of time
3. The peri-focal coordinate system, which is based
on the orbital plane
4. The geocentric-equatorial coordinate system,
which is based on the earth’s equatorial plane.
5. The topocentric- horizon coordinate system, which
is based on the observer’s horizon plane.
26 What are the three conditions are required for an orbit K1 CO1
to be geostationary?
Its orbit must lie on an equatorial plane.
It must appear stationary when viewed from a point on
earth which means its time period of revolution is
24hrs.
Its height above the surface of the earth must be
36000km.
27 Write the advantages of GEO stationary orbit. K1 CO1
Tracking equipment avoided.
Larger coverage area.
Global coverage with less number of satellites.
Same quality of service at all places.
28 Give the 3 different types of applications with respect K`1 CO1
to satellite systems.
• The largest international system (Intelsat)
• The domestic satellite system (Dom sat) in U.S
. • U.S. National oceanographic and atmospheric
administrations (NOAA)
29 Define satellite graveyards. K1 CO1
The gravity gradient resulting from the equatorial
ellipticity causes the satellites in geostationary orbit to
drift to one of two stable points, which coincide with
the minor axis of the equatorial ellipse. These two
points are separated by 180 on the equator and are at
approximately 75 E longitude and 105 W longitude.
Satellites in service are prevented from drifting to these
points through station-keeping maneuvers. Because
old, out-of-service satellites eventually do drift to these
points, they are referred to as “satellite graveyards.
.
30 . Define descending node. The point where the orbit K1 CO1
crosses the equatorial plane going from north to south
11 - PART B Qs
 11- PART B Qs

Q.No QUESTIONS & ANSWERS BT CO

Level Level
1
i. State the Kepler's laws. Discuss its importance in K2 CO1
satellite communications.
ii. Explain satellite launching and the types of launch
vehicles.
2
i. Discuss the effect of non spherical earth atmospheric K2 CO1
drag on the satellite orbit.
ii. Explain how station keeping helps to keep a
geostationary satellite in its correct Orbital slot.
3
.i. Explain the interpretation of Kepler's laws. K2, CO1
K3
ii. Satellite is orbiting in a geosynchronous orbit of
radius 42500km. find the velocity and time of orbit.
What will be the change in velocity if the radius
reduces to 36000km.if go=398600.5Km3s2.
4
Give a detailed note on launching vehicles and K2 CO1
procedures employed for launching spacecraft in GEO
Orbit.

5
i. With a neat sketch explain launching mechanism. K3 CO1
ii. Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which the
periods is 1 day
6 i. Discuss about frequency allocations for satellite services. K2 CO1
ii. What are the effects of non spherical earth on the orbital
mechanics of a satellite?

7 i. Discuss about near geostationary orbits. K3 CO1

ii. Determine the limits of visibility for an earth station
situated at mean sea level, at latitude 48.42 degree north and
longitude 89.26 degree west. Assume a minimum angle of
elevation of 5.9 degree.
iii. Discuss about sun transit outage.
8 What are orbital elements? Derive the six orbital elements K2 CO1
of satellite from Newton’s law of motion.
9 How the satellite positions are estimated using the sub- K2 CO1
satellite points?
10 What are look angles and derive the expressions for azimuth K2 CO1
and elevation?
11 (i) State Kepler's three laws of planetary motion. Explain K2 CO1
their relevance to artificial satellites orbiting the earth.
(ii) Define Universal time and sidereal time.
12 A satellite is moving in a highly eccentric Malniya orbit K3 CO1
having the farthest and the closest points as 3500km
and 500km and 500km respectively from earth surface.
Determine the orbital time period time period time
period and the velocity at apogee and perigee points.
(Assume earth’s radius = 6360km).
ii. The semi-major axis and the semi-minor axis of an
elliptical satellite orbit are20,000km and 16,000km
respectively. Determine the apogee and perigee
distances.

13 (i) Discuss about frequency allocations for satellite K3 CO1

services.
(ii) What are the effects of a non spherical earth on the
orbital mechanics of a satellite?

14 Explain how satellite positions are estimated using sub- K3 CO1

satellite.

15 Discuss the effects non spherical earth and atmosphere K2 CO1

drag on satellite Communication.
16 Give a brief account of K2 CO1

i. Theory and application of geocentric equatorial

coordinate systems.

ii. Orbital elements.

iii. Orbital plane.

17 i. If a satellite has an orbiting time of 23 hrs. 56 min. K2 CO1

calculate orbiting distance. Assume suitable data if
required.
ii. A satellite is orbiting round the earth at 4212km.
The earth station is looking at this satellite at an
elevation angle of 35degree. Calculate slant range.
Make suitable assumption.

18 Briefly discuss about solar eclipse effects and other K3 CO1

outages that affect the working of GEO Satellites.

12- SUPPORTIVE ONLINE
CERTIFICATION COURSES
 12- SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

UNIT 1
NPTEL SWAYAM

Supportive online Certification Course :

NPTEL / Swayam :(Common to all Units)

Course Name: Satellite Communication Systems

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/105/117105131/

Course abstract :
Satellite communication is a form of wireless
communication that covers large area and long distance
using satellites as repeaters. Course prerequisite is digital
communication. In this course the participants will get the
basic technical knowledge of orbital dynamics, subsystems
used in space segment and ground segment, power and
bandwidth requirement, effect of the transmission medium,
other impairments and techniques to mitigate them,
regulatory aspect and standards, and some value added
examples.
13- REAL TIME APPLICATIONS
 13 - REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS

UNIT 1

Real time applications in day to day life and industry

Understanding of Various spectrum allocations and their applications
Understanding of application of Satellite Imagery & Remote Sensing Data.
Understanding of satellite orbits and the functions of satellite at that orbit for
various applications like remote sensing, weather forecasting ,Navigation and
Broadcasting Services
14- CONTENTS BEYOND
THE SYLLABUS
 14 - CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

UNIT 1

Contents beyond the syllabus (CoE related Value Added Courses)

a. Coursera:
Course Name :Microwave Engineering
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/103/108103141/

About this Course

This course intends to provide a foundation for microwave engineering to
the undergraduate
students. Rigorous treatment of the fundamentals of microwave
engineering will be provided.
Design of different passive and some active microwave
circuits/subsystems will be covered in
detail. This course will also provide an overview of application of
microwave in communication
and other areas
SKILLS YOU WILL GAIN
To gain knowledge about Terrestrial Communication
15 - ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE
 15. ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam
16 - TEXT BOOKS &
REFERENCE BOOKS
 16- TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Dennis Roddy, ―Satellite Communication‖, 4th Edition, Mc Graw Hill
International, 2006.
2. Timothy,Pratt,Charles,W.Bostain,JeremyE.Allnutt,"SatelliteCommunication‖,2nd
Edition, Wiley Publications,2002
REFERENCES:
1. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, ―Satellite
Communication Systems Engineering‖, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
2. N.Agarwal, ―Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft‖, Prentice Hall, 1986.
3. Bruce R. Elbert, ―The Satellite Communication Applications‖, Hand Book, Artech
House Bostan London, 1997.
4. Tri T. Ha, ―Digital Satellite Communication‖, II nd edition, 1990.
5. Emanuel Fthenakis, ―Manual of Satellite Communications‖, Mc Graw Hill Book
Co., 1984.
6. Robert G. Winch, ―Telecommunication Trans Mission Systems‖, Mc Graw-Hill
Book Co., 1983.
7. G.B.Bleazard, ―Introducing Satellite communications―, NCC Publication, 1985.
8. M.Richharia, ―Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles‖, Macmillan
2003.

E BOOK
Text Book :
https://www.srecwarangal.ac.in/ece-
downloads/IV_II%20satellite_communications_by_dennis_roddy4thedition.pdf
Reference Book 1:
http://sedighy.ir/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/ebooksclub.org__Introduction_to_Satellite_Communic
ation__Artech_House_Space_Applications_.pdf
17 - MINI PROJECT
Mini Project Suggestions
•
Read the paper of Arthur C. Clark and summarize his
suggestions to support Satellite for Communication
purposes
• Visit
http://web.uettaxila.edu.pk/cms/teSCms
and visit JTrack-3D Link under Important Links section
to complete the assignment.
Find out the Indian satellite names with pictures,
purpose and life span.
Find out Satellite Impacts on Real Time Remote
Sensing Application
 Thank you

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