Stress

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) defines stress as a

pattern of responses a person makes to the environmental cues that interrupt one’s

equilibrium by exceeding the ability to cope (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

Although stress is a universal phenomenon that exists regardless of ethnicity, culture, and

gender, there is no unanimity on its operational definition. For example, some definitions of

stress are inclined to a stimulus-based focus, in which the growth of the pressure from an

external stimulus leads to internal collapses (Butler, 1993), while others describe it as a

response-based phenomenon with physiological emphasis (e.g., Selye, 1950).

A broader framework to help explain how the stress phenomenon is a dynamic process

(Butler, 1993) is the biopsychosocial model (Bernard & Krupat, 1994). This model

recognizes the significant contribution and interaction between the biological, psychological,

and social systems on the perception and expression of stress by humans (Bernard & Krupat,

1994). Furthermore, this model acknowledges the importance of the environment, the

interpretation of the individual, and the mental and physical reactions to stress (Bernard &

Krupat, 1994). In this model, the environment is indicated to play an important role in the

stress process (Bernard & Krupat, 1994). It is the situation that occurs before the appraisal of

stress, and that can provoke the stress response. These events are also known as stressors, and

it refers to positive and negative events (Friedman, 2002). Some stressors can be major life

events, and others are daily hassles related to role strains, work, school, etc. Some social

factors associated with the environment and the experience of stress are socioeconomic

levels, social instability, and the conditions of the living environments (McEwen, 1998). As

noted by McEwen (1998), stressful life events and social instability have an impact on an

individual’s susceptibility to pain.

The physiological reaction to stress is associated with the general adaptation syndrome (GAS;

Seyle, 1976, 1982) in which stress is the body’s response to demands of the environment

(Rice, 1992). According to the GAS, the response to stress unfolds as follows:

a) First, there is an alarm reaction, a natural reaction in which there is a fight-or flight

response (Selye, 1950); this is characterized by adaptive changes. In this stage, there

is an activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the autonomic

nervous system (ANS; Miller & O'Callaghan, 2002; Orem et al., 2019), this, in turn,

results in changes such as increases in heart rate, sweating, and changes in appetite

(Fechir et al., 2010; Sominsky & Spencer, 2014). Additionally, some hormones are

released during the fight or flight response. For example, during a stressful situation,

there is an increase in the production of epinephrine and cortisol, which are associated

with adrenaline and stress, respectively. Ultimately, long periods of stress in the body

have been linked to physical and mental health issues like headaches, obesity,

digestion problems, cardiovascular diseases, difficulties with concentration, memory

impairment, depression, anxiety, and insomnia (Langille, 2017).

b) The second stage is resistance, in which defence mechanisms and the adaptive

changes are sustained and optimal, but the body remains in high alert (Selye, 1950). If

the stressor is resolved during the second stage, the body goes back to its natural

condition (i.e., regular production of hormone levels, heart rate, and blood pressure).

If the stress persists, the third stage, exhaustion, occurs.

c) During exhaustion, elevated levels of stress can lead to structural and functional brain

alterations that are reflected in changes in behaviour and physiological function (Cox,

1985; McEwen & Gianaros, 2011). Exhaustion refers to the results of prolonged stress

that lead to the ceasing of adaptive responses and which may lead to illnesses (Selye,
 1950). For example, exhaustion can lead to hypertension, heart attack, cancer,

psychological illnesses like depression or breakdowns (Palmer et al., 2003), and even

death (Selye, 1950).

Finally, personal interpretation or subjective meaning of the situation determines if and to

what degree the event is experienced as stressful or not (Bernard & Krupat, 1994). This

interaction explains why people in similar situations, for example, equally demanding jobs,

can experience different levels of stress (Pearlin, 1982). It highlights the notion of evaluation

processes that precede the experience of stress and activation of GAS (Lazarus & Folkman,

1984; Lazarus & Launier, 1978; Pearlin, 1982).

Teacher Stress

Individuals who constantly deal with human beings as their clients such as teachers are more

likely to face stress. There are three factors that cause stress among teachers, namely, student

discipline problems that are difficult to control, the attitude of parents who often want the

best results and the attitude of students who are smarter than teachers. All three of these

factors are a source of stress among teachers (Thurayya, 2007).

Kerja dalam bidang pengajaran adalah sangat tertekan, yang melibatkan mengalami emosi

negatif, seperti kemarahan, kebimbangan, ketegangan, kekecewaan, dan kemurungan

(Kyriacou, 2001). Selain itu, tekanan kerja guru boleh ditakrifkan dari segi risiko dan faktor

perlindungan yang sedia ada; ia muncul apabila faktor risiko tidak diimbangi oleh faktor

perlindungan (Prilleltensky et. al, 2016).

Walaupun faktor yang menimbulkan tekanan adalah khusus untuk setiap guru (Kyriacou,

2001), beberapa punca tekanan cenderung adalah disebabkan tekanan beban kerja atau beban

masa (Austin et. al.,2005 & 2003, Skaalvik, 2018) motivasi pelajar rendah dan masalah

disiplin (Skaalvik, 2018), kekaburan peranan dan konflik peranan (Merida et. al., 2017),

tekanan oleh perubahan dalam kurikulum (Putwain dan Von Der, 2019), gaji rendah (Ahmed

dan Shabbir, 2019, Erdiller dan Dogan, 2015), hubungan dengan pengetua dan rakan sekerja,

serta tugasan yang tidak profesional (Ahmed dan Shabbir, 2019).

Selain itu, beban kerja dan tingkah laku pelajar dianggap sebagai punca kemurungan dan

kebimbangan (Ferguson, Frostv dan Hall, 2012) peningkatan gejala yang lebih tinggi dapat

diperhatikan pada guru wanita dengan pengalaman profesional lama, mereka yang bekerja di

sekolah rendah (Desouky dan Allam, 2017), dan pada individu yang mempunyai kecerdasan

emosi yang rendah (Martinez et. al.,2019)).

Tekanan mempunyai kesan negatif terhadap kehidupan peribadi guru, yang boleh

menyebabkan penurunan kepuasan hidup, dan kerjaya profesional mereka, yang boleh

mengakibatkan komitmen kerja yang lebih rendah dan kepuasan kerja yang lebih rendah

(Ferguson, Frostv dan Hall, 2012, La Torre et. al., 2019), Skaavik (2017), Collie et. al.,

2012, Yang et. al., 2009), dan boleh menjejaskan pencapaian pelajar secara negatif (Herman

et. al., 2018), Herman, Reinke dan Eddy, 2020). Di samping itu, tekanan yang dialami

mempunyai kesan negatif terhadap kesihatan guru, meningkatkan risiko gangguan psikologi

dan tingkah laku (Ahmed dan Shabbir, 2019, La Torre et. al., 2019, Schontel et. al., 2017).
Stress and Gender

Apabila menghadapi tekanan, wanita lebih kerap daripada lelaki mencari sokongan sosial

(Alhija, 2015, Ferguson et. al., 2017). Kekurangan sokongan sosial, atau sokongan sosial

yang tidak mencukupi, secara positif berkaitan dengan keletihan emosi (Fiorilli et. al., 2017).

Walau bagaimanapun, telah ditunjukkan bahawa terlalu kerap bercakap tentang tekanan

mungkin mempunyai akibat negatif dalam bentuk penurunan komitmen profesional dan rasa

kerjaya (Ferguson et. al., 2017). Menurut Fiorilli et. al., 2015, tekanan berlaku lebih kerap

dalam kalangan wanita dan guru yang bekerja di sekolah berpendapatan rendah (Bottiani dan

Duran, 2019). Wanita lebih kerap mengalami konflik kerja-keluarga daripada konflik

keluarga-kerja, walaupun mereka sama-sama menghargai peranan keluarga dan peranan

profesional (Cinamon dan Rich, 2005). Tekanan profesional terutamanya disebabkan oleh

tekanan masa dan beban kerja, manakala tekanan keluarga disebabkan oleh keperluan untuk

menjaga kanak-kanak (Thomas et. al., 2003). Wanita lebih kerap daripada lelaki mengalami

tekanan kerana beban kerja (Klassen dan Chiu, 2010, Alhija, 2015).

Research examining the relationship between gender and teacher work stress has produced

mixed results. Some studies indicate male teachers experience more stress related to their job

(Aftab & Khatoon, 2012), but most findings suggest female teachers are more vulnerable to

occupational stress (OECD/TALIS; Santamaría et al., 2021). Research on female teachers´

burnout levels confirmed 49 % of the sample reported very high levels (Tikhonova et al.,

2019). There is also evidence that male and female teachers process stress differently,

according to Klapproth et al. (2020) female teachers experienced significantly higher stress

levels but coped with it more functional way.

Age and Stress

Regarding the impact of teachers´ age on work stress, findings are less clear. Some studies

indicate older teachers generally report higher levels of work strain and burnout. According

to a 2021 study, older teachers reported a higher level of occupational stress and exhaustion

than other groups (Xhelilaj, Petani & Ntalla, 2021). The findings of authors Kavita and

Hassan (2018) show teachers in age (31-50 years) experienced more work stress compared to

the younger age group (20-30 years) and older age group (51-60 years). A study focusing on

female teachers pinpointed that age and years of experience were inversely related to

emotional burnout. Therefore, younger, and less experienced female teachers were more

vulnerable to burnout (Tikhonova et al., 2019).

Contrastingly, a study of teachers during the Covid-19 pandemic suggests the opposite trend.

Younger teachers (23-35 years old) experienced higher levels of stress compared to middle-

aged teachers (36-46 years old), but lower levels of stress when compared to older teachers

(over 47 years old). So overall stress intensity distribution depending on age groups seems to

form U-shape, meaning youngest and oldest teachers experienced comparatively more

occupational stress during pandemic (Ozamiz-Etxebarria, 2021). Another study on teachers´

stress during pandemic reported age groups of less than 30 years old and 31 to 40 years old

experienced more occupational stress compared to older age groups during this period

(Chitra, 2020).
Teacher Stress in The Age of COVID-19

Pandemik telah meninggalkan kesan kepada kehidupan guru sama seperti kesan yang

dihadapi oleh pelajar dan keluarga mereka. Tambahan lagi, guru perlu memenuhi permintaan

baharu untuk mengekalkan pendidikan secara jarak jauh, walaupun tanpa persediaan dan

sokongan yang mencukupi. Sebahagian daripada mereka juga perlu menyokong pendidikan

anak-anak mereka sendiri, atau perlu memenuhi permintaan ahli keluarga lain semasa

mengajar secara jarak jauh dalam era pandemik ini. (Tekanan yang berlipatganda ini telah

menjejaskan kesejahteraan guru dan telah menimbulkan kekhuatiran tentang keletihan guru,

lantas menyebabkan mereka mengundurkan diri daripada profesion (Audrain et al 2021,

Hamilton dan Ercikan 2021).

Indeed, stress has become a major concern since the COVID-19 outbreak. A study reported

that the COVID-19 pandemic has affected the well-being of teachers concerning their

profession (Alves et al., 2020). Nevertheless, stress is already a concern among teachers even

before the pandemic. Despite being known as a noble profession, teaching has a long history

of periods of discontent and crises (Alves et al., 2020). Previous studies have shown a

moderate to a high proportion of stress among teachers and faculty members in low to

middle-income countries like in Ethiopia (Kabito y Wami, 2020), Macedonia (Agai–Demjaha

et al., 2015), and the Philippines (Pagayanan, 2016; Tan, 2017; Alson, 2019). However, more

than ever, recent studies reported an increased level of stress compared to levels before the

pandemic (Di Fronso et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020). To add to this, the pandemic is also

confronting the educational sector worldwide with a paradigm shift in teaching and learning

(Guillasper et al., 2020; Mondol y Mohiuddin, 2020; Moralista y Oducado) and teachers are
faced with a wide array of extremely challenging conditions in coping with these changes

(Reimer y Schleicher, 2020).

Tekanan yang dialami oleh guru adalah antara tahap sederhana dan tinggi (Klapproth et. al.,

2020, Maclntyre et. al., 2020), yang sebahagian besarnya disebabkan oleh pemindahan

pendidikan ke ruang maya (Dhawan, 2020). Walau bagaimanapun, perlu ditekankan bahawa

penyesuaian guru terhadap pendidikan jarak jauh telah berlaku agak cepat (Bubb dan Jones,

2020). Itulah sebabnya, selepas berlaku peningkatan dalam tekanan kerja guru banyak kajian

tentang keberkesanan pendidikan pada waktu pandemik telah dijalankan. Sokal et. al., 2020,

menyatakan bahawa guru melihat kedua-dua kelebihan dan kekurangan penyelesaiannya.

Masalah tekanan sebahagian besarnya disebabkan oleh kekurangan pengetahuan dan

kemahiran yang diperlukan untuk pendidikan jarak jauh (Klapproth et. al., 2020, Joshi et.

al., 2020, Zhou dan Li, 2020), serta oleh watak proses yang memakan masa (Buchner et. al.,

2020 & 2021), dan dengan adanya sempadan antara kehidupan peribadi dan profesional (Kim

dan Asbury, 2020). Pendidikan jarak jauh memerlukan kerjasama antara ibu bapa, guru, dan

pelajar (Aliyyah et. al., 2020), namun ibu bapa tidak selalu dapat terlibat dalam pendidikan

anak-anak mereka (Zhou dan Li, 2020), mereka cuba menghubungi guru di luar waktu kerja,

yang menyumbang kepada peningkatan tekanan dan kekecewaan guru (Buchner et. al.,

2020).

Hasil penyelidikan antarabangsa menunjukkan bahawa wanita lebih kerap daripada lelaki

mengalami kemurungan dan gejala kegelisahan akibat wabak (Alzueta et. al., 2020). Di satu

pihak, guru wanita mengalami tekanan yang lebih besar daripada guru lelaki, dan walaupun

menggunakan kaedah penyesuaian pengurusan tekanan (Klapproth et. al., 2020), mereka
sering mesti memilih antara menjaga anak-anak mereka dan membantu mereka melakukan

kerja rumah mereka atau melakukan tugas sebagai harian sebagai guru (Buchner et. al.,

2020, Jean et. al., 2020, Kim dan Asbury, 2020). Sebaliknya, guru telah menemui

kemungkinan baru dalam pendidikan jarak jauh (Bergdahl dan Nouri, 2020), tekanan dan kos

yang berkaitan dengan perjalanan ke tempat kerja telah hilang, dan mereka mempunyai

peluang untuk menguruskan masa mereka dengan lebih baik (Purwanto et. al., 2020). Untuk

mengatasi masalah kebimbangan dengan cara yang lebih baik, mereka menghabiskan masa

dengan keluarga, mengejar hobi baru atau aktif dalam media sosial (Talidong dan Toquero,

2020).

Females perceived higher stress associated with COVID-19. This result is in line with those

previous studies conducted in Philipina (Ryan Michael Oducado et. al.,2021), China (Qiu et

al., 2020), Saudi Arabia (AlAteeq et al., 2020), Italy (di Fronso et al., 2020), and another

webbased survey (Limcaoco et al., 2020) wherein females had significantly higher stress

level than males.

Pengasingan yang dikenakan telah mewujudkan peluang bagi keluarga untuk menghabiskan

lebih banyak masa bersama, dan, pada masa yang sama, memberikan sokongan bersama

(Pietromonaco dan Overall, 2020, Stanley dan Markman, 2020), bagi membantu ahli

keluarga mereka untuk menguruskan tekanan dengan berkesan (Donato et. al., 2020, Zhou

dan Yao, 2020). Keadaan unik ini juga boleh menyumbang kepada peningkatan pengalaman

dalam mengendalikan tekanan yang disebabkan oleh pendidikan jarak jauh. Mengurangkan
sempadan antara kehidupan keluarga dan profesional (Vaziri et. al., 2020) dan menggunakan

strategi mengelakkan dalam pengurusan tekanan (Maclntyre et. al., 2020) boleh memberi

kesan negatif kepada individu, dan, antara lain, menyumbang kepada peningkatan gejala

kebimbangan dan kemurungan (Aalzueta et. al., 2020).

Dalam keadaan sedemikian, guru boleh mendapatkan sokongan sosial yang terhad. Menginap

bersama keluarga mereka di rumah sepanjang masa boleh membangkitkan tingkah laku

komunikatif negatif, mengakibatkan kemerosotan kualiti hubungan (Pietromonaco dan

Overall, 2020, Overall et. al., 2021, Usher etl al., 2020, Prime et. al., 2020), kekurangan

kepuasan daripada hubungan, dan akibatnya menurunkan kesejahteraan psikologi (Donato et.

al., 2020). Tekanan yang berlaku semasa mengurusakan anak -anak dapat menyebabkan

kemurungan dan gejala kegelisahan ditambah pula tekanan yang disebabkan oleh wabak

(Brown et. al., 2020).

Pressley (2021) mendapati bahawa guru sekolah rendah dan sekolah menengah, tidak kira

pendekatan pengajaran (bersemuka, hibrid, atau maya), mempunyai tahap tekanan dan

kegelisahan yang tinggi semasa COVID-19. Artikel lain yang memberi tumpuan kepada

kesan COVID-19 terhadap guru mendapati bahawa guru berjuang untuk mengimbangi

kehidupan mereka sendiri semasa mengajar dari rumah, yang membawa kepada tahap

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