Computer System Organization

Structure Of Computer
Basic Structure of computers -
Computer architecture in general covers 3 aspects of computer design –
1. Computer Hardware
2. Instruction Set Architecture
3. Computer System Organization
 Computer Hardware : Consists of electronic circuits, display, magnetic and optional
storage media and communication facilities
 Instruction Set Architecture : It is a programmer visible interface such as instruction sets,
registers and memory organization
2 main approaches are : 1. CISC – Complex Instruction Set Computer
2. RISC – Reduced Instruction Set Computer
 Computer System Organization : It includes a high level aspects of a design such as
Memory system, the bus structure, the design of internal CPU.
 Computer : Computer is fast electronic calculating machine , which accepts digital inputs,
process according to the stored instruction and produce the result on the output device.
Internal Operation in a Computer are like this -

Fetching
1

Execution Decoding
3 2

 Fetching : Retrieving the next instruction from the memory that increasing the program
counter.
 Decoding : Decode the bit pattern in the instruction register.
 Execution : Perform the action requested by the instruction register.

Types of Computer :-
1. Micro Computer :- A personal computer design to meet the computer needs of an
individual provides access to the wide variety of computing application such as word
processing, photo editing, email and internet.
2. Laptop :- A portable compact computer that can run on power supply or a battery all
components are integrated as one compact unit. It is generally more expensive then a
comparable desktop. It is also called a notebook
3. Workstation : - Powerful desktop computer design for specialize task generally used for
tasks that required a lot. 0 processing speed. Can also be an ordinary personal computer
attach to a LAN
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 4. Super Computer :- A computer that is considered to be the fastest in the world used to
execute tasks that would take a lot of time for other computers. (Eg – Modellino Weather
System)
5. Main frame :- Large expensive computer capable of simultaneously processing data of
thousand or hundred user used to store manage and process the large amount of data that
need reliable secure, centralize.
6. Multi Core :- Having multiple core with parallel computing platforms. Many cores or
computing elements in a single chip (Eg – i3, i5, i7, i9)
7. Hand-Held :- It is also called a personal digital assistant a computer that fits into a pocket
runs on battery and is used while holding the unit in your hand, typically used as an
appointment book, address book, calculator, notepad.

OUTPUT Arithmetic
Logic Unit
ALU
I/O Main Memory
CPU

OUTPUT Control Unit

A computer in its simplest form comprises of : -

1. Input Unit: Computer accepts encoded information through input unit. The standard
input device is a keyboard. Whenever a key is pressed, keyboard controller sends the
code to CPU/Memory.

2. Output Unit: Computer after computation returns the computed results, error
messages, etc. via output unit. The standard output device is a video monitor, LCD/TFT
monitor. Other output devices are printers, plotters etc.

3. Memory Unit: Memory unit stores the program instructions (Code), data and results
of computations etc.
Memory unit is classified as:
 Primary /Main Memory
 Secondary /Auxiliary Memory
 Primary Memory:- Primary memory is also known as the main memory or the random-
access memory (RAM). These are semiconductor memory that provides access at high
speed, runtime programming instruction and operands are stored in main memory.
 Secondary Memory:- Secondary memory is the hard disk of your system, it also includes
ash drive, optical disks, magnetic disk. The secondary memory is slower and less
expensive as compared to primary memory. These are Non-Volatile in nature.
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 Cache Memory:- Cache memory can be accessed much faster as compared to primary
memory and it is even smaller in size. It is stored with the data that is required frequently
by the processor.

4. Arithmetic and logic unit: ALU consist of necessary logic circuits like adder,
comparator etc., to perform operations of addition, multiplication, comparison of two
numbers etc.

5. Control Unit: Control unit co-ordinates activities of all units by issuing control signals.
Control signals issued by control unit govern the data transfers and then appropriate
operations take place.
Control unit interprets or decides the operation/action to be performed.
The operations of a computer can be summarized as follows :

1. A set of instructions called a program resides in main memory.

2. The CPU fetches those instructions sequentially one by one from main memory and
decodes them and performs specified operation on associated data operands in ALU.
3. Processed data and results will be displayed on output unit.
4. All activities pertaining to processing and data movement inside the computer are
governed by control unit.
Bus Structure :- Group of lines that surfs as connecting paths for several devices called a
bus. Individually parts must communicate over communication line or path for
exchanging data, address controlled information.

INPUT OUTPUT MEMORY PROCESSOR

Basic Operational Concepts : -

An instruction consists of two parts: 1. Operation code (opcode )
2. Operand
Addition Operation :
Step 1 : Fetch the instruction from main memory into the processor
Step 2 : Fetch the operand at location LOCA from main memory into the processor
Step 3 : Add the memory operand (LOCA) to the consists of register (R)
Step 4 : Store the result in this register (R)
User Program and OS Routine Interaction : -
Lets assume with 1 processor, 1 disk and 1 printer and application program is in
machine code on disk the various tasks are performed in a coordinate fashion which is
called Multi-Tasking.
If t0, t1, t2, t3, t4, t5 are the instances of time and the interaction during various
instances.
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t0 : The OS loads the program from the disk to memory
t1 : Program Executes
t2 : Program Access Disk
t3 : Program Executes More Disk
t4 : Program Access Printer
t5 : Program Terminates
Data Representation :-

 1s Complement of 10101 01010 (Reversed)

2s Complement of 10101  1s + 1 = 01010 +1 =01011

 1s Complement of 1011 0100 (Reversed)

2s Complement of 10101  1s + 1 = 0100 +1 =0101

 1s Complement of 0100 1011 (Reversed)

2s Complement of 10101  1s + 1 = 1011 +1 =1100

Numeral System Conversion Table :-

Decimal (10) Binary (2) Octal (8) Hexadecimal (16)
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
18 10010 22 12
19 10011 2 13
20 10100 24 14
21 10101 25 15
22 10110 26 16
23 10111 27 17
24 11000 30 18
25 11001 31 19
26 11010 32 1A
27 11011 33 1B
28 11100 34 1C
29 11101 35 1D
30 11110 36 1E
31 11111 37 1F
32 100000 40 20
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 Von Neumann Architecture
Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in 1945.
His computer architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU), Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs. Von Neumann architecture is based
on the stored-program computer concept, where instruction data and program data are
stored in the same memory. This design is still used in most computers produced today.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the electronic circuit responsible for executing the
instructions of a computer program. It is sometimes referred to as the microprocessor or
processor. The CPU contains the ALU, CU and a variety of registers.
Registers
Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU. All data must be stored in a register
before it can be processed.
MAR - Memory Address Register (Holds the memory location of data that needs to be
accessed)

MDR - Memory Data Register (Holds data that is being transferred to or from memory)
AC - Accumulator (Where intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored)
PC - Program Counter (Contains the address of the next instruction to be executed)
CIR - Current Instruction Register (Contains the current instruction during processing)

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract etc) and logic (AND, OR, NOT etc) operations to
be carried out
Control Unit (CU)
The control unit controls the operation of the computer’s ALU, memory and
input/output devices, telling them how to respond to the program instructions it has just
read and interpreted from the memory unit.
The control unit also provides the timing and control signals required by other computer
components.
Buses
Buses are the means by which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to
another, connecting all major internal components to the CPU and memory.
A standard CPU system bus is comprised of a control bus, data bus and address bus.
Address Bus - Carries the addresses of data (but not the data) between the processor and
memory
Data Bus - Carries data between the processor, the memory unit and the input/output
devices
Control Bus - Carries control signals/commands from the CPU (and status signals from
other devices) in order to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer
Memory Unit
The memory unit consists of RAM, sometimes referred to as primary or main
memory. Unlike a hard drive (secondary memory), this memory is fast and also directly
accessible by the CPU.
RAM is split into partitions. Each partition consists of an address and its contents (both
in binary form).
The address will uniquely identify every location in the memory. Loading data from
permanent memory (hard drive), into the faster and directly accessible temporary
memory (RAM), allows the CPU to operate much quicker.

Register transfer and Micro-Operation

Register Transfer
The term Register Transfer refers to the availability of hardware logic circuits that can
perform a given micro-operation and transfer the result of the operation to the same or
another register.
Most of the standard notations used for specifying operations on various registers are
stated below.

 The memory address register is designated by MAR.

 Program Counter PC holds the next instruction's address.
 Instruction Register IR holds the instruction being executed.
 R1 (Processor Register).
 We can also indicate individual bits by placing them in parenthesis. For instance,
PC (8-15), R2 (5), etc.
 Data Transfer from one register to another register is represented in symbolic
form by means of replacement operator. For instance, the following statement
denotes a transfer of the data of register R1 into register R2.
R2-R1
 Typically, most of the users want the transfer to occur only in a predetermined
control condition. This can be shown by following if-then statement:
If (P=1) then (R2 ← R1); Here P is a control signal generated in the control section.
 It is more convenient to specify a control function (P) by separating the control
variables from the register transfer operation. For instance, the following
statement defines the data transfer operation under a specific control function (P).
P: R2 ← R1
The following image shows the block diagram that depicts the transfer of data
from R1 to R2.
Here, the letter 'n' indicates the number of bits for the register. The 'n' outputs of
the register R1 are connected to the 'n' inputs of register R2.
A load input is activated by the control variable 'P' which is transferred to the
register R2.
 Memory Transfer:
The transfer of information from a memory word to the outside environment is called a
read operation. The transfer of new information to be stored into the memory is called a
write operation.
Different Registers Associated for Memory Transfer:
The address register (AR) is used to select a memory address, and the data register (DR)
is used to send and receive data. Both these registers are connected to the internal bus.

Arithmetic Micro-operations
In general, the Arithmetic Micro-operations deals with the operations performed on
numeric data stored in the registers.
The basic Arithmetic Micro-operations are classified in the following categories:
1. Addition
2. Subtraction
1. Increment
2. Decrement
3. Shift
The following table shows the symbolic representation of various Arithmetic Micro-
operations.
Symbolic Representation Description
R3 ← R1 + R2 The contents of R1 plus R2 are transferred to R3.
R3 ← R1 - R2 The contents of R1 minus R2 are transferred to R3.
R2 ← R2' Complement the contents of R2 (1's complement)
R2 ← R2' +1 2's complement the contents of R2 (negate)
R3 ← R1 + R2' + 1 R1 plus the 2's complement of R2 (subtraction)
R1 ← R1' +1 Increment the contents of R1 by one
R1 ← R1 - 1 Decrement the contents of R1 by one

Arithmetic Micro-operations:- We can perform arithmetic operations on the numeric

data which is stored inside the registers. Example : R3  R1 + R2
The value in register R1 is added to the value in the register R2 and then the sum is
transferred into register R3. Similarly, other arithmetic micro-operations are performed
on the registers.
 Addition –
In addition micro-operation, the value in register R1 is added to the value in the register
R2 and then the sum is transferred into register R3.
R3  R1+R2
 Subtraction –
In subtraction micro-operation, the contents of register R2 are subtracted from contents
of the register R1, and then the result is transferred into R3.
R3  R1-R2
There is another way of doing the subtraction. In this, 2’s complement of R2 is added to
R1, which is equivalent to R1 – R2, and then the result is transferred into register R3.
R3  R1+R2+1
 Increment –
In Increment micro-operation, the value inside the R1 register is increased by 1.
R1  R1+1
 Decrement –
In Decrement micro-operation, the value inside the R1 register is decreased by 1.
R1  R1-1
 1’s Complement –
In this micro-operation, the complement of the value inside the register R1 is taken.
R1 R1
 2’s Complement –
In this micro-operation, the complement of the value inside the register R2 is taken and
then 1 is added to the value and then the final result is transferred into the register R2.
This process is also called Negation. It is equivalent to -R2.
R2  R2+1

Logic Micro-Operations:-
Logic operations are binary micro-operations implemented on the bits saved in the
registers. These operations treated each bit independently and create them as binary
variables.
 Logic micro-operations specify binary operations for strings of bits stored in
registers.
 These operations consider each bit of the register separately and treat them as
binary variables.
 For example, the exclusive-OR micro-operation with the contents of two registers
RI and R2 is symbolized by the statement
P: R1←R1⊕R2

 It specifies a logic micro-operation to be executed on the individual bits of the

registers provided that the control variable P = 1.
 List of Logic Micro-operations:
 There are 16 different logic operations that can be performed with two binary
variables.
 They can be determined from all possible truth tables obtained with two binary
variables as shown in Table 4-5
  The 16 Boolean functions of two variables x and y are expressed in algebraic form
in the first column of Table 4-6.
 The 16 logic microoperations are derived from these functions by replacing
variable x by the binary content of register A and variable y by the binary content
of register B.
 The logic micro-operations listed in the second column represent a relationship
between the binary content of two registers A and B.

Shift Micro-Operations:-
Shift micro-operations are those micro-operations that are used for serial transfer of
information. These are also used in conjunction with arithmetic micro-operation, logic
micro-operation, and other data-processing operations.
 Shift microoperations are used for serial transfer of data.
 The contents of a register can be shifted to the left or the right.
 During a shift-left operation the serial input transfers a bit into the rightmost
position.
 During a shift-right operation the serial input transfers a bit into the leftmost
position.
 There are three types of shifts: logical, circular, and arithmetic.
 The symbolic notation for the shift microoperations is shown in Table.
4-7
 Logical Shift:
 A logical shift is one that transfers 0 through the serial input.
 The symbols shl and shr for logical shift-left and shift-right microoperations.
 The microoperations that specify a 1-bit shift to the left of the content of register R
and a 1-bit shift to the right of the content of register R shown in table 4.7.
 The bit transferred to the end position through the serial input is assumed to be 0
during a logical shift.
 Circular Shift:
 The circular shift (also known as a rotate operation) circulates the bits of the
register around the two ends without loss of information.
 This is accomplished by connecting the serial output of the shift register to its
serial input.
 We will use the symbols cil and cir for the circular shift left and right, respectively.
 Arithmetic Shift:
 An arithmetic shift is a microoperation that shifts a signed binary number to the
left or right.
 An arithmetic shift-left multiplies a signed binary number by 2.
 An arithmetic shift-right divides the number by 2.
 Arithmetic shifts must leave the sign bit unchanged because the sign of the number
remains the same when it is multiplied or divided by 2.

Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit :-

The Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit(ALSU) is part of a computer system's Arithmetic Logic
Unit(ALU). It can be defined as a digital circuit that performs arithmetic, logical, and shift
operations. Instead of having individual registers performing micro-operations directly,
computer systems employ many storage registers connected to a common operational
unit ALU. The major characteristic of ALSU is to perform all the logical, arithmetic, and
shift operations.

 Instead of having individual registers performing the micro-operations directly,

computer systems employ a number of storage registers connected to a common
operational unit called an arithmetic logic unit, abbreviated ALU.
 The ALU is a combinational circuit so that the entire register transfer operation
from the source registers through the ALU and into the destination register can be
performed during one clock pulse period.
 The shift micro-operations are often performed in a separate unit, but sometimes
the shift unit is made part of the overall ALU.
 The arithmetic, logic, and shift circuits introduced in previous sections can be
combined into one ALU with common selection variables. One stage of an
arithmetic logic shift unit is shown in Fig. 413.
 Particular micro-operation is selected with inputs S1 and S0. A 4 x 1 multiplexer at
the output chooses between an arithmetic output in Di and a logic output in Ei.
 The data in the multiplexer are selected with inputs S3 and S2. The other two data
inputs to the multiplexer receive inputs Ai-1 for the shift-right operation and Ai+1 for
the shift-left operation.
 The circuit whose one stage is specified in Fig. 4-13 provides eight arithmetic
operation, four logic operations, and two shift operations.
 Each operation is selected with the five variables S3, S2, S1, S0 and Cin.
 The input carry Cin is used for selecting an arithmetic operation only.

 Table 4-8 lists the 14 operations of the ALU. The first eight are arithmetic
operations and are selected with S3S2 = 00.
 The next four are logic and are selected with S3S2 = 01.
 The input carry has no effect during the logic operations and is marked with don't-
care x’s.
 The last two operations are shift operations and are selected with S3S2= 10 and
11.
 The other three selection inputs have no effect on the shift.