The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin  Spring 2022

Diana Craig Patch and Alisa LaGamma

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Director’s Note

This Bulletin and the exhibition it accompanies bring together

highlights from the Museum’s collection of West and Central
African art with equally majestic works from ancient Egypt.
Considering these two African collections together reveals
the brilliance of artists—working thousands of years apart—
who were born on the continent where our earliest visual
creations developed and whose dynamic achievements remain
a source of innovation and inspiration. What emerges is a
fascinating dialogue, full of surprising visual similarities and
sometimes fundamental differences, that celebrates more than
five millennia of creative thought and exceptional artistry.
Visitors and readers alike will be able to delve into the rich
histories and diverse artistic traditions of Africa while consid-
ering these poetic cross-cultural comparisons.
The exhibition was organized by Diana Craig Patch, Lila
Acheson Wallace Curator in Charge, Department of Egyptian
Art, and Alisa LaGamma, Ceil and Michael E. Pulitzer Curator
in Charge of The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing. Together, they
selected more than forty great works of art to juxtapose in
visually striking pairings based on shared themes or universal
motifs. This renewed focus on Africa at The Met coincides
with the temporary closure of The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing,
which will reopen in 2024 after an extensive reenvisioning
that will refresh our displays and better frame discussions of
those beloved works of art for generations to come. As always,
we deeply appreciate those who make such exhibitions possi-
ble and thank The Daniel P. Davison Fund and Louise Grunwald
for their generosity, as well as the Lila Acheson Wallace Fund
for The Metropolitan Museum of Art, established by the
cofounder of Reader’s Digest, for its longstanding support
of the Bulletin series.

Max Hollein
Marina Kellen French Director
The Metropolitan Museum of Art

3
The African continent, the birthplace of modern humanity,
was the locus from which the earliest migrations of people
moved across the globe. It was also the stage upon which our
ancestors first expressed abstract thought in visual terms
and deliberately imbued their material creations with beauty.
Home to only a seventh of the world’s population, but to a
third of the world’s languages, Africa represents an especially
rich concentration of cultural diversity, a direct outcome of
the unparalleled longevity of its settlement. That pluralism is
manifest in an array of complex worldviews that, over millen-
nia, have encompassed the sun cult, ancestral veneration,
and divine kingship as well as Christianity and Islam.
Some of the earliest evidence of ideas expressed visually
survives in the form of ocher tablets engraved in southern
Africa some 80,000 years ago. The myriad developments and
creative innovations that followed within this vast geographic
expanse are physically evident in two areas of The Met collec-
tion whose histories are separated by several thousand years.
In different ways, they both fueled “quantum leaps” in visual
representation that influenced artists well beyond the borders
of the African continent. One is the canon of human propor-
tions developed by Egyptian sculptors and demonstrated
in the grids they employed when carving sculpture and reliefs
(fig. 1). Close study of that tradition by the ancient Greeks was
the catalyst by about 600 b.c. for their own development of
lifesize, freestanding figures seemingly released from blocks
of stone. These statues, considered a paradigm of “classical”
antiquity, became one of the cornerstones of Western visual
art. That approach to representation remained dominant in
the West until artists in European capitals at the start of the
last century—inspired by the creations of Dogon, Baule, Baga,

1  Striding figure. Egypt (possibly Elkab), Old Kingdom,

Dynasty 4, ca. 2575–2465 b.c. Painted quartzite, H. 35 1/4 in.
(89.5 cm). Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1962 (62.200)
 “The history of Black Africa will remain suspended in
air and cannot be written correctly until African historians
dare to connect it with the history of Egypt.”

—Cheikh Anta Diop, The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality (1974)

Dan, Fang, and Pende sculptors active in centers across West

and Central Africa—foregrounded conceptual ideas in a delib-
erate departure from an illusionistic depiction of observed
reality (fig. 2). Once again, artistic creativity originating in Africa
presented a new way forward.
Despite their creators’ shared African origins, the landmark
cultural achievements by ancient Egyptians and by artists from
an array of traditions that flourished to the south have, for the
most part, long been categorized by the West as unrelated
bodies of work. This historic disassociation is ironic given that
the very idea of “Africa” as a descriptive category, as discussed
by the philosophers Valentin-Yves Mudimbe and Kwame
Anthony Appiah, is a reductive notion that derives from
European culture and has only recently come to figure in the
thinking of many of those identified as Africans.1 Such external
framing has selectively and inaccurately portrayed Africa as
a monolithic sociocultural continuum concentrated south of
the Sahara.
In the New World, that conceptual homogenization and
collapsing of cultures was imposed on the millions of individ-
uals forcibly uprooted from communities across the African
continent, sometimes thousands of miles apart, between the
sixteenth and mid-nineteenth centuries. The dehumanization of
bondage deprived the enslaved and their descendants of spe-
cific cultural knowledge concerning their distinct ancestries.2
The historian Mamadou Diouf has noted that as early as the
late eighteenth century ancient Ethiopian and Egyptian civiliza-
tions became critical references to a reconstruction of the gifts
of Black humanity, an idea promulgated through sources such
as W. E. B. Du Bois’s Star of Ethiopia (1913) and the NAACP’s
publication The Crisis.3 Paradoxically, although ancient Egypt

2  Alberto Giacometti (1901–1966). Spoon Woman, 1926–27

(cast 1954). Bronze, H. 56 5/8 in. (143.8 cm). Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, New York (55.1414)
 is one of the earliest known African civilizations, its significant
triumphs were rarely recognized as African, and its potential
connections to neighboring cultures to its south were largely
unacknowledged for much of modern history. At The Met,
that legacy is evident in the independent histories of its col-
lections of ancient Egyptian and sub-Saharan African art.

Cheikh Anta Diop and The African Origin of Civilization

Born in Diourbel, Senegal, Cheikh Anta Diop (1923–1986) was
an Egyptologist, linguist, anthropologist, scientist, and histo-
rian of the modern era who emphasized Egypt’s foundational
role in the development of global traditions and its inextrica-
bly deep cultural connections with the African continent at
large (figs. 3, 4). During the 1950s, as self-determination for
new nation-states across Africa exposed the need to reassess
Africa’s contributions to humanity, Diop focused on estab-
3  Cheikh Anta Diop (1923–1986)
lishing the anteriority of its civilizations. His transformational
scholarship, together with that of Dubois, was celebrated at the
1er Festival Mondial des Arts Nègres (First World Festival of
Negro Arts) held in Dakar in 1966. Diop’s interdisciplinary
approach challenged prevailing attitudes about Africa’s place
in history and advocated for recentering the continent as the
source of both our earliest ancestors and widespread cultural
practices. The title of this Bulletin and the exhibition it accom-
panies, which pairs iconic works from ancient Egypt with
those from some of the major African cultural traditions that
followed, pays homage to Diop’s influential 1974 publication
The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality.
Diop was among the members of an international scien-
tific committee that in 1964 prompted the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
to launch a thirty-five-year collaborative project to produce,
with the contributions of some 230 historians, an eight-volume
General History of Africa, covering prehistory to the present.4
As part of UNESCO’s ongoing effort to educate the world
about Africa’s deep and complex past, in 1960 the organization
rallied support for the International Campaign to Save the
Monuments of Nubia. This rescue effort responded to the
planned construction of the Aswan High Dam and the subse-
quent creation of Lake Nasser, which flooded a portion of the
Nile Valley and forced the relocation of the Nubian peoples 4  Cover of The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality (1974)
who lived along the river as well as the now famous temples
at Abu Simbel and other monuments (fig. 5).
The need for collaborative stewardship of the world’s cul- global displacement of populations on an unprecedented scale.
tural patrimony, addressed by the 1972 UNESCO Convention At the same time, the reality of the COVID-19 pandemic has
Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural made evident our basic and abiding interconnectedness.
Heritage, is more relevant today than ever before as poverty, Contemporary Africa is a multifaceted and powerful influence
6 political repression, conflict, and climate change drive the throughout the world, as the forthcoming volume of UNESCO
5  Conservation efforts to save the Ramesses II temple at Abu Simbel,
part of UNESCO’s International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, 1960–64

history makes clear, one whose critical role in shaping American administrator), which was purchased from the Egyptian gov-
society—which began in 1619, with the arrival of the first ernment and installed at its entrance. The Met’s most monu-
enslaved Africans in colonial Virginia—demands that we must mental gift from Egypt, however, and its most famous, is the
recognize the enduring significance of that legacy not only Temple of Dendur, a Roman Period cult temple dedicated to
at its source but also in all major cultural venues, from con- the goddess Isis and two Nubian saints, which was moved
cert halls and performing-arts centers to museums of fine art. from its Nubian setting before Lake Nasser flooded it and is
today housed in a spectacular gallery designed by Kevin Roche
A Tale of Two African Collections John Dinkeloo and Associates to evoke the landscape in which
Works from ancient Egypt have been a focus of The Met’s col- the monument originally stood.
lecting activities since the Museum’s founding, in 1870. In 1906, As of 2022, The Met’s Egyptian collection includes some
the Department of Egyptian Art was established with a man- 30,000 works, most created between 4,500 b.c. and a.d. 400,
date to gain a better understanding of the culture and history but also represented are flint tools dating as early as 300,000
of this very early civilization and to develop an important col- b.c., which document the material culture of the Nile Valley’s
lection through excavation. At that time, the Egyptian govern- early inhabitants. The strengths of the collection reflect the
ment awarded excavators a portion of finds—a practice known major sites excavated by the Museum during the first four
as partage—at the end of each excavation season. By 1937, decades of the twentieth century, namely, the pyramid com-
as fieldwork was put on hold amid the Depression, more than plexes at Lisht, in Egypt’s north, and Thebes in the south. As a
27,000 artifacts from excavation had been acquired by The Met, result, the collection sheds light mostly on the periods during
and today some 60 percent of the collection has a history which those two locations were principally occupied in antiq-
directly associated with an archaeological context (fig. 6). uity, that is, from the Middle Kingdom through the early Third
By 1913, an entire wing was added to the north side of the Intermediate Period (ca. 2050‒950 b.c.). Owing to the focus
Central Park building to house the growing Egyptian collection, of that archaeological work, for many years significant histori-
including the mastaba chapel of Perneb (an Old Kingdom cal and regional gaps remained. In order to address these, 7
 some voids were partially filled by gifts and purchases, whose amazing works of art from the Museum alongside those from
acquisitions adhered to the 1970 UNESCO convention on cul- other collections with the purpose of exploring various chrono-
tural property, which was ratified by Egypt in 1983.5 Although logical periods and themes in ancient Egypt, such as the art
The Met never excavated in Nubia, for example, the Museum of Predynastic Egypt, the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom,
was able to acquire from another institution a small group the reign of Hatshepsut, and the artistry of metal statuary
of Meroitic objects (1st–3rd century a.d.) excavated from the donated to temples in the Third Intermediate Period.
Egyptian site of Faras, in Lower Nubia. These pieces—pots, Scholarly and popular interest in contacts between
beads, and anklets (fig. 7)—are representative but small and ancient Egypt and its contemporaneous neighbors in north-
do not convey the Meroitic civilization’s greatest achievements east Africa has grown significantly over the past fifty years.
in ceramics, metalworking, and architecture, as known from The field of Egyptology has acknowledged and is dispensing
the Sudan. In order to establish unequivocally the impressive with its earlier, often racist assumptions about these relation-
nature of those traditions, an exhibition on royal jewelry, ships, and groundbreaking fieldwork is taking place in specific
The Gold of Meroe, was held at The Met in 1993. Since 1996, areas of contact, such as between the Second and the Sixth
other landmark exhibitions inaugurated at The Met have placed Nile Cataracts, along the Red Sea coast, and within the Nile

6  Workers clearing the ravine outside the Hatshepsut temple wall,

8 part of The Met’s Egyptian Expedition in Thebes, 1928–29
Valley inhabited by the ancient Egyptians. No longer are these
relationships viewed as one of conqueror and foe, and the
relevant cultures—including Nubian kingdoms south of the
Second Cataract; the Pan Grave culture, whose distinctive
burials are well known; and the region of Punt, the source of
incense for Egyptian temples—are being studied on their own
merits. More nuanced questions are being asked about how
peoples from these diverse regions interacted with the ancient
Egyptians, manifesting their various roles as immigrants,
traders, subjects, competitors, or invaders.
Compared with the foundational place occupied by ancient
Egypt in The Met’s history, the absence of works from sub-
Saharan Africa in the Museum until 1982 reflected a profound
bias in the Western art world. Edward Robinson, director of
The Met from 1910 to 1931, insisted on the centrality and pri-
macy of classically based Western traditions and their ancient
antecedents. He and his counterpart at the American Museum
of Natural History, Henry Fairfield Osborn, shared a conviction
that the rest of the world’s cultures lacked history and were,
therefore, the purview of the natural sciences and anthro-
pology. According to that inaccurate and racist perspective,
7  Jug with painted decoration. Lower Nubia (Faras, Cemetery 1, Grave 1007),
the immensely diverse historical and living cultural tradi- Meroitic Period, 30 b.c.–a.d. 364. Painted pottery, H. 9 3/4 in. (24.7 cm).
tions that developed across the continent, both parallel to Rogers Fund, 1913 (13.125.43)

ancient Egypt and in subsequent millennia, were reduced to

the Western construct of a monolithic, ahistorical sub-Saharan
Africa. Deemed unworthy of being viewed among the fine arts tradition but rather to those of an array of culturally distinct
at The Met, they were, it was believed, best relegated to the centers, including that of the Sapi (Sierra Leone), the Edo and
natural history collections on the other side of Central Park. Owo (Nigeria), and the Kongo (Angola and the Democratic
In contrast to collections of ancient Egyptian art assem- Republic of the Congo).
bled during the nineteenth century, the material culture today No society stands still. Over many centuries, major cultural
conserved and identified as “African” in the West is defined and political developments in Africa, ranging from the adoption
by a marked heterogeneity and eclecticism, encompassing of new faiths to the rise and fall of states, ushered in near con-
hundreds of distinct artistic traditions. Western understanding tinual change across the continent. The presence of European
of this broad region, among the most culturally diverse in traders remained mostly limited to Africa’s coastline until the
the world, was informed almost from the very beginning by nineteenth century, by which time the horror of the Atlantic
the nature of the initial contacts between Europe and West and slave trade and the ambition of rival European powers to com-
Central Africa. As early as the sixteenth century, European pete for colonial territories had fundamentally redefined the
traders who traveled by sea to Africa’s Atlantic coast commis- nature of the earlier, more egalitarian power dynamics. Follow-
sioned artifacts from local artisans as presentation pieces ing the expanded European presence in the interior, the col-
for their sponsors. Envoys from some of the courts in the lecting of material culture gradually intensified during the early
region also traveled to Europe and were received there as twentieth century. With a few major exceptions, the majority
equals. Together, they served as emissaries for the exchange of the artifacts created in Africa south of the Sahara and now
of gifts between European leaders and their counterparts in conserved in the West date to no earlier than the eighteenth
several different African states. Notable among these were the century. Composed of perishable media such as wood and
so-called Afro-Portuguese ivories, produced by master African other organic materials, they were likely no more than a century
carvers specifically for display in European princely collections. old when acquired in the region in the 1800s. Given the lim-
These exports, created during the earliest period of direct ited archaeological record, and in the absence of documenta-
exchange between Africa and Europe, do not relate to a single tion, one can only speculate about the longevity of any of the 9
 remarkable array of wood sculptural genres that today are so museum in Benin City—the Edo Museum of West African
closely identified with cultures south of the Sahara, or what is Art (EMOWAA), designed by Sir David Adjaye—that would
so often imagined in the West to constitute “African art.” reunite the most significant of these artworks through loans
The visual traditions in fired clay, cast metal, and carved and repatriations. In the fall of 2021, the German government
ivory that developed in present-day Nigeria as early as 500 b.c. announced a plan to return the Benin art in its national col-
represent one notable exception to that narrative. Official lections in 2022. Digital Benin, an international inventory of
patronage of works in these durable media from the fifteenth Benin art whose survey will include The Met, among scores
century into the present by the court of Benin, a military and of other participants, is scheduled to launch later this year.
commercial power that emerged in southern Nigeria as early
as the thirteenth century, is a rare instance in sub-Saharan New “African” Idioms in the West
Africa of continuous production in a single artistic center Some of the earliest African artifacts that caught the attention
over such a long period of time. Indeed, these majestic works of European avant-garde artists in urban centers such as
remained in use by the Oranmiyan dynasty of kings until the Paris at the start of the twentieth century initially surfaced
infamous sacking of Benin City by British invaders in 1897. in flea markets. The histories and original contexts of these
That violent act of aggression resulted in the invasion and varied works—from West African masks originally danced in
overnight plunder of the royal palace. Benin’s monarch, Oba operatic theatrical performance to decommissioned sculp-
Ovonramwen (r. 1888–97), was tragically deposed, imprisoned, tural instruments deployed by priests in Central Africa—
and exiled to Calabar, where he died, while a concentration were largely unrecorded, as were the circumstances of their
of his patrimony subsequently became part of the holdings of removal and transfer from West and Central Africa. Interest
the British Museum. Thousands of other Benin works removed in such “exotic” creations, as they were perceived to be at the
by members of the British forces were dispersed through pri- time, prompted a growing network of traders, missionaries,
vate sale and auctions. Germany’s newly established museums and colonial officials to acquire more of these decontextual-
of ethnography were among the major clientele for Benin art, ized pieces. Manifestations of vibrant living cultures, the masks
and today the largest group of these works, some 520 arti- and ceremonial instruments that reached the West through
facts, remains in Berlin. these avenues came with few details concerning their original
Emblematic of Benin artistic majesty is a series of five significance, allowing Western viewers to impose their own
sixteenth-century ivory masks seized from the king’s bed- self-reflective interpretations on them. Newly established eth-
chamber. Two were retained by Sir Ralph Moor, Commissioner nographic museums such as the Musée d’Ethnographie at the
and Consul-General of the Niger Coast Protectorate, who Trocadero Palace in Paris, founded in 1878—often the benefi-
launched the Benin palace invasion. Following Moor’s suicide, ciaries of collecting campaigns by colonial governments or
in 1909, both ivories in his possession were sold by his widow. other official sponsors—became major consumers of such
They entered the market through a dealer of Chinese art, who works. In some instances, the artifacts exported and assem-
sold them to British anthropologist C. J. Seligman. Seligman, bled in Western collections were replaced by their original
in turn, sold one to the British Museum at that time but kept owners or relinquished as emblematic of discarded, retrograde
the other, which is now in The Met collection (see discussion practices, while in other cases their absence constituted a
below).6 In 1977, the Benin ivory mask in the British Museum profound loss that was never addressed. As with the example
was selected as the symbol for what became the largest pan- of the Afro-Portuguese ivories in the sixteenth century, gener-
African cultural gathering to date, The Second World Black ations of artists living and working in West and Central Africa
and African Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC ’77), held in from the nineteenth century on have supplied works to sat-
Lagos, Nigeria. The denial of the mask as a loan to its source isfy the demands of markets outside the continent while
country for that exhibition focused attention on calls for its also continuing to respond to local patrons.
repatriation and the commissioning of a replica in bronze Comparatively little African material culture was accessible
by Nigerian artist Erhabor Emokpae (1934–1984). In 2007, the in American public institutions at the start of the twentieth cen-
Benin Dialogue Group—which includes directors of European tury. These limited displays included a modest inaugural exhi-
institutions with Benin collections, representatives of the bition at the Brooklyn Museum, mostly of works from Central
Royal Court of Benin, and Nigeria’s National Commission for Africa, and decorative arts by the Mangbetu and Azande
Museums and Monuments—was convened to address the peoples collected by Herbert Lang and James P. Chapin as
10 status of such works. The group’s vision is to establish a new part of the American Museum of Natural History’s Congo
Expedition (1909–15). Most fine-art venues for African works Primitive Art (MPA), Rockefeller’s museum emphasized the
were private initiatives, organized by well-connected art world aesthetic beauty of works from Africa, Oceania, and the ancient
elites, such as Albert Barnes and Alfred Stieglitz, who saw Americas. The collection was assembled from auctions and
them through the lens of the modernist paradigm. galleries in New York, London, and Paris using Rockefeller’s
Alain Locke (1885–1954), the philosopher, influential edu- own funds and on the advice of Robert Goldwater, an art
cator, and public intellectual often considered the father of historian and the MPA’s first director. Its focus was on sculp-
the Harlem Renaissance, was an early advocate for reposi- ture from West and Central Africa from the sixteenth to the
tioning Africa as the source of the cultural ancestry of millions early twentieth century.
of Americans. In 1922, Locke traveled to Egypt on “a quest to Rockefeller, an ardent internationalist, sponsored the MPA
learn concretely how cultural exchange created civilization” in parallel to the independence movements and optimism
and to view the newly discovered tomb of Tutankhamun as a then sweeping across Africa in anticipation of the region’s
representative of the African American scholarly community.7 increased representation in organizations ranging from the
He arrived during the second season of excavations, but Howard United Nations to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, to which
Carter, the tomb’s excavator, denied him access, as he did he long (but fruitlessly) sought to donate his collection. In 1966,
others. Locke subsequently directed much of his energies to highlights of the MPA traveled to Dakar as loans to the land-
publishing and exhibiting the historical achievements of what mark 1er Festival Mondial des Arts Négres (First World Festival
remained of the more esoteric visual traditions from West of Negro Arts), organized by the poet Léopold Sédar Senghor,
and Central Africa—by that time a transformative influence Senegal’s first head of state and a founder of the Négritude
on modernist art—in order to instill in Americans a greater cultural and political movement (fig. 8). The festival brought
appreciation for the “art of the ancestors.” It became Locke’s together more than 2,000 writers, artists, and musicians from
personal imperative to redress the omission of African art from across the African diaspora, including renowned Americans
the public arena, beginning in 1927 with an exhibition at the such as Langston Hughes, Duke Ellington, Josephine Baker,
New Art Circle Gallery, New York, of a collection of one thou- Arthur Mitchell, and Alvin Ailey, to celebrate the continent’s
sand Central African artifacts assembled by the Brussels- vast cultural diversity.
based photographer Raoul Blondiau. Reviewing the exhibition
in the New York Times, Sheldon Cheney wrote, “For however
rich the other treasures of the past that our collectors and
institutions have acquired, African art has remained neglected
and practically unknown except to that small group that has
rallied around the 'modernist' painters and sculptors.”8 Locke
sought funding to acquire the Blondiau collection for perma-
nent display in Harlem, the center of Black culture in America,
as the Harlem Museum of African Art.9 The works that
Locke managed to obtain were eventually bequeathed to
the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture at the
New York Public Library and to Howard University, but his
ambitions for a museum went unrealized owing to financial
constraints (it was the beginning of the Great Depression)
and a lack of more widespread community support.10
As late as the mid-twentieth century, historical works
from sub-Saharan Africa were still deliberately excluded from
all major institutions of fine art in the United States, and the
unfulfilled promise of Locke’s Harlem museum loomed as
a prominent missed opportunity. Instead, a private initiative
led by Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller (1908–1979)—later governor
of the State of New York and vice president of the United
States—pioneered the programmatic display of African art 8  President Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal on the cover
in New York City. Founded in the 1950s as the Museum of of Bingo: Le Mensuel du Monde Noir (April 1966) 11
 At the same time the MPA was founded in America, new The generational shift in social consciousness during the
arts institutions were being built in Africa. Kenneth Murray late 1960s helped expand the visibility of the achievements of
(1903–1972), Nigeria’s founding director of antiquities, led African artists in many American fine-arts institutions. In 1969,
a campaign within the colonial government beginning in the The Met announced the gift of Rockefeller’s works from sub-
1950s to acquire dispersed Nigerian works sold at auctions in Saharan Africa, which would at long last be accepted and
order to establish a network of national museum collections, exhibited within an expanded Met campus. Completed in 1982,
including a local history museum in Benin City initiated by the that transformational addition, The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing,
Edo historian Chief Jacob Egharevba. Murray also enacted has come to encompass some 4,000 works, produced in Africa
measures to ensure that artifacts excavated at new sites in between the twelfth century and the recent past, related to
Nigeria would be retained by those institutions. In addition, 206 distinct cultures and 39 nations. Designed by Roche and
acquisitions were made on the international art market by a Dinkeloo, the original galleries sought to celebrate the aes-
network of museum professionals both in the United Kingdom thetic dynamism and visual power of works from sub-Saharan
and on the ground in Nigeria. Among these was a cast-brass Africa. In the years since, an ongoing program of exhibitions
portrait of Queen Mother Idia, one of the most outstanding has presented new scholarship addressing their cultural signif-
works of Benin art, which was acquired in 1953 along with all icance, from questions about the authorship of major regional
the Benin bronzes in the collection of the medical officer affili- traditions to examining how different genres, such as portrai-
ated with the British invasion of Benin City, Dr. Richard Allman.11 ture or representations of the ideas of human origins, have
By the time the National Museum opened in Lagos in 1957, been given visual expression by African artists in distinct
on the eve of Nigeria’s independence, it had the third most cultural contexts.
comprehensive collection of Benin art in the world after the More than a half-century after its inauguration, the Rocke-
Ethnologisches Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, and feller Wing is now being renovated by WHY Architecture, in
the British Museum. In 1980, a major traveling exhibition of one partnership with Beyer Blinder Belle and The Met’s curatorial
hundred masterpieces from the Nigerian National Museum team. This major reenvisioning, scheduled for completion in
introduced American audiences to what for many were unfa- 2024, will allow distinct cultural landscapes and worldviews
miliar traditions (fig. 9). Ekpo Eyo, then head of the National to be more fully evoked both in the galleries and through
Museum, lauded the presentation for fostering broader associated digital content alongside the historical contexts in
knowledge of Nigeria’s past and present. A generation later, which these works originated and functioned over time. This
in 2021, officials from The Metropolitan Museum of Art joined period of transition affords the Department of Egyptian Art
representatives from Nigeria’s National Commission for and The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing the opportunity to fulfill
Museums and Monuments in New York to transfer back sev- an aspiration of many of our visitors to unite works from these
eral accessioned works that had not been reported missing two African collections. Although the sheer size of each col-
from the Nigerian national collection, including two Benin lection makes a permanent physical merger impractical, we
plaques, given to The Met in 1991 by Klaus Perls, that subse- hope that showing these landmark works together will invite
quent provenance research revealed had been among twenty- reflection on the layered, multicultural nature of the visual tra-
three transferred from the British Museum through sale and ditions that flourished across Africa and profoundly informed
donation to the National Museum in 1950 and 1951. a global history of art.
In 1957, the year Nigeria’s National Museum was estab- In the pages that follow, we present pairs of master-
lished, C. J. Seligman’s widow put up for sale the second of the pieces from The Met collection shoulder to shoulder, bringing
Benin ivory masks removed from the Benin palace by Sir Ralph together parallel subject matter or iconography that bridges
Moor and acquired by her husband on the art market. Nearly a enormous cultural and temporal divides. Against an incompa-
decade earlier, Kenneth Murray had initiated a campaign to raise rably expansive timeline of watershed developments, these
funds to acquire the mask for the nascent Nigerian collections juxtapositions and themes speak to shared human concerns
but was unsuccessful. Instead, given the record asking price, and universal motifs. We consider each work in terms of what
and on the advice of Goldwater, Rockefeller acquired the mask is known about its specific cultural significance as well as
with the explicit intention that it form the centerpiece of a major what documentation exists of its excavation or provenance
public collection in New York. On September 17, 1958, Rocke- history. The objects in each pairing are direct points of con-
feller’s purchase of the mask was reported on the front page tact with their respective authors, individuals who lived in
12 of the New York Times alongside an image and its full history. very different social contexts but whose independent visions
9  Treasures of Ancient Nigeria at The Met, including the 16th-century
portrait of Queen Idia, at right, August 11–October 12, 1980

explored shared subject matter and circulated far beyond between works of ancient Egyptian art and those concentrated
their places of origin. As we voice our profound respect for in The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing that we hope will spark new
their achievements, we pledge not to obscure the histories questions about the yet unexplored history that separates them.
that led to their convergence in New York City but rather to
let them be told, as forthrightly as possible, as narratives of
highly consequential human interactions. 1.  V[alentin]-Y[ves] Mudimbe, The Invention of Africa: Gnosis,
Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge (Bloomington: Indiana
Despite formal and conceptual resonances across time University Press, 1988) and Mudimbe, The Idea of Africa (Bloomington:
and culture, the specific connections that unfolded between Indiana University Press, 1994); Kwame Anthony Appiah, “Why Africa?
ancient Egypt and precursors of the traditions represented in Why Art?,” in Africa: The Art of a Continent, by Tom Phillips et al.,
exh cat. (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1995), p. 23.
The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing remain to be investigated by
2.  Appiah, “Why Africa? Why Art?,” p. 23.
future generations. As foreseen by Diop, this will doubtless 3.  Mamadou Diouf to Alisa LaGamma, personal communication
require not only expanded archaeological excavation across by email, April 4, 2022.
4. UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting
Africa, but also interdisciplinary approaches by scholars
of a General History of Africa, General History of Africa, 8 vols.
across the humanities. At The Met, this renewed focus on the (London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1981‒93).
African continent marks a process in which we are creating a 5. UNESCO, Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and

foundation for new approaches to how we frame our respec- Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership
of Cultural Property (Paris, November 14, 1970); http://portal
tive permanent galleries in relation to those of the Museum .unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13039&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL
at large. For example, we have the privilege—not unlike the _SECTION=201.html.
Greeks—of being able to study first hand the genius of ancient 6.  Of the other three masks, two are in public collections
(the Seattle Art Museum and the Linden-Museum Stuttgart)
Egypt. On the same campus, we can further experience how and one is in private hands (currently collection of
the absorption of that encounter with ancient Egypt was trans- Sheikh Al-Thani of Qatar).
lated into the form of the great kouros figure in the Greek and 7.  Jeffrey C. Stewart, The New Negro: The Life of Alain Locke
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), pp. 376, 390.
Roman galleries. Nowhere else under the same roof can you
8.  Sheldon Cheney, “Darkest Africa Sends Us Art,” New York
then be introduced to masterpieces of sculpture from sub- Times, February 13, 1927, section SM, pp. 7, 22.
Saharan Africa that were primary sources of inspiration for the 9.  Stewart, New Negro, p. 717.
10.  Ibid.
revolution in Western art led by Picasso, Matisse, Brancusi,
11.  See Ekpo Eyo and Frank Willett, Treasures of Ancient Nigeria,
and others. While those connections are a basic part of any exh. cat. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1980), and Barnaby Phillips, Loot:
survey of The Met collection, this initiative inaugurates a bridge Britain and the Benin Bronzes (London: Oneworld Publications, 2021). 13
PRIMARY
PARTNERSHIP THE KING’S ACQUAINTANCES MEMI AND SABU
Egypt, probably Giza, Western Cemetery
Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4 (ca. 2575–2465 b.c.)
Painted limestone, H. 24 1/2 in. (62 cm)
Provenance: collection of Louis Stern, by 1948; acquired
from Louis Stern, 1948
Rogers Fund, 1948 (48.111)

This pair of figures represents Memi and Sabu, who are generally
understood to be husband and wife, although the position of their
names in the inscription does not clearly identify each person. Their
common title, “King’s Acquaintance,” is an honorary one, entailing
no specific responsibilities, but connecting them to the royal court.
The man’s position and greater height would normally indicate that
he is the sculpture’s focus, but the woman’s sideways gaze, focusing
elsewhere within the tomb chapel where this statue would have been
installed, suggests that she is equally important. Whatever the origi-
nal intention, the work conveys an unusually strong sense of intimacy.
A close family relationship, such as that of husband and wife,
mother and daughter, or two siblings, can be acknowledged in ancient
Egyptian sculpture and relief by an intimate gesture. With paired
spouses, the woman is often the one who reaches out, placing her
arm around her spouse’s waist or shoulder. Only in rare cases such
as this one does the man return this affectionate embrace. The place-
ment of his hand over his wife’s breast is unusual but is known from
another sculpture of paired spouses as well as a representation of
a queen embracing her adult daughter.

SEATED COUPLE
Dogon artist, Mali
18th–early 19th century
Wood and metal, H. 28 3/4 in. (73 cm)
Provenance: Henri Kamer, Paris and New York;
Lester Wunderman, New York, until 1977
Gift of Lester Wunderman, 1977 (1977.394.15)

On a metaphysical level, Dogon thought has conceived of the soul as

male and female twins. The master sculptor who released this pair
from a solid block of wood evokes that human duality in a concise unit
of being. The union of their parallel, elongated bodies, signaled by
the horizontal gesture of the male’s proper right arm, is one of exact-
ing bilateral symmetry. They are essential counterparts in procreation
and sustenance, and a strategic variation of attributes distinguishes
their roles. The equilibrium denoted by these complementary visual
elements—his beard and her lip ornament; his nipples and her breasts;
the quiver slung across his back and the infant carried on hers—
suggests the rigor of a series of mathematical equations.
A Dogon account traces the origins of this tradition to the first
human death and a subsequent desire to support the soul. The impos-
ing scale of this tribute suggests that it was likely placed on a family
altar to venerate a notable elder. Of the prayers and offerings directed
toward influential ancestors, the most important were petitions for
the introduction of new life into the community. Over the course of
the last millennium, amid the diffusion of Islam across the Sahel region
south of the Sahara, local Muslim belief also came to incorporate
such worldviews. In the mid-twentieth century, French ethnogra-
phers began to publish their understanding of the complex cosmol-
ogy and mythology of the Dogon and to collect related artifacts to
record what they perceived to be a disappearing culture. A more wide-
spread admiration for the spare elegance of the Dogon sculptural
aesthetic followed, occurring in parallel to an increasing prioritization
of the Islamic faith in Dogon communities. This particular sculpture
likely remained in use in Mali until the 1960s.
MASTERY
OF METALS
HORN PLAYER STATUE OF THE GOD PTAH
Edo artist, Igun-Eronmwen guild, Court of Benin, Nigeria Egypt
1550–1680 Third Intermediate Period (ca. 1070–712 b.c.)
Brass, H. 24 3/4 in. (62.9 cm) Leaded bronze, gold leaf, and glass inlays, H. with tang 12 5/8 in.
Provenance: Court of Benin, removed from the Royal Palace (31.9 cm)
in 1897 during the British military occupation of Benin City; Provenance: collection of Raymond Gabrielle Baptiste
J. Young, Glasgow, until 1899; Augustus Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers, Sabatier, by 1864; acquired from R. Wace, 2009
Farnham, Dorset; an anonymous source, until 1957; K. John Purchase, Gift in memory of Manuel Schnitzer, 2009 (2009.175)
Hewett, London, until 1957; Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York, on
loan to the MPA, New York, 1957–72; MPA, New York, 1972–78 This spectacular statuette is remarkable for both its scale and quality
The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Gift of of preservation, as many such sculptures were melted down in antiq-
Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1972 (1978.412.310) uity for their metal. It was likely made for a temple, given its size and
the precious materials employed in its manufacture, such as the glass
This musician sounding a side-blown trumpet invokes the majestic inlaid eyes and gold leaf, traces of which are still visible on the surface.
pageantry that accompanies the oba’s public appearances at the court Cult temples during the Third Intermediate Period were centers of
of Benin. Within the palace, royal altars that commemorate past obas royal patronage, and pharaohs lavished them with high-quality images
and serve as the site of communication between the living sovereign in gold, silver, and bronze manufactured using creative techniques.
and his predecessor are the focus of annual worship. Notable among This statue of Ptah, a god known to listen to everyone’s prayers,
these ceremonies are Igue, which fortifies the oba’s power, and Ugie probably allowed the deity to do so from a shrine within a temple.
Erha Oba, in which chiefs pay homage to him as his father’s successor. He is one of the earliest known Egyptian gods and is easily identifiable
Artists belonging to royal guilds of brass casters and ivory carvers by his shrouded form, smooth cap, and distinctive scepter. He held
produced an array of artifacts, ranging from bells to freestanding fig- multiple roles over three millennia of ancient Egyptian history, including
ures, that were placed on the altars. The lost-wax process deployed “one who created through speech,” the “great leader of the craftsmen,”
to produce this figure yielded a single original. Minute details in his and the “lord of Memphis,” Egypt’s traditional capital city and Ptah’s
distinctive lower garment, composed of a leopard pelt and feather- principal residence. His charming visage here may also reflect another
work, include an elaborate tie at the waist. of his well-known characterizations: “benevolent of face.”
 COMMEMORATING
BEAUTY

MEMORIAL HEAD (NSODIE) LID TO A CANOPIC JAR DEPICTING A QUEEN

Akan artist, Ghana Egypt, Thebes, Valley of the Kings, Tomb KV 55
Ca. 1800 New Kingdom, Amarna Period, Dynasty 18, reign of Akhenaten
Terracotta, h. 7 3/4 in. (19.7 cm) or shortly thereafter (ca. 1349–1330 b.c.)
Provenance: Pace Primitive and Ancient Art, New York, Travertine (Egyptian alabaster), blue glass, and obsidian,
early 1980s; Evelyn Kossak, New York, 1980s–2015 H. 7 1/4 in. (18.2 cm)
Gift of Evelyn Kranes Kossak, The Kronos Collections, 2015 Provenance: Davis/Ayrton excavations, 1907, T. Davis
(2015.790) received in the division of finds; acquired from the T. Davis
estate, 1930
Terracotta effigies were the focus of lavish postburial send-offs for Theodore M. Davis Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis,
senior chiefs, priests, and queen mothers in southern and south- 1915 (30.8.54)
western Akan centers as early as the seventeenth century. This pro-
cess of commemoration, which could take place up to two years after The identity of this striking woman, whose name remains uncertain,
the subject’s death, began with a female author carefully capturing has intrigued Egyptologists since the object’s discovery in 1907. The lid
the honoree’s essence in modeled clay. While the idealized facial and its container, together with three similar vessels, formed a set of
expression depicted is invariably one of supreme calm and serenity, canopic jars, designed to protect the internal organs of a mummified
the individual’s personal style emerges through distinctive facial mark- woman. All were excavated in a badly looted tomb in the Valley of the
ings and elaborate hair arrangements. Prayers ensured that the ren- Kings that dates to the reign of Akhenaten. In addition to the contain-
dering truly represented the deceased and invoked their spirit within er’s discovery in a royal tomb, there are several indications that this
the portrait. The work was often painted and clothed in advance of serene face—with its narrowed eyes, pointed chin, and full, sensu-
being paraded on a palanquin through the community. Such public ous lips—represents a queen, including its superb quality, the faint
salutes to esteemed leaders culminated in the deposition of their like- remains of a royal name on the jar, and the presence of a uraeus,
ness, along with food and drink, at the site of their new “residence” or aroused cobra, on the forehead. Moreover, short hair in the form
outside the community, now as venerated ancestors. Following their of an elaborately coiffed wig, which came into vogue on women
“planting” at a ceremonial site, they might be visited with annual during the reign of Amenhotep III (ca. 1390–1352 b.c.), is worn by only
offerings until they were subsumed back into the landscape. a few royal women. 17
 VISUALIZING
HIERARCHY
PLAQUE: WARRIOR AND ATTENDANTS
Edo artist, Igun-Eronmwen guild, Court of Benin, Nigeria augment the chief’s standing as a figure of invincibility. Esigie’s reign
16th–17th century was defined by not only martial victory but also unprecedented pros-
Brass, H. 18 3/4 in. (47.6 cm) perity, owing to expanded trade with Portugal. Prisoners of his wars
Provenance: Court of Benin, removed from the palace were among the goods exchanged for brass currency in the form of
in 1897 during the British military occupation of Benin City; manillas, which were melted down to produce the expansive reper-
Sotheby’s, London, 1964; Paul Rose; Robert Owen Lehman, toire of court arts that he sponsored.
New York; Mr. and Mrs. Klaus G. Perls, New York, until 1990 The palace plaques were transferred to storage at some undoc-
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Klaus G. Perls, 1990 (1990.332) umented time by the end of the nineteenth century, and in 1897,
during the British invasion, they were removed by the British and
This brass panel is one of nearly a thousand created over a century sent to London. There is no record of this work between that time
by members of the Igun-Eronmwen, the Benin court’s guild of royal and 1964, when it was auctioned in London. It subsequently was
brass casters who worked for the oba. According to oral histories, the acquired by three different individuals and might have remained in
series was designed to be affixed to columns along the palace private hands if its third owner, Klaus Perls, a dealer of modern art,
facade, spanning a surface area of more than 1,130 square feet. The had not been persuaded by his friend William Lieberman, then chair
scenes depicted, intended to inspire awe and fear, immortalized Oba of modern art at The Met, to give it to the Museum. Its 1991 transfer
Esigie’s (1504–1550) triumphs over internal and external threats. The as a gift into The Met’s collection followed intensive review, analysis,
center of the present scene features a regally attired warrior chief, and treatment as well as publication by Museum curators and con-
who raises his sword in a gesture of fealty to the oba. A hierarchical servators in consultation with Benin specialists. That process culmi-
arrangement of flanking soldiers and attendants signals his preemi- nated in a traveling exhibition whose publication was shared with the
nence. They engage in acts of offering, fanning, and trumpeting that late Oba Erediauwa (1923–2016) at an official palace audience.

18
KING SAHURE ACCOMPANIED BY A DIVINE FIGURE
Egypt
Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5, reign of Sahure (ca. 2458–2446 b.c.)
Gneiss, H. 25 1/4 in. (64 cm) In ancient Egypt, the relative sizes of the figures in a group statue
Provenance: purchased from Y. Hassan in Egypt, 1918 reflect their importance in life. The king is the clear focus of this
Rogers Fund, 1918 (18.2.4) statue, which probably was intended to grace either a temple near
Cairo, where Sahure’s pyramid and sun temple are located, or one
The king commands attention as the central figure of this sculpture. in Coptos. The headdress on the second figure indicates that he sym-
We know he is the Pharaoh Sahure from the inscription below his bolizes the region in which Coptos is located. That he touches the
throne, and his rank is easily identifiable by his nemes-headdress king with an ankh, the hieroglyph meaning “life,” attests to his divine
and false beard. Reinforcing his representation as a powerful man nature. One would expect a god to be of equal or greater size than
in his prime are his broad, well-defined shoulders, narrow waist, the king, but because the second figure is not a deity but a geographic
and solid but shapely lower legs. His clenched right hand implies location given a human form, King Sahure remains the highest-ranking
strength, as well. individual in the composition.
ETERNAL
GUARDIANS underscores the subject’s cultivated refinement, while the contem-
plative expression denotes ongoing engagement in judicious reflec-
tion with the affairs of the community.
The advent of colonization by Belgium in 1885 brought radical
GUARDIAN FIGURE WEARING THE RED CROWN change to this region of Central Africa, dismantling the long-standing
Egypt, Memphite Region, Lisht South, Tomb of Imhotep, role of Hemba leaders as traditional guardians of their communities.
chamber inside the south enclosure wall At the same time, the dissemination of Christianity challenged prac-
Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, reign of Amenemhat II tices of ancestral veneration. By the 1970s, when Zairean society
(ca. 1919–1885 b.c.) experienced a severe political and economic crisis, heirlooms such
Painted and plastered cedarwood, H. 22 3/4 in. (57.6 cm) as this one had become increasingly disconnected from local contexts
Provenance: MMA excavations, 1913–14, received in yet prized in the West for their sublime beauty.
division of finds
Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1914 (14.3.17)

In Egyptian representation, a crown can signal either a divine being

or a royal person, and the type of crown generally identifies their role
or responsibility. Although this male figure wears the red crown of
Lower Egypt—that is, the Delta region—and displays the facial features
of King Amenemhet II, it does not represent the king, for only divine
beings wear this type of kilt. The setting in which the statuette was
found further reinforces our understanding that he is a divinity. It was
cached alongside a counterpart displaying the white crown of Upper
Egypt, now in the collection of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, within
the enclosure wall of a private tomb, probably deposited there after
use in a funerary ritual. The two types of crowns stood for the two
regions of Egypt that were united by a king about 3100 b.c. When
used together, or merged, as they were later into the double crown,
they represented Egypt.
In the Middle Kingdom, beginning around 2050 b.c., funerary
ritual appears to have become increasingly complex as regalia that
was once a royal prerogative became available to a wider public.
This statuette and its partner were found with a fetish, or magical
symbol, connected with Anubis, a god intimately associated with
the afterlife. It thus seems likely that the pair of figures represented
Egypt and functioned as divine guardians for Anubis and probably,
by extension, for the tomb’s owner, Imhotep, as well.

COMMEMORATIVE PORTRAIT OF A CHIEF (SINGITI)

Hemba artist, Upper Congo River, Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Late 19th–early 20th century
Wood, H. 30 3/4 in. (78 cm)
Provenance: purchased by Pierre Dartevelle, Lubumbashi,
before 1977; Jacques Blanckaert, Brussels, before 1977–87;
Dr. Luciano Lanfranchi, Celerina, Switzerland, 1987–2004;
[Entwistle Gallery, London and Paris, 2004]; Jane Katcher;
New York, 2004–14
Purchase, Jane and Gerald Katcher, Lila Acheson Wallace,
Daniel and Marian Malcolm, Hamilton E. James, Anonymous
and Steven Kossak Gifts, 2015 (2015.119)

Hemba chiefs were the patrons and caretakers of idealized portraits

of selected predecessors. A multigenerational ensemble of such
effigies attested to their owner’s kinship and ties to a particular terri-
tory. The enclosure within which the portraits were conserved was
a prominent feature of the chiefly compound, inaccessible to most.
The catalyst for creating such a regal tribute might be the subject’s
visitation from the ancestral realm in a dream. To evoke an individ-
ual sometimes several generations removed, the sculptor relied on
recollections or familial resemblances. Two centers of the subject’s
being were emphasized: the stomach and the head. Here, the pro-
nounced navel, highlighted by the hands placed to either side, is the
site of genealogical connection between a chiefly forebear and his
living constituents. The elegant, labor-intensive hairstyle, meanwhile,
 POSTHUMOUS
TRIBUTES
STRIDING NUDE MAN
Egypt, possibly Lisht South
Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6, reign of Merenre or Pepy II
(ca. 2255–2152 b.c.)
Wood, H. 18 3/8 in. (46.6 cm)
Provenance: purchased from M. Sameda and E. Kofler,
Cairo and Lucerne, 1959
Purchase, Frederick P. Huntley Bequest, 1959 (59.50.2)

Ka-statues, created for use in the funerary cult, rendered the deceased
present after death to accept offerings from the living. These statues
typically depict their owners in their best dress: a pleated kilt, jewelry,
and styled hair. The man shown here, however, wears only a short
wig of tightly layered curls. His large head, long body and limbs, and
narrow waist date him to the late Old Kingdom, when male nudity
in ka-statues became more common. Why this happened is not
clearly understood but is thought to have been one way of readying
the deceased for rebirth into the next life, his nudity mimicking the
way a baby arrives into the world.
Based on rare depictions and written records, Egyptian men are
understood to have been circumcised when they reached puberty,
although a specific age is unknown. Interestingly, as some nude male
statues make clear, circumcision is not consistently represented in
statuary, possibly owing to different beliefs about how one should
be shown when preparing for the journey into the next world. As the
present statue is not well preserved, it is difficult to tell how this official
was readied for the afterlife.

MALE COMMEMORATIVE POST (NGYA)

Bongo artist, Tonj, western South Sudan
Late 19th century
Mahogany, H. 75 1/2 in. (191.8 cm)
Provenance: collected in South Sudan by Christian
Duponcheel, Brussels, 1972; Alan Brandt, New York,
until 1973
Purchase, Louis V. Bell and Harris Brisbane Dick Funds
and Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1973 (1973.264)

High-ranking hunters and warriors in Bongo communities were

honored posthumously by their families through imposing, larger-
than-life memorials. Carved from the trunk of a mahogany tree, the
towering, elongated body of this monument is framed by a knoblike
head and long legs with slightly flexed knees. Originally, the figure had
arms; beads accented the now-empty eye cavities; and the vertical
plinth extending below the feet was planted in the earth. Its instal-
lation at the honoree’s grave site a year after his death accompanied
a feast at which relatives and other guests recited his genealogy
and achievements. In some instances, the sculpture was inscribed
with notches to denote the subject’s victories in battle or over prey,
and additional depictions of wives and offspring might be added
to his burial plot.
With its capital, Khartoum, centrally located at the junction of
the Blue Nile and White Nile Rivers, Sudan was established in 1956
as one of the largest and most culturally diverse nations in Africa,
encompassing a populace related to nineteen major linguistic groups
and a Muslim majority in the north. Following a series of devastating
civil wars, South Sudan achieved its independence in 2011. This
work arrived in the West at the end of the first of those conflicts,
which spanned 1955 to 1972.
SIGNALING
AUTHORITY
STATUE OF THE OFFICIAL MERTI
Egypt, Saqqara, Tomb of Merti
Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5, reign of Isesi-Unis (ca. 2381–2323 b.c.)
Painted and gessoed acacia wood, H. 39 3/4 in. (101 cm)
Provenance: Egyptian Antiquities Service excavations,
1924–25; purchased from the Egyptian government, 1926
Rogers Fund, 1926 (26.2.4a–c)

Men who served in the king’s administration often were able to build
and decorate their own large tombs and to furnish them with the
equipment needed to create a secure afterlife for themselves, their
wives, and other family members. Merti, the man depicted in this
almost lifesize statue, recorded a long and significant career in his
mastaba tomb at the royal cemetery of Saqqara, including serving as
a provincial governor. His elite status is reflected not only in the eleven
wood statues of himself and his wife hidden in the serdab-chamber
of his tomb (where ka-statues are generally housed), but also in the
elaborately pleated kilt he wears and the staff and sekhem-scepter
he holds. Writing was integrated into many funerary objects, and the
sekhem-scepter in his right hand incorporates the hieroglyph represent-
ing the concept “to have power” in its design. Authority is something
an important official would have wanted acknowledged for eternity.

STAFF OF OFFICE: CEREMONIAL STOOL, CHAIN,

•
AND SWORDS MOTIF (OKYEAME POMA)
Asante artist, southern Ghana
Ca. 1930
Wood and gold foil, 63 7/8 in. (162.2 cm)
Provenance: Joint Provincial Council of Chiefs,
Ghana, 1957; William Wright, Belle Mead, New Jersey,
until 1986; Drs. Herbert F. and Teruko S. Neuwalder,
Englewood, New Jersey
Gift of Drs. Herbert F. and Teruko S. Neuwalder, 1987
(1987.452.2a–c)

Locally mined gold has been conceived of in West Africa as the materi-
alization of the sun and life force. It was the resource most sought
after by traders crossing the Sahara as early as the eighth century, and
early commentators relate accounts of glittering West African courts.
Gold was cast into regalia for local elites, but few pre-nineteenth-
century examples survive.
The sale of gold to European merchants along the Atlantic coast
from the end of the fifteenth century led to the rise of a succession
of powerful centralized Akan polities. Across these centers, an equiv-
alency developed between rich visual motifs and elegant spoken lan-
guage. Adansi, founded about 1550, is where the institution of ókyeame,
or court linguist, is said to have emerged. This erudite master of ora-
tory served as the formal spokesman and lead adviser to a chief. The
imagery crowning the gilded insignia of office he carries at major pub-
lic events visualizes hundreds of Akan proverbs. The specific proverb
(or its equivalent) depicted in this finial is not recorded. The work was
likely sponsored by the British colonial government of the Gold Coast
to be awarded to a chief. A photograph documents the staff being
used by a titleholder in 1957 at the festivities marking Ghana’s inde-
pendence. The imagery of the finial features the celebrated Golden
Stool, which descended from the heavens when Osei Tutu, chief of
Kumasi, unified the Akan people about 1670. The three Akan swords
chained to that seat of power relate to the Joint Provincial Council
of Chiefs, a body whose head oversaw the governance of three dis-
tinct provinces in the years preceding independence.
CELEBRATING
FEMALE POWER BES-IMAGE RATTLE
Egypt
Third Intermediate Period, Dynasty 22–25 (ca. 945–664 b.c.)
GELEDE SCULPTURAL ELEMENT FROM Faience, H. 8 1/2 in. (21.6 cm)
A MASQUERADE ENSEMBLE Provenance: collection of Omar Sultan Pasha (d. 1917);
Yoruba artist, Ketu region, southwestern Nigeria or acquired from the Harer Family Trust, 2015
Republic of Benin Purchase, 2007 Benefit Fund and Lila Acheson Wallace
Mid-20th century and Diane Carol Brandt Gifts, 2015 (2015.11)
Wood, H. 22 1/2 in. (57.2 cm)
Provenance: Paul and Ruth W. Tishman, New York, until 1990 An important Egyptian myth recounts how a major goddess—different
Gift of Paul and Ruth W. Tishman, 1990 (1990.336) records name different deities—once abandoned the Nile Valley in
anger for the desert, leaving vulnerable both her father, the sun god Re,
Yoruba society venerates awon iya wa, or “our mothers,” through the and all of Egypt. Re sent the ibis-headed god Thoth, represented on
spectacle of Gelede performances, a tradition that pays homage to this rattle by the monkeys, to encourage her to return. Thoth told the
their specifically female powers. Gelede, which originated in the city- goddess that her homecoming would be celebrated for returning
state of Ketu in the eighteenth century, deploys masquerades as a the world to harmony. Among the many gods that accompanied Thoth
sacrificial offering, theatrical entertainment, and form of explicit com- on this journey was one known by several names, of which Bes is the
mentary on matters that affect social harmony. most common.
A pangolin suspended between two serpents that devour its Here, a monstrous-looking Bes-image, displaying the body of
hindquarters defines the summit of this dynamic sculptural element. a dwarf enhanced by numerous leonine characteristics, wears a tall-
Both creatures are popular in Gelede imagery for their use in pro- feathered crown. His frightening appearance makes him a power-
tective herbal remedies and charms that shield individuals from ful subject for the rattle. It is thought that the Egyptians believed
witchcraft. Pythons relate to Osumere, the rainbow deity associated the sweet sound that emanated from rings attached to the feathers
with fertility, regeneration, and prosperity. While feared for their (now missing) pacified the furious goddess and encouraged her return.
poisonous bite, snakes are admired for the dynamism of their spiral In addition to recording this important myth, the rattle could have
movements and the renewal implicit in the shedding of their skin. been used in other rituals, as the Bes-image is generally understood
The crescendo of the swirling reptilian bands evokes the decorative to have represented a beneficial deity, one who protects women and
flair of the gele, or fabric head wrap, that crowns Yoruba women’s young children and participates in celebrations where he dances
fashion and is integrated into the Gelede dancer’s costume. and plays instruments.
 PERSONIFYING
FORCES

KNEELING FIGURE POWER FIGURE (NKISI)

Egypt Kongo artist and nganga, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Late Period or early Ptolemaic Period, Dynasty 30 or later Late 19th–mid-20th century
(380–246 b.c.) Wood, pigment, nails, cloth, beads, shells, arrows, leather, nuts,
Wood, formerly clad in lead sheet, H. 8 1/4 in. (20.8 cm) and twine, H. 23 1/8 in. (58.8 cm)
Provenance: Peytel Collection, Paris, by 1922; acquired Provenance: Donald H. Peters; Samuel M. Kootz Gallery,
from J. Josephson, 2003 New York, until 1952; Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York, 1952,
Purchase, Anne and John V. Hansen Egyptian Purchase Fund, on loan to the MPA, New York, 1959–78
and Magda Saleh and Jack Josephson Gift, 2003 (2003.154) The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection,
Bequest of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979 (1979.206.127)
This magnificent statue was assembled from eight pieces of wood,
sensitively carved and carefully fitted together. The result is a graceful An nganga is a ritual specialist who defends his clientele against mysti-
man shown in the act of praising a deity by beating his chest. Atten- cal predations manifest through maladies or other misfortunes. An nkisi
dants of the sun god’s barque, a type of boat known from rituals (plural minkisi) is the instrument and related songs and ritual actions
depicted in temple and tomb scenes, are known to pose like this. he deploys to diagnose and remedy the problem. The medicines, or
Although this figure looks to be a kneeling king, based on the pres- bilongo, he uses to engage the help of an animating spirit comprise
ence of the nemes-headdress, this statuette’s identity is far more animal, vegetable, and mineral elements. That matter is combined
enigmatic. The snake on his headgear is not, in fact, the uraeus, or within a portable shrine that may take the form of a clay vessel or an
aroused cobra—the snake associated with kingship—and his kneeling elaborate sculptural receptacle commissioned from a professional
stance is one used by divine beings, not kings. carver. Through additions and offerings, an nganga might periodically
The man is certainly an important divine figure, possibly an ances- reinvigorate this instrument linking him and his clientele to its empow-
tral ruler from Egypt’s distant past. However, as the statue lacks ering force and the ancestral realm. While many figurative minkisi
a known findspot or an accompanying inscription, the identity of the feature cavities within which the bilongo is incorporated, in this
subject remains unconfirmed. What is certain is that the figure served unusual example it engulfs the figure in a formidable power cloak
a significant ritual purpose, as a thin cladding of lead once hid the augmented by ancillary miniature minkisi. The power of such custom-
beautifully carved body. The lead sheath was no doubt meaningful, ized works was not transferrable; minkisi were deconsecrated when
but its significance remains uncertain. deemed no longer efficacious or following their owner’s retirement. 27
 FEMALE
AGENCY
ROYAL SEAT OF OFFICE: FEMALE CARYATID (LUPONA)
Luba artist, Shankadi region, southeastern Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Late 19th–early 20th century
Wood and glass beads, H. 23 1/4 in. (59.1 cm)
Provenance: Joseph Corneille (José) Van den Boogaerde,
Brussels, until 1950; Charles Ratton, Paris, 1950–58;
Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York, on loan to the MPA,
New York, 1958–69; MPA, New York, 1969–78
The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Gift of
Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1969 (1978.412.317)

By the seventeenth century, exploitation of the rich reserves of salt, iron,

palm oil, and fish along the great Congo River had led to the estab-
lishment of an influential Luba state. Its founding has been attributed
to the arrival from the east of the hunter prince Mbidi Kiluwe, who
ushered in a new political order. Central to Luba investiture rites,
in which each new leader swears his oath of office and addresses
his people for the first time, is a distinctive carved ceremonial seat.
The most elaborate examples feature female caryatids, their bodies
embellished with cicatrization patterns that constitute texts relating
to the sacred powers of kingship. In Luba society, women are identi-
fied with the source of life and with privileged access to the source
of divine kingship. As such, female mediums serve to incarnate Luba
chiefs beyond their lifetimes. Royal residences remained sites of
remembrance, where a past leader’s seat of office acted as a recep-
tacle for his spiritual essence.

A WOMAN CARRYING FOOD

Egypt, Thebes, Southern Asasif, Tomb of Meketre
(TT 280, MMA 1101), serdab
Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, early reign of Amenemhat I
(ca. 1981–1975 b.c.)
Gessoed and painted wood, H. 44 1/8 in. (112 cm)
Provenance: MMA excavations, 1920, received in division
of finds
Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.7)

Someone preparing for the afterlife needed to ensure an eternal source

of provisions, through either the burial of actual food, a written offering
formula, the depiction of food production, or, often, a combination
of these. Three-dimensional models of food production occasionally
show people bringing offerings, such as this graceful woman carrying
a basket of provisions and holding a duck.
Most ancient Egyptian statuary and relief carvings served multiple
roles, and details or inscriptions could be added to each object to
acknowledge these functions. This woman, found in the tomb of Chief
Royal Steward Meketre, is unnamed, so she is not a family member of
the deceased. For many years she was thought to represent a servant,
but several details suggest otherwise. The most likely interpretation is
that her human form denotes the estate designated to produce food for
Meketre’s offering cult; such anthropomorphism was not uncommon.
However, the woman’s elaborately feathered dress is the attire of
neither a servant nor a figure personifying an estate, implying another
meaning should be considered. There were two such statues in
Meketre’s tomb, both wearing elaborate dresses and beautifully
carved. Estate figures come in multiples, so the fact that there were
only two such statues present in the tomb (the other is now in the
Egyptian Museum, Cairo) suggests they may reference the goddesses
Isis and Nephthys, the divine mourners of the dead.
 NURTURING
FORCES
THE GODDESS ISIS AND HER SON HORUS
Egypt
Ptolemaic Period (332–30 b.c.)
Faience, H. 6 3/4 in. (17 cm)
Provenance: purchased from the Kevorkian Foundation, 1955
Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest Fund, 1955 (55.121.5)

In one of the classic motifs of ancient Egyptian art, the goddess Isis
offers her breast to her infant son, Horus. The throne atop her head,
which is the hieroglyph for her name, establishes her identity with-
out question. It has been suggested that Isis’s name indicates a con-
nection to the throne, so she confers kingship. Horus is shown nude
with a sidelock to differentiate his child persona from his adult iden-
tity, that of a falcon-headed god. According to a tale, Isis fled into the
dense papyrus marsh to give birth to Horus, hiding him from his uncle
Seth, who sought to kill the infant and claim the Egyptian throne for
himself. In the mythical contest between Horus and Seth for the throne
of Egypt, Isis used her power on her son’s behalf, so that the gods
ultimately recognized Horus, not his uncle, as the legitimate ruler.
Thousands of such figurines celebrated the relationship between
mother and child. Even the pharaoh was said to nurse at Isis’s breast
in her role as a divine mother. This act as well as several other respon-
sibilities made Isis the most important Egyptian goddess, venerated
throughout Egypt, Nubia, and, thereafter, the Mediterranean world.
This iconic image of mother and child likely inspired the earliest
Christian imagery of the Virgin Mary holding the baby Jesus.

TYEKPA MATERNITY FIGURE

Senufo artist, Côte d’Ivoire
Late 19th–mid-20th century
Wood and oil patina, H. 21 1/2 in. (54.6 cm)
Provenance: Lawrence Gussman, Scarsdale, New York
Gift of Lawrence Gussman, 1981 (1981.397)

In Senufo society, individuals trace their ancestral affiliation through

their mother’s line of descent, and women play an outsize role in the
visualization of family origins and engagement with the spiritual realm.
Oral traditions concerning the source of the Tyekpa women’s society
relate that a female elder once came upon spirits dancing in the wild.
This dance of surpassing beauty, animated by music, was subse-
quently adapted by the Tyekpa as a spectacular way to honor lead-
ing “mothers” for their contributions to the community’s well-being.
Funerary celebrations for those individuals, barred to men, featured
works like this nursing maternity figure, which would have been bal-
anced gracefully on the head of a female dancer as she performed
to the rhythmic sounds of long, elegantly carved three-legged drums.
 MASKS
AS DOUBLES PORTRAIT MASK (MBLO)
Baule artist, Côte d’Ivoire
Late 19th–early 20th century
Wood and pigment, H. 14 3/4 in. (37.5 cm)
Provenance: Henri Kamer, Paris and New York;
private collection, France; Galerie Alain de Monbrison,
Paris, until 2004
FUNERARY MASK OF ESTATE MANAGER WAH Purchase, Rogers Fund and Daniel and Marian Malcolm
Egypt, Thebes, Southern Asasif, Tomb of Wah (MMA 1102) Gift, 2004 (2004.445)
Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, early reign of Amenemhat I
(ca. 1981–1975 b.c.) This refined portrait of an elder relates to mblo, the earliest artistic
Painted cartonnage, gold foil, and wood, H. 26 3/4 in. (68 cm) tradition remembered in Baule communities, and one that has been
Provenance: MMA excavations, 1920, received in continually adapted over generations. The subject’s introspective
division of finds expression, large downcast eyes, and high forehead denote his intel-
Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1940 (40.3.54) lect, while his refinement is evident in the delicacy of the beard, coif-
fure, and markings on either temple. The sculptor further heightened
Starting about 2000 b.c., masks became an integral element in the mask’s dramatic appeal through the addition of fanciful abstract
the elaborate process of creating a mummy. A mask completed the horns. Such masks are the visual focal point of theatrical spectacles
mummy and, in conjunction with appropriate spells, transformed animated by musical accompaniment and audience participation,
the embalmed and wrapped body into a transfigured soul, a necessary whose infrequency only intensifies the delight they instill in viewers.
step for an individual to enter the afterlife. Sometimes spells, includ- On such occasions, portrait masks appear to float above a fabric
ing the phrase “beautiful of face,” were written on the mask to aid in enclosure concealing their dancers’ bodily presence. Each is the
this transformation. A face could have details based on the deceased’s namesake of a prominent member of the community who escorts
features, such as a short beard or mustache, but in general the coun- their “double” into the arena.
tenance was idealized, often emphasizing youth but not the spe- When the subject who inspired a mask dies, its affiliation might
cific individual. transfer to a relative or fall into disuse. While this work’s active life
This mask belonged to a man called Wah, the estate manager for is undocumented, the signs of wear and the local replacement and
the Chief Royal Steward Meketre. The gilding on the mask helped Wah repair of one of the horns suggest that it was performed over multi-
with his transformation into a divine being, as gold was associated ple generations. It had entered a French private collection by the mid-
with the sun and, therefore, with rebirth and divinity. The broad collar twentieth century and was featured in 1967 in one of the early surveys
at the neck is a typical piece of funerary jewelry. of African sculpture organized by the French art historian Pierre Meuzé.

33
SUBLIME
PILLOWS
HEADREST FOR ETERNITY HEADREST WITH FEMALE CARYATID FIGURE
Egypt, Saqqara, Teti Pyramid Cemetery, Tomb of Khentika, Shaft B Master of the Cascade Coiffure, Shankadi region, southeastern
Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6 (ca. 2323–2150 b.c.) Democratic Republic of the Congo
Travertine (Egyptian alabaster), H. 7 1/2 in. (19.1 cm) 19th century
Provenance: Egyptian Antiquities Service excavations, Wood and beads, H. 6 3/8 in. (16.2 cm)
1920–21; purchased from the government of Egypt, 1926 Provenance: Arthur Priest, missionary in Kasai region,
Rogers Fund, 1926 (26.2.11) collected before 1908; his widow, until 1967; Margaret Barton
Plass, Philadelphia, 1967–81
This stone headrest is one of several excavated in the tomb of a Gift of Margaret Barton Plass, in honor of William Fagg,
wealthy official named Khentika. It appears to have been designed C.M.G., 1981 (1981.399)
for use specifically in the afterlife, as its three components—
pillow, column, and base—were glued together rather than mor- Across Africa, headrests have served to elevate the head in order to
tised and tenoned, a joining mechanism that strengthened many facilitate sleep, cooling the neck and preserving intricate, labor-intensive
of the more serviceable wood examples. Conceptually, ancient coiffures. A Luba owner’s connection to such a personalized and inti-
Egyptian headrests mimicked the sun (the head) rising on the horizon mate possession might warrant its inclusion in their burial. This exqui-
(the headrest’s pillow). Therefore, waking up represented a rebirth sitely carved example features a refined female figure who kneels in
for the sleeper, just as the sun’s appearance each morning was for a dynamic stance on the base and balances the horizontal pillow on the
the world. Sleep was considered a deathlike state—the individual crown of her head. She herself is depicted with an elaborate nkanda,
was rendered unconscious and powerless—so headrests often a step or cascade hairstyle of the variety that the owner of this head-
had protective images and spells added to their surface to safe- rest sought to protect. Arranged over a canework frame, the layered
guard the sleeper. nkanda, favored in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
Many headrests show evidence of wear, and they either bear around the villages of Kabondo Dianda and Basangu, took nearly fifty
fabric impressions or have actual scraps of linen still attached, indi- hours to complete. Together with a series of related headrests, a seat
cating that they frequently were padded for comfort. Although pillows of office, and a divining instrument, all of which feature similar deli-
existed, a headrest would have been cooler and kept the sleeper’s cate figures in fluid poses wearing this distinctive hairstyle, this work
face elevated from scorpions and other unpleasant night prowlers. has been attributed to a master sculptor and his workshop.
 HARNESSING
DANGER

FIGURINE OF A HIPPOPOTAMUS POWER OBJECT (BOLI)

Egypt, Meir, Tomb B3 of the nomarch Senbi II, pit 1 (steward Senbi) Bamana artist, Mali
Middle Kingdom, early Dynasty 12 (ca. 1961–1878 b.c.) First half of 20th century
Faience, L. 7 7/8 in. (20 cm) Wood, earth, and organic materials, L. 20 1/2 in. (52.1 cm)
Provenance: Khashaba excavations, 1910, Khashaba received Provenance: [Robert L. Stolper Galleries, New York and
from the division of finds; purchased from C. D. Kelekian, Los Angeles, until 1960]; Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York,
New York, 1917 1960; on loan to the MPA, New York, 1960–78
Gift of Edward S. Harkness, 1917 (17.9.1) The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection,
Bequest of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979 (1979.206.175)
This figure is easily recognizable as a hippopotamus, one of Africa’s
most dangerous animals. Although the figure’s bright blue color and Evocative of the dangerous hippopotamus, this deliberately indeter-
small size might encourage a viewer to think of this animal as friendly, minate form, known as a boli (plural boliw), was composed with pre-
the ancient Egyptians knew only too well how destructive and treach- cision as a microcosm of the universe. A concentrated reservoir of
erous hippos could be and were very afraid of them. However, the nyama, or life force, it combines animal, vegetable, and mineral ingre-
Egyptians also used the hippo’s dangerous nature as a protective dients gathered from nature and constitutes esoteric knowledge, or
force against malevolence. This dual way of thinking led to the devel- daliluw. The parched and cracked earthen surfaces of such creations
opment of hippopotamus deities, some of which had roles as protec- are continually renewed with applied libations of millet, alcoholic bev-
tors and others as aggressors. erages, expectorated kola nuts, and the blood of sacrificial offerings.
Hippopotamus figurines were placed in tombs to assist in the Historically, priests at the Bamana court of Segu (ca. 1712–1861)
deceased’s rebirth, for the animal in its native environment, the Nile harnessed boliw while carrying out rites on behalf of their constituents.
River, was understood to symbolize regeneration. A reference to this Those occult objects were recognized as a source of Segu’s preemi-
belief may be found in the depiction of open and closed lotus flowers nence as a regional power, rendering Segu a “citadel of paganism”
on this hippo’s back. Not only are lotuses found in the river, but their in the eyes of the Islamic reformer El Hadjj ‘Umar Tal and the chief
blossoms were seen as potent symbols of rebirth, for the heavily target of his jihad in the nineteenth century. Accounts of his invasion,
scented flower opens in the morning as the sun rises and closes in 1861, describe the public destruction of boliw. While this twentieth-
in the evening when it sets. In recognition of the danger embodied century example attests to the tradition’s endurance, in recent decades
by the hippopotamus, the legs of the figurines were intentionally iconoclastic campaigns by extremists have sought a similar eradica-
snapped off—three of those seen here are replicas—making sure tion of what they deem to be idolatrous practices.
that the animal could only lend its support to the dead and not
attack them in the afterlife.

35
 ROYAL STATES HEAD OF AN OBA

OF BEING Edo artist, Igun-Eronmwen guild, Court of Benin, Nigeria

16th century
Brass, H. 9 1/4 in. (23.5 cm)
Provenance: Court of Benin; a West African mine official,
acquired before 1885; John J. Klejman, New York, until 1958;
Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York, 1958, on loan to the MPA,
New York, 1958–78
The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection,
FACE OF KING SENWOSRET III Bequest of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979 (1979.206.86)
Egypt
Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, reign of Senwosret III This idealized tribute to a monarch in the bloom of youth was created
(ca. 1878–1840 b.c.) as a marker within which his essence might be enshrined for eternity.
Quartzite, H. 6 1/2 in. (16.5 cm) Beginning in the fourteenth century, such works were among the center-
Provenance: acquired by Lord Carnarvon (d. 1923); pieces of royal altars placed within a courtyard of the palace in Benin
acquired from the Carnarvon estate, 1926 City. This tradition of royal portraiture is said to have been introduced
Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (26.7.1394) by a dynasty of leaders known as Oranmiyan. Their sponsorship of
such portraits distinguished them from their precursors and identified
Although only a fragment of the statue remains, the sculptor’s con- them with the artistic legacy of the neighboring city-state of Ife.
summate modeling of the stone brings to life a powerful yet aging The precious-metal medium, cast by specialists and acquired in
man. In sculpture, King Senwosret III’s features were so distinctive— great quantities through trade, was valued for its vitality and perma-
for example, the heavily hooded eyes—that other statues bearing his nence. In Edo society, veneration of the head reflects its role as the
name easily allow for the identification of this fragment, once part fount of thought (iroro), judgment (énwúe), and character (éxée) that
of a statue demolished in Egypt’s ancient past. The complete figure guide one through life. Although cast busts were commissioned for
would have presented a youthful body, which would have contrasted altars dedicated to an individual—that is, the predecessor of each
sharply with the king’s aged visage. Kings generally chose to repre- new oba—their highly idealized consistency reinforced connections
sent themselves in the prime of life, so the lined face here probably between generations. While this bust is reputed to have been
was intended to communicate the ruler’s wisdom and experience. acquired before the British invasion of Benin, its lack of documenta-
Kings received their right to rule directly from the gods, for they tion, like that of all the works that remained in the palace until 1897,
claimed the sun god Re as their father, and their earthly presence was means that it is impossible to reconstruct their placement on specific
intertwined with the falcon-headed god Horus. Preferred marriages altars. Accordingly, earlier generations of art historians used formal
to sisters followed in the tradition of the gods and reinforced the analysis to propose a chronological sequence for these decontextu-
pharaoh’s divine connection. The king’s primary responsibility was to alized works. Within that system of classification, the relative natural-
create an orderly and prosperous land, and he did so by functioning ism of this head’s full, rounded contours, almond-shaped eyes, and
as the high priest for every temple and as a defender of the Two Lands, thin walls has been attributed to the early fifteenth to mid-sixteenth
that is, Egypt. century, a period that spans the reigns of ten different obas.

36
 ENSURING
NEW LIFE
FEMALE FERTILITY FIGURE ( AKUABA)
Asante artist, Ghana
20th century
Wood, beads, and string, H. 10 3/4 in. (27.2 cm)
Provenance: Everett Rassiga, New York, until 1957;
Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York, 1957, on loan to the MPA,
New York, 1957–78
The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Bequest
of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979 (1979.206.75)

This miniaturized adult physiognomy fused with a disklike head artic-

ulates a woman’s prayer to become a vehicle for new life. Carried by
the hopeful mother for a prescribed period of time, the work, conse-
crated by a priest, was lavished with the same care she aspired to give
her future child. Such fertility figures, or akuaba, have been credited
with enhancing a woman’s ability to reproduce as well as ensuring
the safe delivery of a flawless new being. The aesthetic ideal of a high
flattened-oval forehead, which Akan mothers seek to achieve by gen-
tly modeling the malleable crania of their newborns, is expressed
here through a radical two-dimensionality. The expressly female
gender of akuaba has been attributed to a preference for girls in the
matrilineal Akan society. Over the past century, they have come to
incorporate more detailed references to desirable features. Evident
here, for example, are a ringed neck, its rolls of fat denoting prosperity;
a small mouth; and fine facial markings inscribed below either eye
as a medicinal treatment to protect against convulsions.
Akuaba often continued to play a role beyond a child’s arrival
into the world. They might be cherished for their connection to an
individual, placed in a shrine as an offering to the deity responsible
for fulfilling its owner’s petition, or given to a girl within the house-
hold so that she might learn how to care for her own future progeny.

MOTHER AND “CHILD”

Egypt, Thebes, Asasif, Burial B44, East of Pabasa, inside coffin
Second Intermediate Period–early New Kingdom,
Dynasty 17–early 18 (ca. 1580–1479 b.c.)
Linen-wrapped pottery, unfired clay, unsaturated oil or resin,
seeds, hematite, and linen, H. 7 1/8 in. (18 cm)
Provenance: MMA excavations, 1918–19, received in
division of finds
Rogers Fund, 1919 (19.3.190)

These figurines are still wrapped in the linen bandages in which they
were buried at least 3,500 years ago. Such female figures, of which
these examples are a distinct type, emphasized certain aspects of
ancient Egyptian femininity, such as the nude female body, elaborate
hairstyles, and fancy jewelry. They were donated to shrines dedicated
to the goddess Hathor, who embodied fertility, probably as a plea for
a child. Statues like these were also placed in tombs so that their own-
ers would be granted rebirth into the next life, giving the deceased
the opportunity to join the sun god eternally on his daily journey.
Here, a mother holds her child, signaling to the viewer the con-
cept of birthing and nurturing children. It is interesting that the “baby”
is not actually shown as an infant but as a miniature adult woman,
with breasts and an elaborate hairdo and jewelry, just like her mother.
These observations suggest that the pair likely represents two differ-
ent concepts of female fertility: a woman who has successfully given
birth and the point in a girl’s life when she is able to have a child, here
embodied as a baby with adult characteristics.
 AWE-INSPIRING
FORCES
SERPENT HEADDRESS (A-MANTSHO-ÑA-TSHOL)
Baga artist, Guinea
First half of 20th century
Wood and pigment, H. 77 1/2 in. (196.9 cm)
Provenance: John J. Klejman, New York, until 1958;
Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York, 1958, on loan to the MPA,
New York, 1958–78
The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Bequest of
Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979 (1979.206.101)

From the Casamance region of Senegal to that of the Fouta Djallon

in northern Guinea, the supreme manifestation of spiritual force is
referred to as Ninkinanka. Associated with the danger of the boa con-
strictor and the allure of luminous rainbows, Ninkinanka may satisfy
a petitioner’s deepest desires, whether for rain, worldly riches, or to
be cured of infertility, but at potentially great cost. In Baga society,
celebrations marking the culmination of male initiation rites have
evoked this force through an undulating column rising heavenward,
boldly accented with alternating marks of red, white, and black,
referred to as the “master of medicine,” or a-Mantsho-ña-Tshol.
During the 1950s, Baga communities underwent forced conver-
sion to Islam that led to the abandonment of earlier religious and artis-
tic traditions. A campaign of attacks against those practices resulted
in the confiscation and sale or destruction of creations such as this
one. A decade later, indigenous religious practices were outlawed
entirely by the Marxist national government of Guinea’s first head of
state, Sekou Touré. While no record exists of the once dynamic per-
formance genre that incorporated such sculptures, they were likely
positioned at the summit of a costume. Secured over the head of an
especially strong dancer within a conical framework of palm branches,
it was accented with decorative feathers and streamers.

SPHINX FOR A GOD’S BARQUE

Egypt
Late Period, Dynasty 26 (ca. 664–525 b.c.)
Leaded bronze, H. 8 1/8 in. (20.5 cm)
Provenance: collection of Henri Rouart (d. 1912); acquired
from Rupert Wace, 2011
Purchase, Gift of Henry Walters, by exchange; Liana Weindling
Gift, in memory of her mother, and Lila Acheson Wallace
Gift, 2011 (2011.96)

According to myth, the sun god Re rode in an ornate barque (a type

of boat) during his daily journey across the sky. He was protected on
his journey by numerous figures, including the elegant but menacing
sib, a long-legged sphinx whose tail, missing here, arced over its
back and whose otherworldly appearance communicates the power
of his protection. Uraei, or aroused cobras, which were the sun god’s
special protectors, accompanied the sib. Together these beings stood
atop a standard installed at the front of the barque so that the sib
could trample to death any enemies that attacked the sun god.
 EXCEPTIONAL
WOMEN Portuguese merchants’ heads, the latter repeated as an openwork
collar. These ubiquitous visual signs underscore the dual nature of
Benin’s semidivine leaders and their participation in lucrative global
trade networks along the Atlantic coast.
Five ivory Idia portraits were removed in the 1897 British raid
IYOBA (QUEEN MOTHER) PENDANT MASK of the Benin palace. The best known of these entered the British
Edo artist, Igbesanmwen guild, Court of Benin, Nigeria Museum in 1909; all but one are now in public institutions. They are
16th century extremely rare among pre-nineteenth-century creations from sub-
Ivory, iron, resin, and copper(?), H. 9 3/8 in. (23.8 cm) Saharan Africa for their association with a specific historical figure.
Provenance: Court of Benin, until 1897; removed from the
Royal Palace by Sir Ralph Moor; Sir Ralph Moor and his wife,
Adrienne Moor, London 1879–1909; John Sparks, London, FRAGMENT OF A QUEEN’S FACE
1909; Prof. Charles Gabriel Seligman, Oxford, 1909–(d.)1940; Egypt
his wife, Brenda Z. Seligman, London, 1940–58; Nelson A. New Kingdom, mid-Dynasty 18, reign of Amenhotep III
Rockefeller, New York, 1958, on loan to the MPA, New York, or Akhenaten (ca. 1390–1336 b.c.)
1958–72; MPA, New York, 1972–78 Jasper, H. 5 1/8 in. (13 cm)
The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Gift of Provenance: collection of Lord Carnarvon (d. 1923);
Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1972 (1978.412.323) acquired from the Carnarvon estate, 1926
Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (26.7.1396)
Oba Akenzua II (1899–1978) identified this work as one of a series of
portraits of the woman who nurtured one of Benin’s most dynamic The rare stone and exquisite workmanship employed in the manufac-
and transformative leaders. Under the warrior king Ozolua (mid- ture of this sculpture indicate that the woman depicted must have been
1400s–1520), Benin’s territories expanded from the Niger River to the a queen. Although only a fragment, these enigmatic lips have long
Kingdom of Owo. That glorious era was, however, disrupted by the intrigued scholars and visitors alike curious as to whom they belonged
instability and strife of a bitter civil war over succession. When Esigie and how the mirrorlike surface was achieved some 3,300 years ago.
(1504–1550) ultimately prevailed over a half brother, he credited his The face was once part of a composite statue, that is, one whose
mother, Idia, a valued adviser whose political acumen and alleged parts were made from different materials fitted together to make
mystical powers were critical to his successful reign. Tributes to Idia a complete figure. Like the face, the hands and feet most likely were
in precious ivory and brass may have been executed during her life- made of yellow jasper, the clothing probably of limestone, and the
time. The Met’s portrait mask features suspension lugs that allowed crown of still a different material. The use of yellow jasper is especially
it to be worn as part of the oba’s ceremonial ensemble when he pre- relevant, as the sculpture was commissioned at a time when the king
sided over annual rites honoring her memory as well as those in which actively promoted worship of the sun, especially its disk. The color,
he drove out harmful forces. Idia’s locks of hair, arranged in an elegant, together with the stone’s reflective surface, thus connected the queen
tiara-like presentation, are defined by alternating motifs: mudfish and unequivocally to Re, the sun god.

43
 SUPREME
BEASTS LEOPARD
Edo artist, Igun-Eronmwen guild, Court of Benin, Nigeria
1550–1680
Brass, H. 15 1/2 in. (39.4 cm)
LION CUB Provenance: Court of Benin, removed from the Royal Palace
Egypt, said to be from Gebelein in 1897 during the British military occupation of Benin City;
Early Dynastic Period, Dynasty 1 (ca. 3100–2900 b.c.) W. D. Webster, London, until 1899; Augustus Lane-Fox
Quartzite, L. 9 1/4 in. (23.4 cm) Pitt-Rivers, Farnham, Dorset, 1899–1957; K. John Hewett,
Provenance: collection of the Rev. Randolph Berens, by 1894; London, until 1957; Matthias Komor, New York, 1957–58;
acquired from the Gallatin estate, 1966 Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York, loan to the MPA, New York,
Purchase, Fletcher Fund and The Guide Foundation Inc. 1958–72; MPA, New York, 1972–78
Gift, 1966 (66.99.2) The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Gift of
Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1972 (1978.412.321)
Today many people regard lion cubs as “cute,” but the expression
of this lion cub is distinctly unfriendly, suggesting that this superb Among the praise names granted the sovereign of the kingdom of
sculpture is most likely an early deity statue. Scholars believe that, Benin, or oba, was “Leopard of the Town.” The leopard was the oba’s
at the beginning of Egyptian history, before the advent of writing, the alter ego, as they were the most powerful beings in their respective
Egyptians largely represented their gods as animals, not as humans. realms of forest and city. While identified with all obas, the leopard is
Lions, baboons, and falcons were the most common species vener- particularly linked by oral traditions to the ruthless, uncompromising
ated in statues at that time, when a state-level society led by a king character of Ewuare the Great (d. 1473), the first of Benin’s warrior
was still being formalized. These representations were probably kings, who in the fifteenth century razed Benin City and then over-
installed in shrines, and—as in later pharaonic times—the statues saw its renewal and fortification.
provided a home on earth for divine spirits so that their supernatural At the Benin court, leopards were represented on royal altars,
powers would be accessible to the ancient Egyptians. and wild leopard cubs were captured and domesticated in prepara-
Adult lions were also a royal symbol and, beginning in late tion for ritual sacrifice. Seventeenth-century accounts of court pro-
Predynastic times (ca. 3200 b.c.), probably stood in for the king in cessions describe the presence of these tame felines in the oba’s
certain scenes, like that of a battle. Later, lions were shown accompa- entourage. In the present sculpture, a visual metaphor for the oba’s
nying the king, as though a royal pet, while statues of reclining lions preeminence, the leopard’s muscular legs, leaflike ears, and pelt
functioned as guardians at temple entrances. The most famous lion, defined by concentric circles underscore its associations with dan-
however, is the Great Sphinx at Giza, with the head of King Khafre, gerous beauty and ferocity.
the pharaoh who commissioned the second pyramid there. In 1892, Benin’s sovereign, Ovonramwen (1857–1914), signed
a free-trade treaty with the British, yet tensions between the British
colonial administration and the royal court escalated nonetheless.
At a fateful turning point in the conflict, a series of Edo chiefs defied the
oba’s orders to allow safe passage to a British delegation, attacking
them instead. The resulting deaths of six British officials and some two
hundred retainers were used to justify Britain’s subsequent invasion
of Benin City. The British forces emptied the palace of its contents
and shipped them to London after the destruction of the building by
fire. The Met’s leopard was among the thousands of artifacts relating
to some thirty royal altars that were later dispersed internationally.

44
 PERSONIFYING
IDEAS
CEREMONIAL LADLE (WAKEMIA OR WUNKIRMIAN)
Dan artist, Liberia
Late 19th–mid-20th century
Wood and pigment, L. 18 1/4 in. (46.4 cm)
Provenance: Henri Kamer, Paris and New York, until 1964;
Nelson A. Rockefeller, New York, 1964, on loan to the MPA,
New York, 1964–78
The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Bequest
of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979 (1979.206.264)

The cultivation of rice, the major staple of life in Dan communities,

is the purview of women. The bowls of the large spoons used to serve
this bounty have been conceived of as a woman’s belly. Sculptors
have articulated this idea as an ovoid concave vessel with an extending
handle defined as either a neck and head or a pair of legs. Elaborately
carved ladles were awarded to women who distinguished themselves
as farmers, were successful in commerce, and were generous in dis-
tributing food to extended family and guests. The accompanying title
of wakede was transferred generationally on the basis of individual
merit, or tin, rather than inheritance. Its attainment was credited to the
active support of a spiritual force, incarnated in the present example
through animated legs. At the festival acknowledging her new status,
a wakede danced through her village carrying the trophy, filled with
grains of rice and coins, while a female companion extolled her good
deeds. The celebration assembled all the holders of this title from a
given town so that they might compete to outdo one another in fulfill-
ing their roles as examples to others.

BOWL WITH HUMAN FEET

Egypt
Late Naqada I–early Naqada II (ca. 3700–3450 b.c.)
Pottery, Diam. 5 1/4 in. (13.2 cm)
Provenance: purchased from M. Mohassib, Egypt, 1910
Rogers Fund, 1910 (10.176.113)

A potter handmade this striking vessel some 5,500 years ago, most
likely while living in a small farming village along the Nile River at a time
when urbanism had yet to emerge. The form illustrates a supported
vessel tipped as though in the act of pouring a liquid. Amazingly, this
bowl’s shape suggests that it was intended to represent an abstract
concept some five hundred years before the ancient Egyptians first
wrote a hieroglyph using this image. In ancient Egyptian writing, this
picture communicated the idea of “pure,” and when this hieroglyph
referred to a liquid, it most often signified water. A source of life,
water was considered sacred and, when purified, cleansed people
participating in religious rites, especially those associated with death
and burial.

45
 ANTELOPES
OF THE SUN MALE CI WARA CREST FROM A MASQUERADE ENSEMBLE
Bamana artist, Mali
DIADEM WITH A PAIR OF GAZELLE HEADS Late 19th–early 20th century
Egypt, Thebes, Wadi Gabbanat el-Qurud, Wadi D, Tomb of Wood and metal, H. 30 in. (76.2 cm)
the Three Foreign Wives of Thutmose III Provenance: Hélène and Henri Kamer, Paris; Gustave and
New Kingdom, early Dynasty 18, reign of Thutmose III Franyo Schindler, New York; private collection, New York,
(ca. 1479–1425 b.c.) until 2016
Gold, carnelian and opaque turquoise inlays, and decayed Purchase, Andrea Bollt Bequest, in memory of Robert Bollt Sr.
crizzled glass, L. of forehead band 18 7/8 in. (48 cm) and Robert Bollt Jr., 2016 (2016.574)
Provenance: purchased from either M. Mohassib or M. Todros,
Egypt, 1919–21 Members of religious, political, and philosophical associations known
Purchase, George F. Baker and Mr. and Mrs. V. Everit Macy as jow played an important role in the administration of Bamana com-
Gifts, 1920 (26.8.99) munities. Initiation into jow was said to impart knowledge concerning
the nature of the universe, the place of humanity within it, and the
A secondary wife of Thutmose III wore this delicate diadem over her activation of its most potent forces. Rites commemorating the divine
wig not only to identify her elite rank but also when taking part in a gift of agriculture were the concern of the Ci Wara association, named
cultic performance as a member of the king’s court. Tomb depictions for the mythical divine force that bestowed this essential knowledge
illustrate high-ranking women wearing similar headbands as they on humankind. The group’s insignia of elegant, silhouette-like crests,
participated in rituals that honored important goddesses, like Hathor, emblems of the harnessing of natural forces, were worn affixed to a
Mut, or Sakhmet. Such individuals led a female troupe, many of whom basketry cap and synthesize features of the roan antelope with those
sang, danced, and played instruments, and could themselves make of an array of creatures, including the pangolin and the anteater,
music with sistra- and menat-necklaces, as both were markers of whose digging evokes that of a farmer tilling the soil. Their graceful,
cultic activity. highly graphic carved designs emphasize the play of negative and
The reason for depicting gazelles is not well understood, and positive space. Female–male Ci Wara pairings constitute metaphors
several interpretations are possible. The most common species, the for the earth and the sun. Here, the upward dynamism of the male’s
Dorcas gazelle, is associated with the sun god Re as well as with fertil- horns and delicate zigzag pattern across the surface invoke the energy
ity, rebirth, and the goddess Anukis, who is closely connected to and movement of the sun’s corona as well as the full force of its radi-
Hathor of Thebes, the location of this queen’s tomb. Moreover, Dorcas ance through the heavens.
gazelles, which often travel in pairs, inhabit the low desert along the Bamana sculptors invested the carved crowning elements of
edge of the Nile’s floodplain, and the desert figures prominently in Ci Wara ensembles with endless innovation. This highly original
a myth in which any one of the abovementioned goddesses could interpretation fuses the menacing strength of horns with the ethereal
participate. In another myth, Hathor milks a gazelle and uses the pre- bodily presence of an empty vessel. The tradition has continued to
cious liquid to heal the damaged eyes of the god Horus. Additionally, accrue new meaning beyond its original performative context in agrar-
poetry compares the beauty of young women to the swift and sleek ian communities and has generally come to be identified with produc-
gazelle, perhaps also contributing to its appearance here. tivity and superior achievement in Malian society.

46
Acknowledgments

This project would not have been possible without the vital contributions Published by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
of many members of The Met staff, including teams from External Affairs, Mark Polizzotti, Publisher and Editor in Chief
Development, Imaging, Digital, Security, and the Buildings Department, Peter Antony, Associate Publisher for Production
all of whom enabled the planning, production, and implementation of the Michael Sittenfeld, Associate Publisher for Editorial
exhibition and accompanying Bulletin. In particular, Anna Serotta, Ahmed
Editor of the Bulletin: Dale Tucker
Tarek, and Sara Levin in the Department of Objects Conservation were
Production by Paul Booth
essential in getting these fragile works ready for display. In The Michael C.
Designed by McCall Associates, New York
Rockefeller Wing, Lisa Altshuler, David Rhoads, and Kambi Gathesha,
Image acquisitions and permissions by Shannon Cannizzaro
our MUSE intern, played invaluable roles, as did Danielle Zwang, Elizabeth
Bibliographic editing by Penny Jones
Fiorentino, Seth Zimiles, Jessica Vayo, and Lucas Galante in the Department
of Egyptian Art. The Exhibitions Department, especially Christine McDermott, Typeset in Post Grotesque
and the Design Department, notably designers Fabiana Weinberg and Separations by Professional Graphics, Inc., Rockford, Illinois
Alexandre Viault, helped translate our vision into a vibrant exhibition. Printed and bound by Mittera, Parsippany, New Jersey
In Publications and Editorial, we thank Dale Tucker, Paul Booth, Shannon
Cannizzaro, and designer Mark Nelson for a publication that will disseminate Cover illustrations: front, Gelede sculptural element from a masquerade ensemble,
the project’s content and document it as a turning point in institutional history. Yoruba artist, southwestern Nigeria or Republic of Benin, mid-20th century (see p. 26);
For their support of the exhibition, we are grateful to The Daniel P. Davison inside front, detail of Bes-image rattle, Egypt, Third Intermediate Period, Dynasty
Fund and Louise Grunwald, and for its dedication to the Museum’s quarterly 22–25 (ca. 945–664 b.c.) (see p. 26); inside back, detail of commemorative portrait
Bulletin program at large, the Lila Acheson Wallace Fund for The Metropolitan of a chief (singiti), Hemba artist, Upper Congo River, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, late 19th–early 20th century (see p. 21); back, detail of woman carrying food,
Museum of Art, established by the cofounder of Reader’s Digest.
Egypt, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12 (ca. 1981–1975 b.c.) (see pp. 28–29). Pages 2–3:
installation of The African Origin of Civilization at The Met, 2021.

Photographs of works in The Met collection are by the Imaging Department,

This publication is issued in conjunction with the exhibition The African Origin
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, unless otherwise noted. Additional photography
of Civilization, on view at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from
credits: © 1989 Chicago Review Press. All rights reserved.: fig. 4. Jean-Pierre
December 14, 2021.
Dalbéra / flickr.com: fig. 8. Image courtesy Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noir
(IFAN), Cheikh Anta Diop: fig. 3. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art:
The exhibition is made possible by The Daniel P. Davison Fund and
front and back covers, inside front and back covers, pp. 2–3, 14–47, figs. 1, 6, 9.
Louise Grunwald.
Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art, photo by Anna-Marie Kellen: fig. 7.
© Succession Alberto Giacometti / Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY 2022. Photo
The Metropolitan’s quarterly Bulletin program is supported in part by the
by Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation / Art Resource, NY: fig. 2. © UNESCO /
Lila Acheson Wallace Fund for The Metropolitan Museum of Art, established
Nenadovic. Collection of UNESCO Archives: fig. 5.
by the cofounder of Reader’s Digest.

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The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Spring 2022
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin  Spring 2022