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 Faculty Profile

RIZZA MARIE B. SALUTA, MAEd

Designation:
Instructor 1
Staff, Office of the Board Secretary
Subjects:
EDUC 102
- The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning
Principles

EDUC 103
- Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

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FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

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 (EDUC 109)

Understanding Diversity

‘I think diversity discussions are really about understanding our social identities,
acknowledging what is important and learning to integrate into society so that no sub-group
feels excluded or one down,’ Marilyn Loden has been quoted as saying.

A. Loden’s Diversity Wheel

Marilyn Loden, the creator of the

model, saw the need for a tool that
would help people better understand
how group-based differences
contribute to people's social identities.

The original version of the Diversity

Wheel appeared in Marilyn Loden and
Judy Rosener's book, Workforce
America! Managing Employee
Diversity as a Vital Resource (Irwin
Publishing, 1991). A second version
was published in Loden's 1996 book,
Implementing Diversity (Irwin
Publishing). In this version, Loden
added four identifiers to the
secondary circle: first language, family status, work style, and communication style. Many of
these additions were already implicit in the original model, but Loden chose to make them
more explicit in the second version. First language was the only modification that was not
included in the original model.

In the 1990s, according to Loden, many people wanted to minimize the impact of race and
gender and focus more on diversity of thought. But Loden remained convinced that these
two dimensions of diversity were still very important and should not be glossed over or
minimized in diversity discussions

She described the primary core dimensions as the most powerful and sustaining
differences, ones that usually have an important impact on us throughout our lives. In the
original model, Loden presented six primary dimensions that help shape our basic self-
image and our worldviews: age, ethnicity, gender, physical abilities/qualities, race, and
sexual orientation.

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She defined the secondary dimensions as other important differences that are acquired
later in life and presumably have less influence in defining who we are. "They are more
mutable differences that we acquire, discard, and/or modify throughout our lives," Loden
states. In the original model, the secondary dimensions included: educational background,
income, marital status, work experience, military experience, religion and geographic
location.

Evolution of the Model

Loden has made several changes to her Diversity Wheel model since the original publication
in 1991. While most of the latest additions were implicit in the earlier versions, Loden
decided that several needed further emphasis in order to validate the experiences of people
who felt that these issues were more central to their core identities. One significant change
to the model is the replacement of religion as a secondary dimension with spiritual beliefs as
a primary one. While Loden believes that the United States is still a secular society, she
recognizes that a global discussion of diversity has to focus on the importance of spiritual
beliefs in shaping societal norms. "This doesn't change the fact that spiritual beliefs may be
irrelevant to some individuals. But by adding it to the core, we are also acknowledging how
central this dimension is to some groups."

Other adjustments to the model include the addition of political beliefs to the secondary
dimensions. Over the last decade, Loden has noticed how much energy many people put
into arguing their political beliefs, so she added it to the model. Her rationale is that political
beliefs can be a major source of conflict and stereotyping among people, and therefore, this
dimension of difference should also be included in the general conversation.

Loden's Advice for Using the Model

Loden's first piece of advice to people using the model is to open up the diversity
conversation so that everyone at the table can identify with some dimensions. "The goal for
an organization is to create an environment where, regardless of one's diversity profile,
everyone feels welcomed and where everyone's skills are leveraged. Loden explains. "The
Diversity Wheel is useful in explaining how group-based differences contribute to individual
identities."

However, as the diversity conversation shifts from a U.S. context to a more global one, it is
important to remember that other cultures place different emphasis on certain dimensions.

"While it would be great to understand all the nuances of every culture and the correct
etiquette for negotiating the global terrain, it would take several lifetimes to learn all of this.
What we can do is keep in mind four principles for managing our own behavior in a global
context and dealing effectively with people globally. These four principles are respect,
inclusion, cooperation, and responsibility - or RICR."

Loden defines RICR as:

•RESPECT: treating others as they wish to be treated;
•INCLUSION: making certain everyone on the team is truly a part of the team
decision-making process;
•COOPERATION: actively helping others succeed rather than competing or
attempting to one-up someone;

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 •RESPONSIBILITY: managing personal behavior to maintain a diversity-positive
environment and questioning inappropriate behavior when it occurs.

Anticipating an upcoming trip to the Middle East, Loden explains how she will use RICR to
help navigate interactions: "What do I need to know? I am not entirely sure. But by using the
wheel, I can consider how cultural differences may be shaping other's identities and
experiences in the world. I can also demonstrate through my behavior that I am interested in
showing respect, including others in activities, cooperating rather than competing to
accomplish goals and taking responsibility for building a comfortable, diversity-positive
environment."

Will the new spin on the diversity wheel have a positive effect globally?

Currently, Loden believes we are a ways away from having a truly global conversation about
diversity and inclusion. The reason? Many countries believe that "diversity" is an American
concept focused primarily on race and gender. More importantly, other societies have
different, deeply-held cultural assumptions. Thus when working in international settings, it's
important to remember that others cultural assumptions and expectations will probably not
be the same as ours.

B. Ability and Disability as a Dimension of Diversity

Dimensions of diversity refers to work diversity of a company and the employees who work
there and have different traits, backgrounds and abilities.

Most common dimensions of diversity

1. Age: people of different ages give different value to the company: the younger employees
can keep the company up-to-date with the latest technology and ideas and older employees
can draw on a much broader range of experiences.
2. Race and ethnicity: research shows that companies with the most racial and ethnic
diversity are 35% more likely to have above-average financial returns.
3. Gender: companies should be aware of the male-female employment ratio as each
gender brings valuable perspectives.
4. Sexual orientation: companies in which people feel safe enough to express their sexual
orientation enable employees to be more productive and achieve more in their careers.
5. Disability: modern, up to date companies should work on hiring people with disabilities
and treat them equally.
6. Education level: by demanding unnecessary qualifications companies are excluding
people who may actually be ideal for the job. They're also making your workforce more
homogeneous and less diverse.

Ability and Disability

The word “ability” is defined by Miriam Webster dictionary as “the quality or state of being
able” whereas the word “disability” is defined as “a physical, mental, cognitive, or
developmental condition that impairs, interferes with, or limits a person’s ability to engage in
certain tasks or actions or participate in typical daily activities and interactions.”

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Ability diversity refers to “…varying abilities and disabilities. Differences in cognitive, social-
emotional, and physical abilities add to the layers of ability diversity.” That is to say, we all
have different abilities, and none is “better” than the other. Being “able-bodied” doesn’t make
you “normal”, it makes you “common”, as there are simply more people who are able-bodied
than there are not.
Part of the challenge we face is that the word “disability” is entrenched in Law, in Acts like
the Employment Equity Act, the Americans with Disabilities Act, all Human Rights legislation,
and the proposed Accessible Canada Act. The word gets used over and over so much that it
has become an acceptable part of our lexicon.

“ I, myself, am someone who identifies as living with a disability, largely

because it’s far easier to say, “I live with a disability” as opposed to “I live with ability
diversity”. The difference with me is that I don’t view my differing ability as something
that impairs, interferes, or limits me in any way. In some ways, I’m reclaiming the word
as a badge of honor, as if to say, “yeah I live with a disability…what’s it to you?”
-Michael Bach-

Another part of the challenge toward inclusion of ability diversity is the concept of
accommodation. When considering people with diverse abilities, we often consider how
we’re going to have to accommodate them if and when we hire them. We may need to
change things like elevators, ramps, signage, lighting, and so on, to ensure that people can
access our workplaces.

Summary
The Four Layers Model
1. Personality: This includes an individual's likes and dislikes, values, and beliefs.
Personality is shaped early in life and is both influenced by, and influences, the other three
layers throughout one's lifetime and career choices.
2. Internal dimensions: These include aspects of diversity over which we have no control
(though "physical ability" can change over time due to choices we make to be active or not,
or in cases of illness or accidents). This dimension is the layer in which many divisions
between and among people exist and which forms the core of many diversity efforts. These
dimensions include the first things we see in other people, such as race or gender and on
which we make many assumptions and base judgments.
3. External dimensions: These include aspects of our lives which we have some control
over, which might change over time, and which usually form the basis for decisions on
careers and work styles. This layer often determines, in part, with whom we develop
friendships and what we do for work. This layer also tells us much about whom we like to be
with.
4. Organizational dimensions: This layer concerns the aspects of culture found in a work
setting. While much attention of diversity efforts is focused on the internal dimensions,
issues of preferential treatment and opportunities for development or promotion are
impacted by the aspects of this layer. The usefulness of this model is that it includes the
dimensions that shape and impact both the individual and the organization itself. While the
"Internal Dimensions" receive primary attention in successful diversity initiatives, the
elements of the "External" and "Organizational" dimensions often determine the way people
are treated, who "fits" or not in a department, who gets the opportunity for development or
promotions, and who gets recognized.

"The Four Layers of Diversity" is not only a useful model, but can be used as a reflective tool
to develop your own understanding of the impact of diversity on your life.

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References

Bach, M. 2011. The Last Frontier in Diversity and Inclusion: Ability Diversity. Retrieved from
https://lifespeak.com/the-last-frontier-in-diversity-and-inclusion-ability-diversity/
Couser, T. Disability as diversity: a difference with a difference.
https://extension.psu.edu/programs/betterkidcare/news/2017/clad-2013-cultural-linguistic-
ability-diversity-2013-are-you-self-aware
https://www.talentlyft.com/en/resources/what-is-dimensions-of-diversity

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Addressing Diversity through the Years, Special and inclusive Education

A. Historical and Socio-cultural Foundations

During the year of 1902 and under the American regime that the Filipino children with
disabilities were given the chance to be educated. This inclusion is significant when
considering only forty-five years ago the majority of students with disabilities were excluded
from public education. It not only teaches the principles of inclusive education, but also
follows and enacts these principles.

History of Inclusive Education

Inclusive education is a widely accepted pedagogical and policy principle, but its genesis has
been long and, at times, difficult. For example, in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights included statements about rights and freedoms that have, over the decades, been
used to promote inclusive educational practices.

Following the widespread influence of the human rights-based principle of normalization, the
concept of inclusive education received major impetus from the Education of All
Handicapped Children Act in the United States in 1975, the United Nations (UN)
International Year of Disabled Persons in 1981, and the UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities in 2006. A major focus of the UN initiatives has been the right of
people with a disability to participate fully in society.

A Brief History of Special Education

Students with disabilities have only had a legally protected right to attend public school since
the passing of The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142) in 1975.

(1975): The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) gave children with
disabilities specific legal rights to an education The act contained a provision stating that
students with disabilities should be placed in least restrictive environment (LRE) in order to
allow the maximum possible opportunity to interact with non-disabled peers.

(1990): The EHA was reformulated as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA). IDEA elaborated on the inclusion of children with disabilities into regular classes and
also focused on the rights of parents to be involved in the education decisions affecting their
children.

(1990): After IDEA and decades of campaigning and lobbying, the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed. This ensured the equal treatment and equal access of
people with disabilities to employment opportunities and to public accommodations.

(1997): IDEA was reauthorized in 1997. In addition to upholding the rights outlined in
previous legislation. The act emphasized academic outcomes for students with disabilities.
This involved raising expectations for students, supporting students who follow the general

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curriculum, supporting parents, and helping states determine appropriate outcomes. With the
focus on outcomes, school-to-work transition planning gained new importance.

Inclusive education has become more accepted in the education community since
2000. The reauthorization of IDEA in 2004 Congress reiterated that special education and
related services should be designed to meet students’ unique needs.”

The use of “scientific, research-based interventions,” known as Response to

Intervention (RTI) also began because of the changes in the 2004 law. These
interventions, which are started in general education before students are given special
education services, are called “multitiered systems of support” (MTSS) in ESSA.

Socio-cultural Foundations

Socio-cultural theory has become a powerful influence in educational psychology,

developmental psychology and early childhood education in English speaking countries
including Australia. Some of the most influential theoretical concepts of Vygotsky’s theory
relate to the:

• central tenet of sociocultural theory is co-construction of knowledge between the individual

and social processes ( John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996)

• role played by language and other symbolic systems

• function of social interaction in the development of the human brain

• role of word meaning in complexive and conceptual thinking

•relationship between elementary and higher mental functions in the development of

psychological processes

• concept of the zone of proximal development to explain learning and teaching. (Mahn,
1999)

a) Disability is a sociocultural developmental phenomenon, and Refereed proceedings from

Learning and Socio-cultural theory: Exploring modern Vygotskian perspectives workshop,
2007, Wollongong University 199

b) Disability consists of ‘primary disability’ (organic impairment) and the ‘secondary’ disability
(distortions of higher psychological functions due to social factors).

Vygotsky explained that the many behavioural traits such as passivity, dependence and lack
of social skills that are thought to characterise people with intellectual disabilities are in fact
the product of poor access to socio-cultural knowledge, lack of social interaction and
opportunity to acquire psychological tools.

B. Philosophical Foundations

The school and classroom operate on the premise that the students with disabilities are as
fundamentally competent as students without disabilities. Therefore, all students can be full
participants in their classrooms and in local school community (Alquraini & Gut, 2012).

General Principles in Special Education

 Each child has a Right to Education.

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  Equal opportunity assurance of quality education to all regardless of their assessed
needs will be fully met. Placing a handicapped students in a normal setting is only the
first step to integration
 Educational resources for handicapped students should be comparable to those
available for non-handicapped students and appropriate to meet the special needs of
those children, since these needs have often been long neglected or received unduly
low priority

C. Legal Foundations

Inclusive education can only exist with strong support from the government and specific
legislation (UNICEF, 2014b). Fortunately, the general understanding that children with
disabilities have the right to education is growing. In some countries, such as Egypt, laws
simply state that children with disabilities have the right to education. Other countries, such
as Ethiopia, are more prescriptive. In the case of Ethiopia, the National Plan of Action of
Persons with Disabilities not only describes the rights of individuals with disabilities but also
addresses outputs, activities, and indicators associated with those rights (Ethiopia Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs, 2012).

International Policies and Frameworks for Inclusive Education

International legislation and legal frameworks, such as the CRPD, describe human rights
principles and legal requirements for upholding those principles. Studies have demonstrated
that countries with ratified human rights treaties are associated with better or improved
human rights practices (Hathaway, 2002).

Here we present a summary of some of the most prominent international policies and legal
frameworks that promote inclusive education for disabilities.

1. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

Adopted in 1989, Article 23 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
specifically addresses the rights of children with disabilities and states that children with
disabilities should have access to and receive education in a “manner conducive to the
child’s achieving the fullest possible social integration and individual development” (UN
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1989).
2. World Declaration on Education for All
Adopted in 1990 with support from UNESCO, UNICEF, and the UN Development Program,
the World Declaration on Education for All served as one of the first milestones to support
inclusive education throughout the world.
3. Salamanca Framework for Action
Adopted in 1994 at the World Conference on Special Needs Education, the Salamanca
Framework for Action highlights the necessity to educate children with disabilities within the
general education system.
4. United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Adopted in 2006, the CRPD provides the most comprehensive international legal framework
for supporting the educational rights of children with disabilities. The CRPD states that
countries that have ratified the CRPD must ensure an inclusive education system at all
levels and that children with disabilities have the right to free primary and secondary
education and cannot be discriminated against based on their disability.

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▪All schools must be accessible (tied to Article 9 on Accessibility), both physically and
regarding information and communication.
▪Students with disabilities should receive reasonable accommodations within the
classroom.
▪Schools should address the academic, social, and life skills needs of each student.
▪If needed, alternative learning methods should be used, such as braille instruction or
alternative communication devices.
▪Local sign language instruction should be provided for students who are deaf to promote
linguistic identity.
▪Individuals with disabilities should have access to tertiary, vocational, and adult education.

National Policies for Inclusive Education

According to UNESCO’s Policy Guidelines for Inclusion in Education, national legal
frameworks should, at a minimum, achieve the following (UNESCO, 2009):
▪Recognize inclusive education as a right;
▪Identify minimum standards in relation to the right to education, including physical access,
communication access, social access, economic access, early identification, adaption of
curriculum, and individualized student supports;
▪Identify minimum standards regarding the right to education and ensuring that families
and communities are active participants in inclusive education;
▪Ensure a transition plan for students with disabilities;
▪Identify stakeholders and their responsibilities;
▪Provide resources for students with disabilities; and
▪Establish monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for ensuring that education is truly
inclusive.
Legal Bases for Special Education in the Philippines
Commonwealth Act No. 3203- In 1935, A provision in this Act for the care and protection of
disabled children. Articles 356 and 259 of the Civil Code of the Philippines mention “the right
of every child to live in an atmosphere conclusive to his physical, moral and intellectual
development”, and the concomitant duty of the government to “promote the full growth of the
faculties of every child”.
Republic Act Nos. 3562 and 5250. Approved on June 13, 1968 respectively, these Acts
provided that teachers, administrators, and supervisors of special education should be
trained by the Department of Education and impoverished.
Presidential Decree No. 603 (PD 603). The Child and Youth Welfare Code, Article 3, Rights
of the Child. Equally important is Article 74 which provides for the creation of special classes.
Republic Act 7277. Approved on January 22, 1992, Republic Act 7277, otherwise known as
the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons affirms the full participation and total integration of
persons with disabilities into the mainstream of our society.
References 
Foreman, P. (2020). Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Inclusive Education
Retrieved from
https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-
9780190264093-e-1197

Dixon, R. M. & Verenikina, I (2007).Towards Inclusive Schools: An Examination of Socio-

cultural Theory and Inclusive Practices and Policy in New South Wales DET Schools.
Retrieved from https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=llrg

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Villegas, T. (2007). A brief history of special education. Retrieved from
https://www.thinkinclusive.us/brief-history-special-education/
https://fightforfairbridge.net/dracula-the-uqsqkv/27f744-historical-and-sociocultural-
foundation-of-special-and-inclusive-education
https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRPD/Pages/GCRightEducation.aspx

https://www.slideshare.net/hangwanitiassale/guiding-principles-policies-and-legal-bases-of-
special-education

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Making Schools Inclusive

Inclusion in education has traditionally meant making sure students with disabilities are
integrated into general education classrooms to the greatest possible extent. It was a big
deal and a big change when our country implemented the Education for All Handicapped
Children Act of 1975.

Today, inclusion in schools means so much more than this. It means ensuring students from
all backgrounds—regardless of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, race, gender, household
income, or ZIP code—have equal access to education and services.

Creating a school that is truly inclusive starts in each classroom, but it must also be wider in
scope. It requires specific strategies and a shift in culture that is shared and encouraged by
the school administration, teachers, and students.

Why Is Creating an Inclusive School Important?

The legal imperative to provide all students with a free, appropriate, and least-restrictive
education is only the official reason to make inclusion an important part of any school
community. When schools focus on inclusivity, there are several significant benefits for
students that also extend to the community at large.

 Students gain social and community skills. Isolating students in special education
classrooms limits their full range of educational opportunities, including learning and
practicing important social skills.
 Inclusive schools experience fewer absences and behavioral issues. Students
included in the general education classroom develop better self-esteem.
 Inclusive schools lead to greater overall acceptance and tolerance. Students not
traditionally excluded in education also benefit from inclusion.
 All students (and teachers) benefit from a great support system.

A. Creating Inclusive Culture

The Path to Creating an Inclusive School Culture

Here are some elements of an inclusive school culture:

 Inclusion requires a strong commitment to and belief in involving everyone.

 Diversity must be considered a positive attribute and resource, rather than a
challenge or detriment.
 All stakeholders collaborate with all students’ best interests in mind.
 Inclusive schools maintain a solid connection to the community.
 There is zero-tolerance for bullying or exclusion.
 Inclusive schools are willing to innovate and take risks with new ideas.

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B. Producing Inclusive Policies

Although the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the World Bank, the
International Labor Office (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and other
governments with international cooperation programs were also major sponsors of the
international agreements on ―children‘s rights, the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has been a key leader in persuading its member
nations to borrow and adopt its inclusive education policies.

Steps to Writing an Inclusion Policy

There are six steps for developing and implementing an inclusion policy:
Developing Your Inclusion Policy
1. Think about the principles of inclusion
2. Consider language
3. Write an inclusion policy statement based on the principles of inclusion
Implementing Your Inclusion Policy
1. Ensure the other policies, procedures and practices agree with your inclusion policy
2. Get your inclusion policy approved by your board of directors (child care centres and
nursery schools)
3. Review and update the policy and other policies, procedures and practices regularly.

Developing the Inclusion Policy

1. Think about the principles of inclusion. The principles of inclusion are: access,
participation and support. They guide your decisions and actions.

2. Consider language. The words you use in a policy have a significant effect on your
practices.

General Language: Use language that supports the intent of your inclusion policy and
clearly describes your inclusive practice. Use words such as “all,” “every” or “each.”

People-First Language: The person or child should always come first when you refer to a
disability. This focuses attention on the child and his or her abilities, rather than the disability.
For example: use child with autism rather than autistic child.

Strength-Based Language: State your policy in a way that focuses on the abilities of each
child rather than on disabilities. For example, “We welcome children of all abilities.” over “We
welcome children with disabilities.”

Definitions: Terms used in your policy may need to be defined so families and the public
can understand the meaning of your policy. For example: • a child with additional support
needs • adapted equipment • professionals who work with your program. Make sure you are
specific and explain words and concepts.

3. Write an inclusion policy statement based on the principles of inclusion.

The principles of inclusion are access, participation and support. Your inclusion policy
needs to describe each one.

C. Evolving Inclusive Practices

Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that recognises the diversity of students,

enabling all students to access course content, fully participate in learning activities and

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demonstrate their knowledge and strengths at assessment. Inclusive practice values the
diversity of the student body as a resource that enhances the learning experience.

Some of the benefits of inclusive practice include:

 Teaching pupils about diversity and equality.

 Developing student empathy and sensitivity to people who are different from
themselves.
 Improving friendships, confidence, and self-image.
 Providing teachers with additional ways to incorporate problem-solving, teamwork,
and collaboration into their lessons.
 Promoting parental confidence that their children are being accepted and can be
successful in the school setting.

References
https://www.highspeedtraining.co.uk/hub/what-is-inclusive-practice/https://
www.gov.mb.ca/fs/childcare/resources/pubs/writing_inclusion_policy.pdf
https://xqsuperschool.org/rethinktogether/tips-on-creating-an-inclusive-school-and-
why-it-matters/

This is a sweet reminder from Ms. Rizza

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Do this when you feel super stressed, overwhelmed, or tired:

Do this when you feel super stressed, overwhelmed, or tired:

Components of Special Needs Education

The Department of Education (DepED) has organized the urgency to address this problem
and therefore, guarantees the right for these children to receive appropriate education within
the regular or inclusive classroom setting. Inclusive education embraces the philosophy of
accepting all children regardless of race, size, shape, color, ability or disability with support
from school staff, students, parents and the community.

A comprehensive inclusive program for children with special needs has the following
components:

1. Child Find. This is locating where these children are through the family mapping survey,
advocacy campaigns and networking with local health workers.

2. Assessment. This is the continuous process of identifying the strengths and weaknesses
of the child through the use of formal and informal tools for proper program grade placement.

3. Program Options. Regular schools with or without trained SPED teachers shall be
provided educational services to children with special needs. These schools shall access
educational services from SPED Centers or SPED trained teachers.

4. Curriculum Modifications. This shall be implemented in the forms of adaptations and

accommodations to foster optimum learning based on individual’s needs and potentials.
Modification in classroom instructions and activities is a process that involves new ways of
thinking and developing teaching-learning practices. It also involves changes in any of the
steps in the teaching-learning process.

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5. Parental Involvement. This plays a vital role in preparing the children in academic, moral
and spiritual development. Parents shall involve themselves in observing children’s
performance, volunteering to work in the classroom as teacher aide and providing support to
other parents.

Reference

DO 72, s. 2009. Inclusive Education as Strategy for Increasing Participation Rate of

Children. Retrieved from https://www.deped.gov.ph/2009/07/06/do-72-s-2009-
inclusive-education-as-strategy-for-increasing-participation-rate-of-children/

Typical and Atypical Development among Children

Typical development will give generic progress of the child compared to peers of the same
age.
Atypical development occurs when the child appears to lag behind or is way ahead of
same-age peers in any of the different skills.
Typical and Atypical Childhood Development

Birth through 3 Years of Age

Typical Developmental Atypical Development (Missing or

Milestones Not Meeting Anticipated Milestone)

2 MONTHS (Birth to Three Years Old)
Begins to smile at people Doesn’t smile at people

Can briefly calm him/herself (may

SOCIAL AND
bring hands to mouth
EMOTIONAL
and suck on hand)

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 Tries to look at parent

Coos, makes gurgling sounds Doesn’t respond to loud sounds

LANGUAGE AND
COMMUNICATION
Turns head toward sounds Doesn’t smile at people

Pays attention to faces Doesn’t watch things as they move

COGNITIVE
Begins to follow things with eyes
(learning, thinking,
and recognize people at a distance
problem-solving)
Begins to act bored (cries, fussy) if
activity doesn’t change
MOVEMENT AND Can hold head up and begins to
Doesn’t bring hands to mouth
PHYSICAL push up when lying on tummy
DEVELOPMENT Makes smoother movements with Can’t hold head up when pushing up
arms and legs when on tummy

4 MONTHS (Birth to Three Years Old)

Smiles spontaneously, especially

Doesn’t smile at people
at people
Likes to play with people and might
SOCIAL AND
cry when playing stops
EMOTIONAL
Copies some movements and
facial expressions, like smiling or
frowning
Begins to babble Doesn’t coo or make sounds

Babbles with expression and

LANGUAGE AND
copies sounds he/she hears
COMMUNICATION
Cries in different ways to show
hunger, pain, or being tired

Lets you know if he/she is happy

Doesn’t watch things as they move
or sad
Has trouble moving one or both
Responds to affection
eyes in all directions

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 Reaches for toy with one hand
COGNITIVE
(learning, thinking, Uses hands and eyes together,
problem-solving) such as seeing a toy and reaching
for it
Follows moving things with eyes
from side to side
Watches faces closely
Recognizes familiar people and

things at a distance
MOVEMENT AND
PHYSICAL Holds head steady, unsupported Doesn’t bring things to mouth
DEVELOPMENT

Pushes down on legs when feet Doesn’t push down with legs when

are on a hard surface feet are placed on a hard surface

May be able to roll over from

tummy to back

Can hold a toy and shake it and

swing at dangling toys

Brings hands to mouth

When lying on stomach, pushes up

to elbows

6 MONTHS (Birth to Three Years Old)

Knows familiar faces and begins Shows no affection for caregivers

to know if someone is a stranger

Likes to play with others,

SOCIAL AND especially parents

EMOTIONAL

Responds to other people’s

emotions and often seems happy

23
 Likes to look at self in a mirror

Responds to sounds by making Doesn’t make vowel sounds (“ah,”

sounds “eh,” “oh”)

Strings vowels together when Doesn’t laugh or make squealing

babbling (“ah,” “eh,” “oh”) and sounds

likes taking turns with parent while

LANGUAGE AND making sounds

COMMUNICATION Responds to own name Doesn’t respond to sounds

around him/her

Makes sounds to show joy and

displeasure

Begins to say consonant sounds

(jabbering with “m,” “b”)

Looks around at things nearby Has difficulty getting things to

mouth

COGNITIVE Brings things to mouth Doesn’t try to get things that are in

(learning, thinking, reach

problem-solving) Shows curiosity about things and

tries to get things that are out of

reach
Begins to pass things from one

hand to another
MOVEMENT AND
PHYSICAL Rolls over in both directions (front Seems very stiff, with tight
DEVELOPMENT
to back, back to front) muscles

Begins to sit without support Seems very floppy, like a rag doll

When standing, supports weight Doesn’t roll over in either direction

24
 on legs and might bounce

Rocks back and forth, sometimes

crawling backward before moving

forward

9 MONTHS (Birth to Three Years Old)

May be afraid of strangers Doesn’t seem to recognize

familiar people

SOCIAL AND

EMOTIONAL May be clingy with familiar adults

Has favorite toys

Understands “no” Doesn’t babble (“mama,” “baba,”

“dada”)

Makes a lot of different sounds

LANGUAGE AND like “mamamama” and

COMMUNICATION “bababababa”

Copies sounds and gestures of

others

Uses fingers to point at things

Watches the path of something as Doesn’t transfer toys from one

it falls hand to another

Looks for things he/she sees you Doesn’t play any games involving

hide back-and-forth play

COGNITIVE Plays peek-a-boo Doesn’t look where you point

25
 (learning, thinking,

Puts things in their mouth Doesn’t respond to own name

problem-solving)

Moves things smoothly from one

hand to another

Picks up things (like cereal O’s

between thumb and index finger)

Stands, holding on Doesn’t bear weight on legs with

support

MOVEMENT AND Can get into sitting position Doesn’t sit with help

PHYSICAL

Sits without support

DEVELOPMENT

Pulls to stand

Crawls

12 MONTHS | 1 Year of Age (Birth to Three Years Old)

Explores things in different ways, Doesn’t search for things that

like shaking, banging, throwing he/she sees you hide

Finds hidden things easily

Looks at the right picture or thing

when it is named

Copies gestures

COGNITIVE Starts to use things correctly; for

26
 (learning, thinking, example, drinks from a cup,

problem-solving) brushes hair

Bangs two things together

Puts things in a container, takes

things out of a container

Lets things go without help

Pokes with index/pointer finger

Follows simple directions like

“pick up the toy”

Gets to a sitting position without Loses skills he/she once had

help

MOVEMENT AND Pulls up to stand, walks holding Doesn’t crawl

PHYSICAL on to furniture (“cruising”)

DEVELOPMENT May take a few steps without Can’t stand when supported

holding on

May stand alone

2 YEARS OF AGE (Birth to Three Years Old)

Finds things even when hidden Doesn’t know what to do with

under two and three covers common things, like brush,

phone, fork, spoon

Begins to sort shapes and colors

Completes sentences and rhymes

COGNITIVE

in familiar books

(learning, thinking,

problem-solving) Plays simple make-believe games

27
 Builds towers of four or more

blocks

Might use one hand more than

the other

Stands on tiptoe Doesn’t walk steadily

Kicks a ball

Begins to run

Climbs onto and down from

MOVEMENT AND

furniture without help

PHYSICAL

Walks up and down stairs holding

DEVELOPMENT

on

Throws ball overhand

Makes or copies straight lines and

circles

3 YEARS OF AGE (Birth to Three Years Old)

Copies adults and friends Doesn’t want to play with other

children or with toys

Shows affection for friends Doesn’t make eye contact

without prompting

Takes turns in games Loses skills he/she once had

Shows concern for crying friend

SOCIAL AND Understands the idea of “mine”

EMOTIONAL and “his” and “hers”

Shows a wide range of emotions

28
 Separates easily from mom and

dad

May get upset with major

changes in routine

Dresses and undresses self

Follows instructions with two or Drools or has very unclear

three steps speech

Can name most familiar things Doesn’t speak in sentences

Understands words like “in,” “on” Doesn’t understand simple

and “under” instructions

LANGUAGE AND Says first name, age, and sex

COMMUNICATION Names a friend

Says words like “I,” “me,” “we,”

and “you” and some plurals (cars,

dogs, cats)

Talks well enough for strangers to

understand most of the time

Carries on a conversation using

two to three sentences

Can work toys with buttons, Can’t work simple toys (such as

levers, and moving parts peg boards, simple puzzles,

turning handle)

Plays make-believe with dolls, Doesn’t play pretend or make

animals, and people believe

Does puzzles with three or four

COGNITIVE pieces

(learning, thinking, Understands what “two” means

problem-solving) Copies a circle with pencil or

crayon

Turns book pages one at a time

29
 Builds towers of more than six

blocks

Screws and unscrews jar lids or

turns door handle

Climbs well Falls down a lot or has trouble

with stairs

MOVEMENT AND Runs easily

PHYSICAL Pedals a tricycle (three-wheel

DEVELOPMENT bike)

Walks up and down stairs, one

foot on each step

Typical and Atypical Child Development

Early Childhood, Ages 4-5

Atypical Development

Typical Developmental

(Missing or Not Meeting

Milestones

Milestones)

4 YEARS OF AGE (Early Childhood)

30
 Enjoys doing new things.

Plays “Mom” and “Dad.”

Is more and more creative with

make-believe play.

Would rather play with other

children than by his/herself.

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL

Cooperates with other children. Ignores other children or

doesn’t respond to people

outside family.

Often can’t tell what’s real and

what’s make believe.

Talks about what he/she likes

and what he/she is interested in.

Knows some basic rules of Speaks unclearly; doesn’t use

grammar, such as correctly “me” and “you” correctly.

using “he” and “she”.

Sings a song or says a poem

from memory such as the “Itsy

LANGUAGE AND

Bitsy Spider” or the “Wheels on

COMMUNICATION

the Bus.”

Tells stories. Can’t retell a favorite story.

Can say first and last name.

31
 Names some colors and some Generally loses skills once had.

numbers.

Understands the idea of Doesn’t follow three-part

counting. commands.
Starts to understand time.

Remembers parts of a story. Can’t retell a favorite story.

Understands the idea of “same” Doesn’t understand “same” and

COGNITIVE and “different.” “different.”

(learning, thinking, problem- Draws a person with two to four

solving) body parts.

Uses scissors.

Starts to copy some capital

letters.

Plays board or card games. Shows no interest in interactive

games or make believe.

Tells you what he thinks is going

to happen next in a book.

Hops and stands on one foot up Can’t jump in place.

to two seconds.

MOVEMENT AND

Catches a bounced ball most of

PHYSICAL

the time.

DEVELOPMENT

Pours, cuts with supervision, Has trouble scribbling.

and mashes own food.

5 YEARS OF AGE (Early Childhood)

Wants to please friends. Usually withdrawn and not

active.

32
 Wants to be like friends. Doesn't respond to people, or

responds only superficially.

More likely to agree with rules.

Likes to sing, dance, and act.

Shows concern and sympathy Doesn’t show wide range

for others. emotions.

Is aware of gender.

SOCIAL AND

Can tell what’s real and what’s Can't tell what's real and what's

EMOTIONAL

make-believe. make-believe (also Cognitive).

Shows more independence (for

example, may visit a next-door

neighbor by himself, even

though adult supervision is still

needed).

Is sometimes demanding and Shows wide range behaviors

sometimes very cooperative. (usually fearful, aggressive shy,

or sad).

Speaks very clearly. Doesn't talk about daily

activities.

LANGUAGE AND Tells a simple story using full

COMMUNICATION sentences.

Uses future tense; for example, Doesn't use plural or past tense

“Grandma will be here.” properly.

Says name and address. Can't give first and last name.

Counts 10 or more things. Loses skills once had.

Can draw a person with at least Doesn't draw pictures.

six body parts.

Can print some letters or Is easily distracted, has trouble

33
 COGNITIVE numbers. focusing on one activity for more

(learning, thinking, than 5 minutes.

problem-solving) Copies a triangle and other Doesn't play a variety of games

geometric shapes. and activities.

Knows about things used every Can't tell what's real and what's

day, like money and food. make believe (also Social and

Emotional).

Stands on one foot for 10 Can't brush teeth, wash and dry

seconds or longer. hands, or get undressed without

help.

MOVEMENT AND Hops and may be able to skip.

PHYSICAL Can do a somersault.

DEVELOPMENT Uses a fork and spoon and

sometimes a table knife.

Can use the toilet on her own.

Swings and climbs.

Typical and Atypical Child Development

Middle Childhood, Ages 6-10
Atypical Development
Typical Developmental
(Missing or Not Meeting
Milestones
Milestones)

6-8 YEARS OF AGE (Middle Childhood)

Shows more independence from Plays best with younger children.
parents and family.
Starts to think about the future.
Understands more about his or her
SOCIAL AND
place in the world.
EMOTIONAL
Pays more attention to friendships
and teamwork.
Wants to be liked and accepted by
friends.
LANGUAGE AND Speaks only in two- to three-word
sentences, even in his native

34
COMMUNICATION
language of Spanish.
Shows rapid development of Can only follow single step
cognitive processing (mental) directions.
skills.
THINKING AND Learns better ways to describe Can occasionally label what he
LEARNING experiences and talk about sees.
thoughts and feelings.
Has less focus on one’s self and
more concern for others.
Needs physical help with bathing
MOVEMENT AND
and brushing teeth.
PHYSICAL
Has physical delays in activities
DEVELOPMENT like catching a ball and hopping.
Shows more independence from Is frequently aggressive, including
parents and family. times when there is no apparent
provocation.
Starts to think about the future. Has behavioral outbursts that are
severe.

SOCIAL AND
Understands more about his or her Needs constant supervision.
EMOTIONAL
place in the world.
Pays more attention to friendships Is withdrawn from peers.
and teamwork.
Wants to be liked and accepted by
friends.
Shows rapid development of Needs a modified curriculum at
cognitive processing (mental) school.
skills.
Learns better ways to describe Has a low IQ. Although the profile
THINKING AND
experiences and talk about does not provide his Full Scale IQ,
LEARNING
thoughts and feelings. his subtest IQs are below 70.
Has less focus on one’s self and Needs small group or one-on-one
more concern for others. instruction at school, as he
struggles in larger groups.

9-10 YEARS OF AGE (Middle Childhood)

Starts to form stronger, more

complex friendships and peer

relationships. It becomes more

emotionally important to have

35
 friends, especially of the same sex.

SOCIAL AND

Experiences more peer pressure.

EMOTIONAL

Becomes more aware of his or her

body as puberty approaches. Body

image and eating problems

sometimes start around this age.

Faces more academic challenges Is experiencing problems with

at school. comprehension and memory.

Becomes more independent from Is unable to keep pace with the

the family. regular academic curriculum, and

his academic achievement is

THINKING AND lagging.

LEARNING Begins to see the point of view of Has receptive language

others more clearly. challenges, which are especially

notable when compared to his

expressive skills on testing.

Has an increased attention span.

MOVEMENT AND Needs physical help with dressing,

PHYSICAL bowel care, and bladder care.

DEVELOPMENT Has limited mobility.

11-13 YEARS OF AGE (Middle/Teenage Years)

Could show more concern about body Has difficulty with reciprocal

image, looks, and clothes. conversations and often

mimics rather than

36
 communicating with intent.

Shows more focus on themselves: Is unable to speak in long

vacillating between high expectations sentences and may mix

and lack of confidence. pronouns.

Experiences more moodiness.

Shows more interest in and influence by

peer group.

SOCIAL AND

Can express less affection toward

EMOTIONAL

parents; sometimes might seem rude or

short-tempered.

Can feel stress from more challenging

schoolwork.

May be at greater risk for developing

eating problems.

May be more inclined to feel sadness or

experience depression, which can have

impacts on other areas of life.

Has greater ability for complex thought, Is significantly below grade

demonstrating a shift from concrete to level expectations

THINKING AND abstract thinking. Also demonstrates an academically.

LEARNING increased attention span.

Is better able to express feelings through

talking.

11-13 YEARS OF AGE (Middle/Teenage Years)

Develops a stronger sense of right and Has reached a plateau in

wrong skill development and is now

demonstrating a loss of skills

37
 she once had.

Begins to see the point of view of others

more clearly.

Has an increased attention span.

Is physically active. Might join a team Needs physical help with

sport or take up an individual sport. self-care skills.

Puberty plays an important role, though

every child develops at different rates

MOVEMENT AND between 8 and 18.

PHYSICAL Growth spurts may cause clumsiness

DEVELOPMENT and lack of coordination

Becomes more aware of his or her own

sexuality and the sexuality of others.

May experience increased appetite and

the need for sleep.

Typical and Atypical Child Development

Adolescence-Transition to Adult Life, Ages 14-21
Typical Developmental Atypical Developmental for Sam at

Milestones 14 Years Old

14-21 YEARS OF AGE (Teenage to Young Adult
Years)

Has more interest in the opposite Is not invited to do things after school
sex. or on weekends. Appears to have
limited peer connections and relies on
his parents for his social connections
Goes through less conflict with Shows inappropriate behavior in
parents. public as well as at home, including
masturbating in public and lifting his
shirt.
SOCIAL AND Shows more independence from
EMOTIONAL parents.
Has a deeper capacity for caring
and sharing and for developing
more intimate relationships.
Spends less time with parents
and more time with friends.

38
 Can experience sadness or
depression, which can lead to
other problems.
Speaks in short sentences of only
three to five words. Strangers may
LANGUAGE AND
struggle to understand him if he is
COMMUNICATION
speaking about something without
context.
Learns more defined work habits. Has a low IQ.
Shows more concern about Is below grade level and has a limited
THINKING AND future school and work plans. ability to read.
LEARNING Is better able to give reasons for Needs clothes fasteners adapted for
their own choices, including him to be able to dress.
about what is right or wrong.

Most girls will be physically Needs clothes fasteners adapted for

mature at this stage, while boys him to be able to dress.

MOVEMENT AND may still be maturing physically.

PHYSICAL Most children will reach or are

DEVELOPMENT close to reaching their adult

height and weight at this age.

Capable of having children.

Has more interest in the opposite Unable to complete his

sex. responsibilities at home because

his parents have substantially

reduced demands on him in order

to avoid his outbursts at being

requested to do things.

Goes through less conflict with Has been increasingly aggressive

parents. with his peers and family.

Shows more independence from Has been increasingly aggressive

SOCIAL AND parents. with his peers and family.

EMOTIONAL Has a deeper capacity for caring Requires supervision at school

and sharing and for developing due to behavioral issues.

more intimate relationships.

39
 Spends less time with parents and Frequently runs away, running

more time with friends. from home, school and other

activities one to three times

weekly.

Can experience sadness or Unable to participate in activities

depression, which can lead to both at school and at home.

other problems.

Learns more defined work habits.

Shows more concern about future

school and work plans.

THINKING AND

IS better able to give reasons for At home, is unable to do activities

LEARNING

their own choices, including about independently and needs regular

what is right or wrong. supervision.

Most girls will be physically mature Although he appears capable of

at this stage, while boys may still self-care, like bathing, brushing his

be maturing physically. teeth and changing his clothes, he

carries out these activities

irregularly, sometimes only bathing

MOVEMENT AND

and brushing his teeth two to three

PHYSICAL

times a month and changing his

DEVELOPMENT

clothes only once a week.

Most children will reach or are

close to reaching their adult height

40
 and weight at this age.

Capable of having children.

Has more interest in the opposite Needs restrictions to limit her

sex. access to food.

Goes through less conflict with Always has had obsessive food-

parents. seeking behavior, but it has

recently reached a new level of

intensity.

Shows more independence from Has very limited and often

parents. negative interaction with her peers.

SOCIAL AND

Has a deeper capacity for caring Has begun demonstrating

EMOTIONAL

and sharing and for developing behavioral outbursts both and

more intimate relationships. home and in the community.

Spends less time with parents and Demonstrates obsessive behavior

more time with friends. including talking incessantly and

picking at her skin

Can experience sadness or

depression, which can lead to

other problems.

LANGUAGE AND

COMMUNICATION

Learns more defined work habits. Struggles academically and

receives special education

instruction.

Shows more concern about future

school and work plans.
THINKING AND
LEARNING

41
 Is better able to give reasons for

their own choices, including about

what is right or wrong.

Most girls will be physically mature

at this stage, while boys may still

MOVEMENT AND be maturing physically.

PHYSICAL Most children will reach or are

DEVELOPMENT close to reaching their adult height

and weight at this age.

Capable of having children.

Has more interest in the opposite Engages in self-harming behavior,

sex. including cutting and meeting men

whom she has met on the Internet.

Goes through less conflict with Is at high risk for suicide.

parents.

Shows more independence from Has threatened to kill her parents.

parents. Even though she has not acted on

these threats, she is often verbally

intimidating toward them.

SOCIAL AND

Has a deeper capacity for caring Needs constant supervision

EMOTIONAL

and sharing and for developing

more intimate relationships.

Spends less time with parents and Has limited peer connections

more time with friends.

42
 Can experience sadness or Although she can manage self-

depression, which can lead to care independently, she has

other problems. become more lax in personal

hygiene and has to be reminded to

take showers.

LANGUAGE AND

COMMUNICATION

Learns more defined work habits.

Shows more concern about future

school and work plans.

THINKING AND

Is better able to give reasons for

LEARNING

their own choices, including about

what is right or wrong.

Most girls will be physically mature

at this stage, while boys may still

MOVEMENT AND be maturing physically.

PHYSICAL Most children will reach or are

DEVELOPMENT close to reaching their adult height

and weight at this age.

Capable of having children.

Has more interest in the opposite Has very limited peer relationships
sex.

Goes through less conflict with Is unable to determine safe or

parents. unsafe situations and will wander
off
Show more independence from Needs constant supervision
SOCIAL AND parents.
Has a deeper capacity for caring

43
 EMOTIONAL
and sharing and for developing
more intimate relationships.
Spends less time with parents and
more time with friends.

Can experience sadness or

depression, which can lead to
other problems.
LANGUAGE AND
COMMUNICATION
Learns more defined work habits. Needs assistance in managing
and learning life skills
Shows more concern about future Is able to self-care—bathing,
school and work plans. dressing, toileting—but only with
step by step cueing
THINKING AND
Is highly sensitive to loud sounds,
LEARNING
which inhibits his ability to
participate in certain activities
Is better able to give reasons for
their own choices, including about
what is right or wrong.
Most girls will be physically mature
at this stage, while boys may still
MOVEMENT AND be maturing physically.
PHYSICAL Most children will reach or are
DEVELOPMENT close to reaching their adult height
and weight at this age.
Capable of having children.

References
Books, S. 2020 .What Is the Difference between Typical & Atypical Children?
Retrieved from https://www.moms.com/typical-atypical-children-difference/
https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/library/mod3-matrices.htm

44
What 'special educational needs' means
'Special educational needs' is a legal definition and refers to children with learning problems
or disabilities that make it harder for them to learn than most children the same age.
A. Learners who are Gifted and Talented
"The term ‘gifted and talented,” when used with respect to students, children, or
youth, means youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in such areas
as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields,
and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to
fully develop those capabilities." 

Students Who Have Higher Ability

Students of high ability, often referred to as gifted students, present a unique challenge to
teachers.
Characteristics of Gifted Students

Gifted students exhibit several common characteristics, as outlined in the following list. As in
the case of learning disabled students, giftedness usually means a combination of factors in
varying degrees and amounts. According to Teacher Vision, a gifted student …
 Has a high level of curiosity.
 Has a well-developed imagination.
 Often gives uncommon responses to common queries.
 Can remember and retain a great deal of information.
 Can not only pose original solutions to common problems but can also pose original
problems, too.

45
  Has the ability to concentrate on a problem or issue for extended periods of time.
 Is capable of comprehending complex concepts.
 Is well organized.
 Is excited about learning new facts and concepts.
 Is often an independent learner.

Teaching Gifted Students

Keep some of these instructional strategies in mind:

 Allow gifted students to design and follow through on self-initiated projects.

 Provide gifted students with lots of open-ended activities—activities for which there
are no right or wrong answers or any preconceived notions.
 Keep the emphasis on divergent thinking—helping gifted students focus on many
possibilities rather than any set of predetermined answers.
 Provide opportunities for gifted youngsters to engage in active problem-solving.
 Encourage gifted students to take on leadership roles that enhance portions of the
classroom program (Note: gifted students are often socially immature.)
 Provide numerous opportunities for gifted students to read extensively about subjects
that interest them.
 Provide numerous long-term and ex-tended activities that allow gifted students the
opportunity to engage in a learning project over an extended period of time.

B. Learners with Difficulty Seeing

A visual impairment is any visual condition that impacts an individual’s ability to
successfully complete the activities of everyday life.
Low vision – students use their vision as their primary sensory channel
Functionally blind – students can use limited vision for functional tasks but need their
tactile and auditory channels for learning
Totally blind – students use tactile and auditory channels for learning and functional tasks
A third classification system exists is based on the advent of the visual impairment itself:
Congenital – occurs during fetal development, at birth or immediately following birth; visual
impairment is present before visual memory has been established
Adventitious – occurs after having normal vision either through a hereditary condition or
trauma; visual memory may remain.
Characteristics
Visual impairment is essentially an umbrella term used to describe the loss of sight that can
be a consequence of a number of different medical conditions. Some common causes of
visual impairment are glaucoma, retinopathy of prematurity, cataracts, retinal detachment,
macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, cortical visual impairment, infection and trauma.

46
Impact on Learning
One characteristic that is shared by all students with visual impairment is that these students
have a limited ability to learn incidentally from their environment. It is through sight that much
of what we learn is received and processed.

Children with visual impairments must be taught compensatory skills and adaptive
techniques in order to be able to acquire knowledge from methods other than sight. The
presence of a visual impairment can potentially impact the normal sequence of learning in
social, motor, language and cognitive developmental areas.

Students with visual impairments can learn at roughly the same rate as other children but
require direct interventions to develop understanding of the relationships between people
and objects in their environment.

Teaching Strategies

Classroom accommodations will be quite varied and should be individualized according to

the specific needs of the student.

One thing to always consider is that it is often difficult for these students to become as fully
independent as they are capable of being.

Adapting your classroom to accommodate a student with a visual impairment is a relatively

easy task—it just requires an awareness of the student’s level of visual functioning (how the
student sees) and how the student works and learns.

One key accommodation that is absolutely essential is access to textbooks and instructional
materials in the appropriate media and at the same time as their sighted peers. For students
who are blind this may mean braille and/or recorded media. For the student with low vision,
this may mean large print text or the use of optical devices to access text and/or recorded
media while in class. Working closely with a student’s teacher of students with visual
impairments in advance helps ensure accessible materials and availability of these materials
in a timely manner.

Assistive Technology
Students with visual impairments must be trained in the use of a number of adaptive
devices, methods, and equipment that are collectively referred to as assistive technology.
Some examples:

Computer adaptations:
 Braille translation software and equipment: converts print into braille and braille into print.
 Braille printer: connects to a computer and embosses braille on paper.
 Screen reader: converts text on a computer screen to audible speech.
 Screen enlargement software: increases the size of text and images on a computer
screen.
 Refreshable braille display: converts text on computer to braille by an output device
connected to the computer.

Adaptive devices:

47
 Braille notetakers: lightweight electronic note-taking device that can be connected to a
printer or a braille embosser to produce a printed or brailled copy.
 Optical character reader: converts printed text into files on a computer that can be
translated into audible speech or Braille with appropriate equipment and software.
 Electronic braillewriter: produces braille, translates braille into text or synthetic speech.
 Talking calculators: calculates with voice output.

Optical devices:
 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV): enlarges an image to a larger size and projects it on a
screen
 Magnifiers: enlarges images
 Telescopes: used to view distant objects
A specially trained teacher of students with visual impairments can help supply many of
these devices and can provide training for the student to become independent and proficient
in using assistive technology.

C. Learners with Difficulty Communicating

The ability to communicate with others is critical to a young child's development and it is a
prerequisite to academic learning, yet some children have disorders that interfere with
various aspects of their abilities to communicate.

What is a Communication Disorder?

A communication disorder may occur in the realm of language, speech and/or hearing.
Language difficulties include spoken language, reading and/or writing difficulties. Speech
encompasses such areas as articulation and phonology (the ability to speak clearly and be
intelligible), fluency (stuttering), and voice. Hearing difficulties may also encompass speech
problems (e.g., articulation or voice) and/or language problems. Hearing impairments include
deafness and hearing loss, which can result from a conductive loss, a sensorineural loss, a
mixed loss, or a central hearing loss. Communication disorders may result from many
different conditions.
Characteristics of Children with Communication Disorders
These may include difficulty following directions, attending to a conversation, pronouncing
words, perceiving what was said, expressing oneself, or being understood because of a
stutter or a hoarse voice.
Educational Implications of Communications Disorders
Language and communication proficiency, along with academic success, depend on
whether students can match their communications to the learning-teaching style of the
classroom. Students with communication disorders are capable of high academic success if
they learn the classroom's social, language, and learning patterns. Teachers and speech-
language pathologists should focus their attention on classroom interactions and the
language and communications used within the school in order to help students learn to
communicate in these environments.
D. Learners with Difficulty in Hearing

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Hearing impairment is defined by IDEA as “an impairment in hearing, whether permanent
or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.”
Deafness is defined as “a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in
processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification.”
Types of Hearing Loss
Before we describe the types of hearing loss a person may have, it’s useful to know that
sound is measured by:

 its loudness or intensity (measured in units called decibels, dB); and

 its frequency or pitch (measured in units called hertz, Hz).
Hearing loss is generally described as slight, mild, moderate, severe, or profound,
depending upon how well a person can hear the intensities or frequencies most strongly
associated with speech. Impairments in hearing can occur in either or both areas, and may
exist in only one ear or in both ears. Generally, only children whose hearing loss is greater
than 90 decibels (dB) are considered deaf.
Signs of a Hearing Loss or Deafness
There are signs that a child may not be hearing normally. Parents may notice that their child:

 does not respond consistently to sounds or to his or her own name;

 asks for things to be repeated or often says “huh?”
 is delayed in developing speech or has unclear speech;
 turns the volume up loud on the TV and other electronic devices. (CDC, 2012)
Hearing loss and deafness can be either:

 acquired, meaning that the loss occurred after birth, due to illness or injury; or
 congenital, meaning that the hearing loss or deafness was present at birth.
Educational Implications
Hearing loss or deafness does not affect a person’s intellectual capacity or ability to learn.
Such services may include:

 regular speech, language, and auditory training from a specialist;

 amplification systems;
 services of an interpreter for those students who use sign language;\
 favorable seating in the class to facilitate lip reading;
 captioned films/videos;
 assistance of a notetaker, who takes notes for the student with a hearing loss, so that
the student can fully attend to instruction;
 instruction for the teacher and peers in alternate communication methods, such as
sign language; and
 Counselling.
Children who are hard of hearing will find it much more difficult than children who have
normal hearing to learn vocabulary, grammar, word order, idiomatic expressions, and other
aspects of verbal communication. For children who are deaf or have severe hearing losses,
early, consistent, and conscious use of visible communication modes (such as sign

49
language, fingerspelling, and Cued Speech) and/or amplification and aural/oral training can
help reduce this language delay.
By age four or five, most children who are deaf are enrolled in school on a full-day basis and
do special work on communication and language development. Parents work with school
personnel to develop an individualized education program (IEP) that details the child’s
special needs and the services and supports that will be provided to meet those needs.
IDEA requires that the IEP team address the communication needs of a child who is deaf or
hard of hearing.
People with hearing loss use oral or manual means of communication or a combination of
the two. Oral communication includes speech, lip reading, and the use of residual hearing.
Manual communication involves signs and fingerspelling. Total Communication, as a method
of instruction, is a combination of the oral method plus signing and fingerspelling.(Parent
Information and Resources, 2015)

Assessment
Professionals working with students who use sign as their primary mode of communication
and who are not fluent in that language or system themselves may require the services of an
educational interpreter. Professionals should be certain that the educational interpreter is
skilled in the sign language or system the student uses to communicate, familiar with the
assessment process and instrument, and understands the importance of confidentiality
(Gilbertson & Ferre, 2008; Maller & Braden, 2011; Wood & Dockrell, 2010). Finally,
whenever possible, professionals should use a combination of procedures and instruments
and avoid relying on a single test or assessment (Gilbertson & Ferre, 2008; Luckner &
Bowen, 2006; Maller & Braden, 2011; Wood & Dockrell, 2010).
Assistive Technology
Students who are deaf or hard of hearing use an array of hearing AT to access sound.
Examples include:

 Programmable digital hearing aids;

 Bone-anchored hearing aids (BAHA);
 Contralateral-routing-of-signal (CROS) hearing aids;
 Tactile communication devices;
 Personally worn, frequency-modulated (FM) amplification systems;
 Classroom amplification systems; and
 Accompanying peripherals such as microphones, Earmolds, and chargers.
Communication
This may cause delays in the development of language, which may adversely impact
academic, social, emotional, and career development (e.g., Calderon & Greenberg, 2003;
Mayberry, 2010).
To promote communication and language development, three general approaches have
been commonly used:
(a) Oral methods—the use of hearing AT, such as cochlear implants and hearing aids,
along with training to learn to use residual hearing and speech read;

50
(b) Manual methods—the use of ASL, a visual-gestural language that has its own grammar
and syntax; and
(c) Simultaneous communication methods—signs are produced in the same order as
spoken words and at the same time as the words are spoken.
E. Learners with Difficulty in Walking/Moving
A physical disability is a condition that substantially limits one or more basic physical
activities in life (i.e. walking, climbing stairs, reaching, carrying, or lifting). These limitations
hinder the person from performing tasks of daily living. Physical disabilities are highly
individualized. The same diagnosis can affect students very differently.
Mobility Impairment describes any difficulty which limits functions of moving in any of the
limbs or in fine motor abilities. Mobility Disabilities can stem from a wide range of causes and
be permanent, intermittent, or temporary. The most common permanent disabilities are
musculoskeletal impairments such as partial or total paralysis, amputation, spinal injury,
arthritis, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and traumatic brain injury.
Types
1. Cerebral Palsy (CP) affects the largest group of students with Orthopedic Impairments in
public schools. It occurs when there is an injury to the brain before, during, or after birth and
results in poor motor coordination and unusual motor patterns. There are four main types of
cerebral palsy.
 Spastic: The most common form of CP is when there is too much muscle tone or
tightness. An individual with Spastic
CP generally has stiff or jerky movements in one’s legs, arms, and/or back.

 Dykinetic: Affects the entire bodily movement of an individual and slow and
uncontrollable body movements normally occur.
 Ataxic: Involves poor coordination, balance, and perception.
 Mixed: Involves a combination of symptoms from the three types above.
2. Muscular Dystrophy occurs when voluntary muscles progressively weaken and
degenerate until they no longer function. The onset of Muscular Dystrophy can occur
anytime between the ages of one to adulthood and is believed to be hereditary.
3. Spinal Muscular Atrophy is a disease that affects the spinal cord and may result in
progressive degeneration of the motor nerve cells. The severity runs from mild weakness to
characteristics similar to muscular dystrophy. Spinal Muscular Atrophy is characterized in
general by fatigue and clumsiness.
4. Spinal Cord Injuries occur when the spinal cord is severely damaged or severed, usually
resulting in partial or extensive paralysis. Spinal cord injuries are most commonly a result of
an automobile or other vehicle accident. The characteristics and needs of individuals with
spinal cord injuries are often similar to those with cerebral palsy. Injuries to the spinal cord
cause different types of mobility impairments, depending on the areas of the spine affected.
 Quadriplegia refers to the loss of function nto arms, legs, and trunk. Students with
quadriplegia have limited or no use of their arms and hands and often use motorized
wheelchairs.
 Paraplegia refers to the loss of function to the lower extremities and the lower trunk.
Students with paraplegia typically use a manual wheelchair and have full movement
of arms and hands.

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5. Multiple Sclerosis is a progressive disorder where the nerve impulses to the muscles are
short circuited by scar tissue. Initially mild problems may occur but as the attacks continue, a
person may develop a multitude of problems.
6. Rheumatoid Arthritis causes general fatigue and stiffness and aching of joints. Students
who are affected by this may have trouble being in one position for a length of time.
7. Degenerative Diseases are comprised of a number of diseases which affect a person’s
motor development (ex. Musculoskeletal, Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis, Muscular Dystrophy

Common Accommodations
The following accommodations and classroom adaptations are a list of suggested
accommodations, but are not comprehensive or exhaustive, nor will all accommodations
listed be necessary in all cases. Other accommodations may be implemented based on the
individual needs of each student as recommended by your campus Disability Services Office
or other professionals.

Common Characteristics of a
Commonly Suggested
Student with Physical
Accommodations/Classroom Adaptations
Disabilities

Has unique needs in terms of

physical space or has difficulty Create a physically accessible environment that is
using chairs/tables in the not mobility-limited.
classroom/lab.

Be flexible with the schedule. Students may arrive

Student needs specialized
late or have to leave before the class is over due
transportation.
to adapted transportation services.

Replace written exams or assignments with an

Is often physically unable to
oral exam or presentation.
hold a pen and write for
Use of note takers.
extended periods of time or may
Use of assistive technology (e.g., computer,
experience challenges with
assistive software, mini recorder, etc.). 5
input, output, and information
Use of a scribe or speech-to-text software to
processing when working on
record answers on tests/exams.
assignments, tests, and/or
Provide a room other than the classroom for
exams.
exams if required.

Student has difficulty finishing

Extra time for tests/exams and perhaps some
assignments and/or tests in
components of coursework.
allotted time.

Experiences fatigue and limited When speaking to a person who uses a

mobility when speaking to a wheelchair for a long period of time, avoid the
person for a long period of time. need for them to strain in order to look up at you
by sitting beside or leaning toward them during the
conversation, in order for them to avoid

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Common Characteristics of a
Commonly Suggested
Student with Physical
Accommodations/Classroom Adaptations
Disabilities

experiencing fatigue and/or pain.

Provide digital copies of texts. (It is very important

Requires extra time to obtain
to provide students with a complete list of
formats compatible with
reference documents as early as possible or prior
assistive technology.
to the start of the semester).

Feels excluded during group

Make sure that the person is always included with
exercises or has difficulty
others when forming groups.
moving around the classroom.

To reduce fatigue of students with physical

disability, it may be helpful to limit the number of
Expends a great deal of energy exams on a given day or week. Extra time should
to complete daily tasks. be planned for oral reports on occasion if the
person has diction problems.
Perhaps suggest a reduced course load.

Ensure all off-site activities are accessible or

provide alternative assignment options.
Experiences challenges with
Individuals with a motor disability sometimes use a
daily living activities and
service animal, which is usually trained to respond
mobility.
to unique commands. (It is preferable to ask
permission before you pet the service animal).

Teaching Strategies
There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but there
are some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes students with
physical impairment.
Below are some further suggestions:

 Students who use wheelchairs, callipers or crutches, or who tire easily, may find it
difficult moving about within the constraints of lecture timetables. Absence or
lateness may be a result of the distance between teaching venues, so at the end of a
lecture you may need to recap any information given at the beginning.
 Check that academic activities which take place off-campus (such as industry visits,
interviews or fieldwork) are accessible to people with a mobility disability. Consider
supplementary laboratory practicals, films or videos as alternative options to field
trips.
 Students with a mobility disability may sometimes wish to use their own furniture,
such as ergonomic chairs or sloped writing tables. Extra space may need to be
created in teaching rooms, but this should be done unobtrusively.

53
  Some students with back problems may prefer to stand in lectures or classes, rather
than sit.
 Some students may need to use a tape recorder or note-taker in lectures. Extra time
is involved in processing information acquired in this way. It is common practice in
some departments to routinely tape all lectures. This is a practice which will assist a
variety of students, including those who may be absent from time to time because of
their disability.
 Students may need extensions to deadlines for work involving locating and using
library resources. Provide reading lists well before the start of a course so that
reading can begin early.
 Academic isolation may be an issue for students who are unable to participate in
some class activities. One-to-one sessions with a tutor may help fill this gap in
participation.

Assessment Strategies

Students with a mobility disability may need particular adjustments to assessment tasks.
Once you have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on performance you can
consider alternative assessment strategies, such as those suggested below:
 A reader or an oral examination (either presenting answers on tape or participating in a viva)
are alternatives to the conventional written paper. An oral examination is not an easy option
for students. Give the same time for an oral examination as for a written exam, but allow
extra time for the student to listen to and refine or edit responses.
 For some students the combination of written and oral examination will be most appropriate.
Allow students to write answer plans or make outline notes, but then to answer the question
orally.
 Students may need to use a personal computer or a personal assistant in an examination. If
so, it may be necessary to provide extra space for equipment, or a separate examination
venue if the noise from equipment (e.g. a voice synthesiser) is likely to be distracting for
other students.
 Provide extra time in examinations for students who have reduced writing speed. Some
students with a mobility disability may need rest breaks. Take-home examinations and split
papers may be options, given that some students may need double time to complete
examinations.
 Allow extensions to assignment deadlines if extensive research involving physical activity
(e.g. frequent trips to the library or collection of data from dispersed locations) is required.
F. Learners with Difficulty in Remembering/Focusing
The official terms that are often used for children who have difficulty remaining focused on a
task that they are capable of doing are Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
ADD refers to a child who is not acting out or moving around, and can even look attentive
during a task, but is generally absorbed in his/her own thoughts and daydreams to the point
that he/she gets little done in the amount of time allotted.

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A child who is thought to be ADHD is generally hyperactive. This child has a motor that is
always running that he/she seems incapable of controlling. He/she does everything in a
hurry, and some part of his/her body always appears to be moving, which keeps him/her
quite distracted.
The hyperactive child (not just hyper-fidgety), is usually easy to spot in a group. The
inattentive child, on the other hand, is not easy to spot. This child just appears to be slow in
finishing work, or in following directions. He or she may seem lazy or uncooperative.
In a home school setting we do not have to focus on labels or official diagnoses most of the
time. We just need to see if the child we are working with exhibits enough symptoms to
warrant further exploration on this topic. In home schooling we can focus on the solution,
rather than a label. Since learning is all about energy output, we ask ourselves why a child
has to expend more energy to remain focused on a task than his or her siblings. Once this
question is answered, then the action becomes clear.
Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Disorder/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
According to the criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th
ed., rev.) (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), to be diagnosed as having ADD/ADHD,
the clinician must note the presence of at least 6 of the 9 following criteria for either Attention
Span or Hyperactivity/Impulsivity.

Attention span criteria

 Pays little attention to details; makes careless mistakes

 Has short attention span
 Does not listen when spoken to directly
 Does not follow instructions; fails to finish tasks
 Has difficulty organizing tasks
 Avoids tasks that require sustained mental effort
 Loses things
 Is easily distracted
 Is forgetful in daily activities

Hyperactivity criteria

 Fidgets; squirms in seat

 Leaves seat in classroom when remaining seated is expected
 Often runs about or climbs excessively at inappropriate times
 Has difficulty playing quietly
 Talks excessively

Impulsivity criteria

 Blurts out answers before questions are completed

 Has difficulty awaiting turn
 Often interrupts or intrudes on others

Successful programs for children with ADHD integrate the following three
components:
1. Accommodations: what you can do to make learning easier for students with ADHD.
2. Instruction: the methods you use in teaching.

55
 3. Intervention: How you head off behaviors that disrupt concentration or distract other
students.

Establishing the proper learning environment

 Seat students with ADD near the teacher's desk, but include them as part of the
regular class seating.
 Place these students up front with their backs to the rest of the class to keep other
students out of view.
 Surround students with ADD with good role models.
 Encourage peer tutoring and cooperative/collaborative learning.
 Avoid distracting stimuli. Try not to place students with ADD near air conditioners,
high traffic areas, heaters, or doors or windows.
 Children with ADD do not handle change well, so avoid transitions, physical
relocation (monitor them closely on field trips), changes in schedule, and disruptions.
 Be creative! Produce a stimuli-reduced study area. Let all students have access to
this area so the student with ADD will not feel different.
 Encourage parents to set up appropriate study space at home, with set times and
routines established for study, parental review of completed homework, and periodic
notebook and/or book bag organization.
Teaching Strategies for Students with ADHD
You must make reasonable adjustments for a child with ADHD. This will help to better their
chances of success and reduce the number of classroom disruptions. Below are some of the
most effective strategies and adjustments you should make.
1. Build a Strong Relationship with the Child’s Parents
It’s incredibly important that you establish a strong working relationship with the student’s
parents. They know their child better than anyone and are a valuable source of information
about which strategies do and don’t work.
Ask about the child’s strengths, weaknesses, interests, and achievements outside of school.
This will help you get to know the child better, which is especially important. You should aim
to communicate with the child’s parents frequently, and send encouraging notes home about
progress.
2. Educate Fellow Pupils
If a child in your class had ADHD, you should educate the other children in the classroom on
the condition. You must ensure you frame it positively to reduce potential cases of bullying.
Consider allowing the child to get involved in the explanation and tell other students what it’s
like.
3. Establish Effective Seating Arrangements
You should sit the child with ADHD near to you – this will help you monitor if they are on
track. You could also sit them in an area with few distractions, such as away from doors,
windows, and noisy students.
A useful tip is to sit the child close to a pencil sharpener and a bin. When they need to
expend some energy, they can get up to sharpen their pencil as much as they like.
4. Establish Rules and Routines

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With input from your students, establish short and simple classroom rules that are easy to
understand. Frame all rules positively – tell students what you want them to do, rather than
what you don’t want.
For example, instead of saying “No messing around when you come into class”, say
something like “When you come into class, sit straight down.”
Make routines and stick to them. This can help a student with ADHD to stay on task and
reduce distracting changes. Routines do not have to be fully planned out – something as
small as always writing the homework task on the whiteboard can be an effective routine.
5. Be Simple, Clear, and Direct
You should give directions in simple terms and simplify all instructions, tasks, and
assignments to the best of your ability. You should also ensure that you have the child’s full
attention before issuing any instructions. Be patient and prepared to repeat instructions
frequently.
Simplicity, clearness, and directness shouldn’t just be adopted verbally. Establish eye
contact to clearly indicate to the child that you are speaking to them. Also consider
displaying visual cues around the classroom to help keep the pupil on task.
6. Break Things Up
Divide lessons and large projects up into smaller chunks, and vary both your content and
materials. For example, use workbooks, games, and electronic devices (if you have access
to these). This is more likely to keep a child focused and decrease some traits of
inattentiveness.
7. Allow Extensions
You should give extensions on homework tasks to a child who has ADHD, and modify the
tasks you set to accommodate the child’s needs. For example, make the task more fun or
carefully list step-by-step how to complete the activity. You could also use a homework book
to help the student organise their work and keep track of their progress.
8. Reward Good Behaviour
It’s very likely that a child with ADHD will lack self-esteem and believe that they are simply
naughty. Use a reward system, like stickers or a point’s chart, to encourage and reward
appropriate behaviours.
Try to allow a student with ADHD some extra time to complete tests.
9. Make Tasks Interactive
Where possible, make tasks and activities interactive – for example use whiteboards rather
than always writing in workbooks. Ask the child with ADHD to hand out the whiteboards –
this will help expend some energy and make them feel that they have an important role in
the classroom.
A child with ADHD may have difficulty sitting still and may suffer from exclusion and rejection
from their peers. Therefore, it can be good to encourage physical activities in your class that
all children can participate in equally. For example, you could ask your students to do some
star-jumps after completing a piece of work. This helps refresh them and proves especially
beneficial to a child who needs to burn off some energy.

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10. Create a Quiet Area
Consider creating a quiet area that the student can use if they feel overwhelmed by the
activity in the classroom. Make this area multi-functional: it can be used to sit down and have
some quiet time, or an area to move around in for a while if they are struggling to sit still.

G. Learners with Difficulty in Self-care

What are self-care skills?
Self-care skills are the everyday tasks undertaken so children are ready to participate in life
activities (including dressing, eating, cleaning teeth). They are often referred to as the
activities of daily living (ADL’s). While these are typically supported by adults in young
children, it is expected that children develop independence in these as they mature.
 Why are self-care skills important?

Self-care skills are one of the first ways that children develop the ability to plan and
sequence task performance, to organise the necessary materials and to develop the refined
physical control required to carry out daily tasks (e.g. opening lunch boxes, drawing or
standing to pull up pants). Self-care skills act as precursors for many school related tasks as
well as life skills. The term ‘self-care’ would suggest that these skills are expected to be done
independently and in many cases it becomes inappropriate for others to assist for such tasks
(age dependent of course). More specifically, many preschools and schools will have a
requirement for children to be toilet trained prior to starting at their centre.

When self-care skills are difficult, this also becomes a limiting factor for many other life
experiences. It makes it difficult to have sleep overs at friend’s or family’s houses, to go on
school/preschool excursions, children may standout at birthday parties if they are not
comfortable eating and toileting independently, they may experience bullying or miss out on
other social experiences as a result.
 
What are the building blocks necessary to develop self-care skills?
 Hand and finger strength: An ability to exert force against resistance using the hands
and fingers for utensil use.
 Hand control: The ability to move and use the hands in a controlled manner such as
cutlery use for eating.
 Sensory processing: Accurate registration, interpretation and response to sensory
stimulation in the environment and one’s own body.
 Object manipulation: The ability to skilfully manipulate tools, including the ability to
hold and move pencils and scissors with control, controlled use of everyday tools such
as a toothbrush, hairbrush, and cutlery.
 Expressive language (using language): The use of language through speech, sign
or alternative forms of communication to communicate wants, needs, thoughts and
ideas.
 Planning and sequencing: The sequential multi-step task/activity performance to
achieve a well-defined result (e.g. dressing and teeth cleaning).
 Receptive language (understanding): Comprehension of language.
 Compliance: Ability to follow simple adult-directed routines (i.e. doesn’t demonstrate
avoidance behaviours where the child simply doesn’t want to do it because an adult is
telling them to do it and interrupting what they were doing).
 How can you tell if my child has problems with self-care skills?
If a child has self-care difficulties, they might:
 Be unable to feed themselves independently.

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  Require more help than others of their age to get dressed or undressed.
 Find it difficult to tolerate wearing certain clothes.
 Struggle to use cutlery.
 Need adults to open food packaging in their lunch box.
 Refuse to eat certain foods.
 Be unable to coordinate movements to brush teeth.
 Require extensive help to fall asleep.
 Choose to toilet only at home where there is adult support.
 Be late to develop independent day time toileting.
 Show limited motivation for independence in self-care, so they wait for adults to do it
for them instead.

What other problems can occur when you see difficulties with self-care skills?
When a child has self-care difficulties, they might also have difficulties with:
 Following instructions: The ability to understand and be able to initiate the tasks to
be done as per requested by others.
 Receptive language (understanding): Comprehension of language.
 Eating: The physical skill of using cutlery in an age appropriate manner as well as
eating a good range of food.
 Sleeping: Being able to independently settle and resettle to get to sleep.
 Dressing and undressing or assisting with dressing to an age appropriate level and
recognising what articles of clothing go where and in what order.
 Social skills: Determined by the ability to engage in reciprocal interaction with others
(either verbally or non-verbally), to compromise with others, and be able to recognize
and follow social norms.
 Fine motor skills: Finger and hand skills such as opening lunch boxes, tying
shoelaces, doing up buttons.
 Gross motor skills: Whole body physical skills using the ‘core’ strength muscles of
the trunk, arms, legs such as getting on and off the toilet and standing to dress.
 Organisation: The ability to know what a task involves, the materials required, how to
collate them such as packing the bag for preschool or even getting dressed.
 Learning new tasks and retaining that information for the next time the task is done
again.
 Executive functioning: Higher order reasoning and thinking skills.

 What can be done to improve self-care skills?

 Visual schedule of the steps involved.

 Reward chart for independent completion of tasks (or attempt at, in the early stages).
 Small steps: Breaking down self-care skills into smaller steps and supporting the child
through each step so that, in time, they can do more for themselves.
 Routine: Use the same routine or strategy each time you complete the same task to
help them learn it faster.
 Consistency: Be consistent with the words and signs used to assist the child, and
keep instructions short and simple.
 Allow enough time: Ensure that there is enough time available for the child to
participate in self-care activities without feeling rushed (e.g. practice dressing on the
weekend to start with before then doing it before rushing to preschool or school).
 What activities can help improve self-care skills?

 Small parts of activities: Practice doing a small part of a task each day as it is easier
to learn new skills in smaller sections.

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  Observation: Have your child to observe other family members performing everyday
self-care skills.
 Role play self-care tasks such as eating, dressing or brushing teeth with teddy bears.
Doing it on others can help learning it before then doing it on yourself.
 Take care of others: Allow the child to brush your hair or teeth first, before brushing
their own.
 Timers to indicate how long they must tolerate an activity they may not enjoy, such as
teeth cleaning.
Why should I seek therapy if I notice difficulties with self-care skills in my child?
Therapeutic intervention to help a child with self-care difficulties is important as:
 Self-care skills are the everyday practice of the foundations skills for academic
performance not just life skills.
 The more these tasks are performed incorrectly (i.e. often daily) the more the bad
habits are reinforced.
 To support age appropriate independence before these skills become a problem such
as at school camps for older children or much desired sleep overs for kind aged
children.

What type of therapy is recommended for self-care skill difficulties?

If your child has difficulties with self-care skills, it is recommended they consult an
Occupational Therapist.

References
Brice, A. (2001). Children with Communication Disorders: ERIC EC Digest #E617. Retrieved
from https://www.hoagiesgifted.org/eric/e617.html
Educational Resources Information Center. Teaching children with attention deficit
disorder/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (add/adhd) Retrieved from
http://www.ldonline.org/article/5886/
Lombardi, P. (2002). Deaf/ hearing impairments. Retrieved from
https://granite.pressbooks.pub/understanding-and-supporting-learners-with
disabilities/chapter/deaf-hearing-impairments/
Torres, G. (2019). Difficulty Walking and Moving Retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/document/427022593/Difficulty-Walking-and-Moving
https://www2.unb.ca/alc/modules/physical-disabilities/implications-for-learning.html
https://www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-teaching/specific-disabilities/physical-disability
http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/visual-impairments/
https://www.teachervision.com/special-needs/teaching-students-special-needs
https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/articles/children-special-educational-needs
https://arkansashomeschool.org/index.php/free-info/special-needs-students/focusattention-
processing-dysfunction-characteristics/
https://www.highspeedtraining.co.uk/hub/managing-adhd-in-the-classroom/
https://www.disability.admin.cam.ac.uk/staff-supporting-disabled-students/teaching-disabled-
students/understanding-effects-impairments-6

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