Centrifuges, Sedimenting

Hans Axelsson, Alfa Laval Separation AB, Tumba, Sweden

Bent Madsen, Alfa Laval Separation A/S, Sborg, Denmark
Symbols
a area, m
2
d diameter, m
D inner diameter of test tube, m
D inner diameter of decanter bowl, m
g acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s
2
)
k constant
KQ semi-empirical measure of centrifuge size (Eq. 15)
L length of decanter bowl, m
n bowl speed, min
1
N number of disks
p pressure, Pa
Q flow rate, m
3
/s
r radius, m
R outer radius of rotor, m
s settling distance, m
t distance between disks, m
T spin time, s
u velocity, m/s
V bowl volume, m
3
z number of nozzles
Z acceleration factor or g number
a half-cone angle of disk
b angle of tube in test-tube centrifuge
w angle of nozzle to the tangent of bowl
Z dynamic viscosity of fluid, mPa s
l dimensionless number (Eq. 18)
m separation efficiency factor (Eq. 13)
n kinematic viscosity of fluid, m
2
/s
R density, kg/m
3
o angular velocity, rad/s
S area equivalent (Eq. 10), m
2
Subscripts
act actual
c centrifugal
d drag
e equivalent
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Centrifugal Sedimentation . . . . . . . 2
2.2. Centrifugal Sedimentation with
Continuous Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Centrifugal Separators with
Continuous Feed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Disk-Bowl Machines . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3. Chamber and Multichamber Bowls 10
3.4. Tubular Bowl Centrifuges . . . . . . . 12
3.5. Decanter Centrifuges . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6. Other Bowl Geometries . . . . . . . . . 16
4. Batch Centrifuges . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2. Bottle Centrifuges. . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3. Batch Zonal Centrifuges . . . . . . . . 17
5. Fluid Dynamics in Centrifuges . . . . 18
5.1. Chamber and Tubular Bowl
Centrifuges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2. Disk-Bowl Centrifuges. . . . . . . . . . 18
5.3. Decanter Centrifuges . . . . . . . . . . 19
6. Centrifuge Technology . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1. Rotor Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2. Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7. Centrifuge Selection . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.2. Main Process Parameters . . . . . . . 23
7.3. Test Tube Centrifugation (Spin Test) 23
7.4. Important Properties of the Process
Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.5. Improvement of Separability . . . . . 24
7.6. Pilot Machine Testing . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.7. Scale-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Centrifuges, Sedimenting 1
f fluid
g gravity
i interface
in inner
h heavy liquid
l light liquid
N nozzle
out outer, outlet
p particle
theor theoretical
1 inner
2 outer
1. Introduction
Sedimenting centrifuges are used for the se-
paration of two or three phases: liquid liquid,
liquid solid and liquid liquid solid. Sediment-
ing centrifuges use centrifugal force to accelerate
the sedimentation process. By rotating the process
fluid, the sedimentation rate can be increased by a
factor of several thousands compared to static se-
dimentation or settling. Other types of equipment
also use centrifugal force for phase separation.
This article deals only with sedimenting centri-
fuges. For filtration centrifuges and hydrocy-
clones, see ?Hydrocyclone Separation and
?Centrifuges, Filtering.
In liquid liquid separation the most common
alternative to sedimenting centrifuges are static
settlers. The advantage of the centrifugal separator
compared to the settler is the small equipment
volume and/or short residence time.
The choice between a centrifugal filter and a
sedimenting centrifuge in solid liquid separation
depends on the particle size and the permeability
of the cake of solids in the centrifugal field [15].
Cross-flow filtration may be an alternative to
centrifugation for small particle sizes and mostly
for small flow volumes.
2. Fundamentals
2.1. Centrifugal Sedimentation
General. The sedimentation rate of solid par-
ticles or droplets in the gravity field is a function
of the particle (or droplet) size, the density differ-
ence, and the viscosity of the suspension (or emul-
sion). In applications in which centrifuges are
used, the static sedimentation velocity is between
10
9
and 10
4
m/s. To accelerate the process, cen-
trifuges apply centrifugal forces of 500 30 000 g.
At lower sedimentation rates, special ultracen-
trifuges with up to 900 000 g are used to separate
macromolecules, virus particles, and microbial
cell constituents. Sedimentation velocities are ex-
pressed as sedimentation coefficients in Svedberg
units (S), have the dimension seconds, and are
defined as 10
13
times the settling velocity per unit
acceleration (in m/s
2
). They range from 4 to 10
6
S
[4].
A third class of centrifugal separators are gas
centrifuges, today used primarily to separate iso-
topes (?Isotopes, Natural). Uranium enrichment
is the best known application. The centrifugal
force is greater than 150 000 g. The enrichment
in a single centrifuge is very small, so a large
number of machines have to be arranged in series
to obtain a sufficient degree of enrichment.
Settling Velocity. The settling velocity of the
particles or droplets is a fundamental property of a
suspension or emulsion and determines the flow
rate through or size of the centrifuge together with
the residence time and settling length. In most
centrifugations the settling velocity u
c
is so small
that Stokes law applies:
u
c

R
p
R
l

d
2
p
18 Z
r o
2
m=s 1
where R
p
and R
l
are the densities of particle and
surrounding medium, d
p
is the particle diameter, Z
is the viscosity of the suspension, r is the distance
from the center of rotation, and o is the angular
velocity, which is related to the bowl speed n in
rpm according to the relation
o
2 p n
60
s
1

2
The acceleration factor Z (the g number) is
Z
r o
2
g
3
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. The
settling velocity u
g
in the gravity field is
u
g
u
c

g
r o
2
s=m 4
The Equations (1) and (4) are valid under the
conditions that
2 Centrifuges, Sedimenting
1) The flow round the particle is laminar (Rey-
nolds number Re 50.4)
2) The settling of a particle is not influenced by
other particles, i.e., the concentration is very
low
For particle Re > 0.4 alternative equations have
been derived [2], [4]. For high particle concentra-
tions, a phenomenon called hindered settling sets
in, decreasing the settling rate. Equations for cor-
rection factors 51 for the settling rates u
c
and u
g
in Equations (1) and (4) are summarized in [8]. At
20 vol % of particles, the settling rates decrease by
a factor > 2.
Residence Time and Settling Length. A high g
number (Z) is not the only factor that determines
the flow rate at acceptable separation efficiency
through a centrifuge. The residence time in the
centrifugal force field, i.e., the rotor volume, can
compensate for a small Z. A small settling length,
i.e., the distance a particle must travel to be cap-
tured, will also improve the flow rate at acceptable
separation efficiency.
The Bottle Centrifuge. The settling velocity of
particles that are separated in a centrifuge is often
so small that its measurement is not practical with-
out application of centrifugal force. The bottle
(swing-out) centrifuge, shown schematically in
Figure 1, is often a suitable tool for measurement
of the settling velocity.
The following equations describe the particle
motion:
u
c

dr
dt
5
u
c
u
g

r o
2
g
6
The aim is for all particles to move to a radius
> r
2
. In the worst case, the particle starts at the
liquid surface at r
1
. Insertion of Equation (6) into
Equation (5), rearranging, and integrating gives

T
0
dt
g
u
g
o
2

r
1
r
2
dr
r
7
T
g
u
g
o
2
ln
r
2
r
1
8
where T is the spinning time necessary for all
particles to leave the volume between levels r
1
and r
2
. By rearranging Equation (8) one obtains
u
g

g
T o
2
ln
r
2
r
1
9
It is clear that a small settling velocity neces-
sitates a long spinning time, i.e., residence time,
and/or a short sedimentation distance at a high
angular velocity. This is also valid for centrifuges
with continuous feed and effluent flow. Because of
mechanical and hydraulic limitations, these re-
quirements are in conflict with each other and
can not be met in industrial centrifuges without
compromises. This has led to the development of a
broad range of machines in which different re-
quirements have been given priority.
2.2. Centrifugal Sedimentation with
Continuous Flow
The S Theory. The Generalized S Formula.
The most used quantity to characterize centri-
fuges, the S concept, was presented by Ambler
[33], [34]. It is the calculated equivalent surface
area of a static settling tank with the same theore-
tical performance. In its derivation he considered
particles with a critical diameter d
c
that were se-
parated to 50 %. Today, however, the most widely
used definition of the critical particle is that which
is separated to 100 %. This does not influence the
formulas for the S value, but the value for the feed
flow rate Q is halved.
S is defined as
Q
theor
u
g
S 10
where u
g
is the Stokes settling velocity (Eq. 1). S
is given by the general expression
S
V
s
e

o
2
r
e
g
11
Figure 1. Bottle swing-out centrifuge
Centrifuges, Sedimenting 3
where V is the liquid volume in the bowl, s
e
is the
effective settling distance, and r
e
is the effective
distance from the center of rotation.
With Equations (1) and (4) the equation for the
critical diameter becomes
d
c

18 Z Q
theor
R
p
R
f

s
e
V o
2
r
e

1
2

18 Z Q
theor
S R
p
R
f

g

1
2
12
The derivation above is based on the assump-
tion that
Viscous drag determines the particle movement
The flow in disk bowls between the disks is
laminar and symmetrical
The liquid rotates at the same speed as the bowl
The particle concentration is low (no hindered
settling)
The particle at all times moves with its final
settling velocity u
c
The settling velocity u
c
is proportional to the g
force.
Ambler uses the critical particle in his for-
mula; therefore, his analysis is a special case of
Svarovsky's grade efficiency function[6], in which
for each particle size the ratio of sedimented mass
to the mass in the feed material is determined and
integrated over all particle sizes to give a more
realistic measure of the separation efficiency. The
terminology, definitions and theory of particle
classification is dealt with comprehensively in [8].
S for Various Centrifuges. The flow system in
between two conical disks in a disk-bowl centri-
fuge is shown in Figure 24. The particle has a
radial velocity component u
c
because of the cen-
trifugal force, which increases with increasing r. It
has also a drag dependent velocity component u
d
which can have any size or direction depending on
the flow situation round the particle. In the S
theory it is assumed that it depends on uniform
radial plug flow parallel to the disks. The deriva-
tion of the S for various types of centrifuge is
found in [34], and the results are summarized in
the following:
Disk-bowl [33], [34]
p o
2
g

2
3
N r
3
2
r
3
1

cot a
r
2
= max. radius of disk,
r
1
= min. radius of disk,
N = number of disk,
a = half-cone angle of disk
Decanter [6], [34]
p o
2
g
L
1
3
2
r
2
2

1
2
r
2
1

L
2
r
2
2
3 r
2
r
1
4 r
2
1
4

L
1
= length of cylindrical part,
L
2
= length of conical part,
r
1
= inner radius of liquid,
r
2
= inner radius of bowl,
Tubular-bowl, chamber-bowl [34]
p o
2
g
L
r
2
2
r
2
1
ln
2 r
2
2
r
2
2
r
2
1

r
1
= inner radius of liquid,
r
2
= inner radius of bowl,
L = inner length of bowl,
Multichamber-bowl [2]
p o
2
g
L
3

i n
i 0
r
3
2 i 1
r
3
2 i 2
r
2 i 1
r
2 i 2
indices with even numbers: inner radius of chamber,
indices with odd numbers: outer radius of chamber,
n +1 = number of chambers,
L = height of chambers
Separation Efficiency. The assumptions in the
S theory are not fulfilled in reality. Therefore,
Equation (10) should include an efficiency factor
m, so that in practice the flow rate is lowered for
the required separation performance. Estimated
efficiency factors are listed in the following [5]:
Disk-bowl machines 45 73 %
Decanter centrifuges 54 67 %
Tubular bowls 90 98 %
By careful measurement of the density differ-
ence and particle dimensions in one case an effi-
ciency factor of max. 16 % was found to fit the
experimental data in a pilot-scale disk bowl ma-
chine [35]. However, this probably also included
effects of hindered settling.
In the absence of hindered settling, the equa-
tion describing the relationship between the feed
flow rate, the S value, and the settling rate, is thus
4 Centrifuges, Sedimenting
Q
act
m u
g
S 13
The KQ Formula for Disk-Bowl Centrifuges.
A semi-empirical equation for the separation
area [36] is based on the finding that separation
data fit the relation
u
c
u
g

o
2
r
g

k
14
with k = 0.75 better than the classical analysis
(Eq. 4) with k = 1. This is a consequence of the
increasing shear forces in the Ekman layers (see
Section 5.2). For practical purposes the following
relation is used:
KQ 280
n
1000

1:5
N cot a r
2:75
out
r
2:75
in

15
where n is the bowl speed in rpm and r
out
and r
in
are the radii of the disk in centimeters. This form
of the KQ formula is dimensionally incorrect, but
it is mathematically possible to make it correct and
to express the KQ value as an entity with the
dimension of area. In practice the difference be-
tween KQ and S for scale-up purposes is negligi-
ble, compared to other inaccuracies.
Hindered Settling. One of the few experimen-
tal investigations into hindered settling of cells
[35] shows that complex phenomena occur at high
concentrations. A model with several experimen-
tal constants was developed. It showed that set-
tling rates decrease rapidly with increasing solids
contents, by a factor of about 2 at 20 vol % and by
15 20 at 50 vol %. The classical model used in
[36] gave similar results. The decreased settling
velocity can be attributed to increased viscosity
of the suspension at high solids concentrations
[8]. In the tests in [35] it was also found that cells
may settle as flocs at higher concentration. Hin-
dered settling is one further example of the diffi-
culty to calculate theoretically the performance of
centrifuges.
Gas Centrifuges. The theory for gas centrifu-
gation is too complicated to be included here. The
performance of a gas centrifuge is, besides periph-
eral velocity and rotor length, very much depend-
ing on the flow pattern in the rotor and the location
of entry and exit points of the streams. The reader
is referred to [4] and [12].
3. Centrifugal Separators with
Continuous Feed
3.1. General
The different types of continuous centrifuge
were developed from different principles of solids
handling. The first centrifuges were developed for
separating a process fluid (e.g., milk, fermented
yeast broth) into two fluid streams. Heavy solids
that could not flow out were collected at the per-
iphery and removed by periodic manual cleaning.
These were followed by centrifuges with periph-
eral nozzles that discharge solids as a slurry. In
many processes these replaced machines needing
expensive manual cleaning. For processes in
which the solids must be collected in a more con-
centrated, nonfluid, form, machines with internal
conveyors (decanter centrifuges) were developed.
Intermittently discharging machines were devel-
oped to fill the gap between the three above-men-
tioned types and are now the most common con-
tinuous centrifuges. A number of discharging me-
chanisms have been developed over the years. A
bottle centrifuge with continuous feed and sepa-
rated effluent (centrate) is available.
The most comprehensive description of centri-
fuges can be found in [2]. Brochures and technical
publications from centrifuge manufacturers pro-
vide the most modern information about machine
types, sizes, and capacities.
3.2. Disk-Bowl Machines
General. In disk-bowl machines the sedimen-
tation path is made short by introduction of conical
discs, separated by spacers. The distance is be-
tween 0.4 and 3 mm, depending on the viscosity
and solids content. The half-cone angle is in the
range 35 45 and is smaller for solids with a
small angle of repose.
The spacers between the disks have different
designs, depending on the separation duty. The
most common spacers are long ribs placed radially
along the cone; these help the liquid retain its
rotation velocity. The majority of disk-bowl ma-
chines are used for separating two liquid phases. In
many cases, droplets of the dispersed phase in the
feed liquid coalesce at an interface inside the
bowl, and the newly formed liquid leaves the bowl
continuously through a second outlet, separated
from the original continuous phase. The position
of the interface in the bowl is important and can be
Centrifuges, Sedimenting 5
controlled by, for example, adjusting the radius of
one of the weirs, usually that for the heavy phase.
Its radius r
h
(see Fig. 2) is given by
r
h

r
2
i
1
R
l
R
h

r
2
l

R
l
R
h

16
where r
i
is the radius of the interface, r
l
the outlet
radius of the light liquid phase, and R
l
and R
h
are
the densities of the light and heavy liquid phases.
The equation is derived from a pressure balance
but is a simplification because it neglects pressure
drops and weir heights. It is adequate for a first
approximation. It is also applicable to chamber
bowls, tube centrifuges and decanters (Sec-
tions 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5).
If the objective of the separation is to obtain a
very clean light phase, the interface should be
placed at a large radius to avoid heavy droplets'
contaminating the light phase. For obtaining a
clean heavy phase, the interface should have a
small radius.
Several important applications of liquid li-
quid separations in disk bowls do not involve coa-
lescence at an interface. The most common exam-
ples are separation of cream from milk and alkali
refining of vegetable oil. The split between the
outlet streams is then controlled by counterpres-
sures that can be applied in several ways.
Solid-Bowl Centrifuge. Figure 2 shows a solid-
bowl centrifuge requiring manual cleaning. Heavy
solids are collected at the periphery; the machine
must be dismantled and the bowl opened to re-
move the solids, often by lifting up a collecting
basket, fitted inside the bowl. The feed enters the
bowl in the center through a still-standing pipe.
The version of bowl shown is suitable for liquid
liquid solid separation and therefore has two
liquid outlets. The light liquid flows through the
disk stack and out of the bowl through a still-
standing centripetal pump known as a paring disk.
The heavy liquid passes over a disk near the bowl
hood and is removed through another paring disk.
The paring disk converts the kinetic energy of the
rotating liquid, and discharges it under pressure.
This type of bowl has diameters between 140
and 750 mm. The solids space has a volume of up
to 34 L. Further data are listed in Table 1. The
principles illustrated in Figure 2 are also applic-
able to other bowl types. Instead of paring disk(s),
Table 1. Characteristics of continous-feed centrifuges
a
Type Mode of
solids dis-
charge
Feed flow
rate, L/h
Feed solids
content,
vol %
Solids flow
rate, L/h
S value, m
2
Max. Z de-
veloped
Consistency
of solids
Disk solid bowl manual 20
100 000
51 0 1000
300 000
10 000 firm paste
Solids-ejecting, radial intermittent 20
100 000
525 53000 1000
170 000
14 500 thick flow-
ing slurry
Solids-ejecting, axial intermittent 1000
150 000
515 51000 110 000
220 000
15 000 thick flow-
ing slurry
Nozzle, pressurized-dis-
charge
b
continuous 1000
180 000
4 30 4150
540 000
69 000
180 000
15 000 thick flow-
ing slurry
Peripheral nozzle continuous 300
310 000
2 30 43000
5140 000
35 000
180 000
11 000 thin slurry
Decanter centrifuge continous
with scroll
300
200 000
5 50 550 000 400
25 000
10 000 thick slurry
to semisolid
Tubular bowl manual 20 7000 51 0 1400 4500 31 000 firm paste
Multichamber bowl manual 100
20 000
55 0 9000 firm paste
Centritech machines
c
intermittent 5 100 51 515 100 very thin
slurry
Inverted solid bowl intermittent
with scraper
10 6000 1 30 51000 800
20 000
20 000 firm paste
a
Low-speed imperforate tubular and basket machines not included.
b
Only for slurry of single cells (see text).
c
Only for
mammalian cells.
6 Centrifuges, Sedimenting