The Period of

enlighTenmenT
(1872 - 1898)
Objectives:
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

• Recognize notable selections during the Propaganda

period;
• Identify significant writers during the Propaganda
period; and
• Discuss the theme/message of the literary texts written
during the Propaganda period.
The Enlightenment
• The Enlightenment, a philosophical movement
that dominated Europe throughout the 18th
century, advocated principles such as liberty,
progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional
governance, and separation of church and state.
Historical Background
• The emergence of the “principalia” paved the way to
the rise of the intellectual indios called “Ilustrados”.
• The sons of these middle class indios were able to
study abroad and gain knowledge on other countries,
ideas and concepts of freedom, equality and
democracy.
• They, in turn, looked back at the deplorable condition
of the Philippines and sought for much needed reforms
and improvements.
The awakening of nationalism
• The death of Gomburza
awakened strong feelings
of anger and resentment
among the Filipinos.
They questioned Spanish
authorities and demanded
reforms.
The Propaganda Movement
•The Propaganda Movement (1872-1892)
was the first Filipino nationalist movement,
led by a Filipino elite and inspired by the
protonationalist activism of figures such as
José Burgos and by his execution at the
hands of colonial authorities.
Goals of the Propaganda Movement

1. Recognition of the Philippines as a province of

Spain
2. Equal status for both Filipinos and Spaniards
3. Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes
4. Secularization of Philippine parishes.
5. Recognition of human rights
Three Principal Leaders of the
Propaganda Movement
Books and Writings
Dr. José Protacio Rizal Mercado y Alonso
Realonda
Born: June 19, 1861 at Calamba, Laguna
Teacher: Mother, Teodora Alonzo
Education: Ateneo de Manila, Medicine at UST, Universidad
Central of Madrid, University of Berlin, Leipzig and Heidelberg.
Died: December 30, 1896 by muskery in the hands of the
Spaniards on charges of sedition and rebellion against the
Spaniards.
Pen-Name: Laong Laan and Dimasalang
•R i z a l i s o n e o f t h e f e w
recognized ‘Renaissance man’
in the world. A Renaissance
man is a well-educated person
and one who excels in a wide
variety of subjects or fields.
• Rizal’s most famous quotation: ‘Ang hindi
magmahal sa sariling wika, daig pa ang hayop at
malansang isda’. (He who does not love his own
language is worse than an animal and smelly
fish).
Literary Works
1. NOLI ME TANGERE
• In this book, he courageously
exposed the evils in the
Spanish-run government in
the Philippines.
2. EL FILIBUSTERISMO.
• This is a sequel to the NOLI.
While the NOLI exposed the
evils in society, the FILI exposed
those in the government and in
the church.
3. MI ULTIMO ADIOS
• (My Last Farewell) a poem by Rizal while he was
incarcerated at Fort santiago and is one that
cancompare favorably with the best in the world. It
was only after his death when his name affixed to the
poem.
My Final Farewell
Farewell, dear Fatherland, clime of the sun caress'd
Pearl of the Orient seas, our Eden lost!,
Gladly now I go to give thee this faded life's best,
And were it brighter, fresher, or more blest
Still would I give it thee, nor count the cost.

On the field of battle, 'mid the frenzy of fight,

Others have given their lives, without doubt or heed;
The place matters not-cypress or laurel or lily white,
Scaffold or open plain, combat or martyrdom's plight,
T is ever the same, to serve our home and country's need.
I die just when I see the dawn break,
Through the gloom of night, to herald the day;
And if color is lacking my blood thou shalt take,
Pour'd out at need for thy dear sake
To dye with its crimson the waking ray.

My dreams, when life first opened to me,

My dreams, when the hopes of youth beat high,
Were to see thy lov'd face, O gem of the Orient sea
From gloom and grief, from care and sorrow free;
No blush on thy brow, no tear in thine eye.
Dream of my life, my living and burning desire,
All hail ! cries the soul that is now to take flight;
All hail ! And sweet it is for thee to expire ;
To die for thy sake, that thou mayst aspire;
And sleep in thy bosom eternity's long night.

If over my grave some day thou seest grow,

In the grassy sod, a humble flower,
Draw it to thy lips and kiss my soul so,
While I may feel on my brow in the cold tomb below
The touch of thy tenderness, thy breath's warm power.
Let the moon beam over me soft and serene,
Let the dawn shed over me its radiant flashes,
Let the wind with sad lament over me keen ;
And if on my cross a bird should be seen,
Let it trill there its hymn of peace to my ashes.
Let the sun draw the vapors up to the sky,
And heavenward in purity bear my tardy protest
Let some kind soul o 'er my untimely fate sigh,
And in the still evening a prayer be lifted on high
From thee, 0 my country, that in God I may rest.
Pray for all those that hapless have died,
For all who have suffered the unmeasur'd pain;
For our mothers that bitterly their woes have cried,
For widows and orphans, for captives by torture tried
And then for thyself that redemption thou mayst gain.

And when the dark night wraps the graveyard around

With only the dead in their vigil to see
Break not my repose or the mystery profound
And perchance thou mayst hear a sad hymn resound
'T is I, O my country, raising a song unto thee.
And even my grave is remembered no more
Unmark'd by never a cross nor a stone
Let the plow sweep through it, the spade turn it o'er
That my ashes may carpet earthly floor,
Before into nothingness at last they are blown.

Then will oblivion bring to me no care

As over thy vales and plains I sweep;
Throbbing and cleansed in thy space and air
With color and light, with song and lament I fare,
Ever repeating the faith that I keep.
My Fatherland ador'd, that sadness to my sorrow lends
Beloved Filipinas, hear now my last good-by!
I give thee all: parents and kindred and friends
For I go where no slave before the oppressor bends,
Where faith can never kill, and God reigns e'er on high!

Farewell to you all, from my soul torn away,

Friends of my childhood in the home dispossessed !
Give thanks that I rest from the wearisome day !
Farewell to thee, too, sweet friend that lightened my way;
Beloved creatures all, farewell! In death there is rest!
4. SOBRE LA INDOLENCIA DE LOS
FILIPINOS
• (On the Indolence of the
Filipinos). An essay on the
so-called Filipino indolence
and an evaluation of the
reasons for such allegations.
5. FILIPINAS DENTRO DE CIEN AÑOS
• (ThePhilippines within a Century). An
essa y pre di c t i ng t he
increasinginfluence of the US in the
Philippines and the decreasing interest
of Europe here.
6. A LA JUVENTUD FILIPINA
• (To the Filipino Youth).
A poem Rizal dedicated
to the Filipino youth
studying at UST.
7. EL CONSEJO DE LES DIOSES
• (The Council of the
Gods). An allegorical
play manifesting
admiration for Cervantes.
9. ME PIDEN VERSOS (You asked Me for
Verses)

• Published October 7, 1882.

and A LAS FLORES DE
HEIDELBERG (To the
Flowers of Heidelberg). Two
poems manifesting Rizal’s
unusual depth of emotion.
10. NOTAS A LA OBRA SUCESOS DE LAS
FILIPINAS FOR EL DR. ANTONIO DE MORGA
• (Notes on Philippine Events by Dr. Antoniode Morga): 1889.
A book written and published by Antonio de Morga
and considered one of the most important works on the
early history of the Spanish colonization of the
Philippines.
11. P. JACINTO: MEMORIAS DE UNESTUDIANTE DE
MANILA

• (P. Jacinto: Memoirs of a Student of Manila) 1882. The diary

is written in Spanishtraced Rizal’s roots growing up in
Calamba to his early studies in nearby Binyang (now Biñan)
and eventually to his formal education at the Ateneo
Municipal school in Intramuros. The book, penned under the
pseudonym “P. Jacinto,” depicted Rizal’s “very typical
boyhood in the 19th century,” of Rizal playing games with his
cousins while growing up in Laguna.
12. DIARIO DE VIAJE DE NORTE AMERICA
(Diary of a Voyage to North America)
RIZAL IN AMERICA (1888)
• April 28, 1888 - Rizal arrived at San Francisco, California.
- He was placed in quarantine for 6 days on board the
Belgic anchored off San Francisco Bay.
• 5-6 May 1888 - Rizal boarded at the Palace Hotel, San Francisco,
California. He went around for observation of the city.
• 8 May 1888 - He started his trip of the American continent. He passes
through Reno, Ogden, Denver, Farmington, Salt Lake City and Provo.
• 9 May 1888 - Rizal continued his trip, passing the territory of the
State of Colorado.
• 10 May 1888 - He passed thru the territory of the Nebraska,
Illinois.
• 11 May 1888 - He arrived at Chicago, after four days
crossing the American Continents.
• 13 May 1888 - He reached Albany and later traveled along
the bank of the Hudson River. This day was the end of his
transcontinental trip. Arriving at New York on the morning,
he boarded at the Fifth Avenue Hotel.
Marcelo Hilario del Pilar y Gatmaitán
Born: August 30, 1850 at Cupang, San Nicolas, Bulacan.
Parents: Julian H. del Pilar (Filipino Writer) and Biasa Gatmaitan
Sibling: Fr. Toribio del Pilar (banished to Marianas in 1872)
Died: July 4, 1896 of tuberculosis in Spain.
Pen-name: Plaridel, Pupdoh, Piping Dilat and Dolores Manapat
Education: UST
He established the Diariong Tagalog in 1883.
Literary Works
1. PAGIBIG SA TINUBUANG LUPA (Love of Country).
• Translated from the Spanish AMOR PATRIA of Rizal, published on
August 20, 1882, in Diariong Tagalog.

2. KAIINGAT KAYO (Be Careful).

• A humorous and sarcastic dig in answer to Fr. Jose
Rodriquez in the novel NOLI of Rizal, published in
Barcelona in 1888. He used Dolores Manapatas pen-name
here.
3. DASALAN AT TOCSOHAN (Prayers and Jokes).

• Similar to a cathecism but sarcastically done agains the parish

priests, published in Barcelona in 1888. Because of this, del
Pilar was called “filibuster” Done in admirable tone of
supplication and excellent use of Tagalog.

4. ANG CADAQUILAAN NG DIOS (God’s Goodness).

• Published in Barcelona, it was also like a cathecism

sarcastically aimed against the parish priests but also contains
a philosophy of the power and intelligenceof God and an
appreciation for and love for nature.
5. SAGOT SA ESPANYA SA HIBIK NG PILIPINAS
(Answer to Spain on the Plea of the Filipinos).
• A poem pleading for change from Spain but that Spain is
already old and weak to grant any aid to the Philippines. This
poem is in answer to that of Hermenigildo Flores Hibik sa
Pilipinas (A Plea from the Philippines).

6. DUPLUHAN…DALIT…MGA BUGTONG (A poetical

contest in narrative sequence, psalms, riddles).
• A compilation of poems on the oppression by the priests in
the Philippines
7. LA SOBERANIA EN PILIPINAS (Sovereignty in
the Philippines).
• This shows the injustices of the friars to the Pilipinos.

8. POR TELEFONO (By Telephone)

• It was published in 1889 as a reply to a friar named Fr.
Salvador Font. It’s a satirical comedy about Father Font, who
was at Madrid speaking with a provincial priest in San
Agustin Monastery using a telephone line that is spear-headed
by The Trans-Oceanic Telephone Co.
9. PASIONG DAPAT IPAG-ALAB NG PUSO
NGTAONG BABASA (Passion that should arouse the
hearts of thereaders)
GRACIANO LOPEZ JAENA
Born: December 18, 1856 Jaro, Iloilo, Captaincy
General of the Philippines, Spanish Empire
Parents: Plácido López and María Jacoba Jaena
Education: St. Vincent Ferrer Seminary University of
Valencia
Died: January 20, 1896, on tuberculoses in Barcelona,
11 months short of his 40th birthday.
• A most notable hero and genius of the
Philippines, Graciano Lopez Jaena
was born on December 18, 1856 and
died on January 20, 1896. The pride of
Jaro, Iloilo, he won the admiration of
the Spaniards and Europeans.
Literary Works
1. ANG FRAY BOTOD (Friar
Botod).
• One of his works written in Jaro,
Iloilo in 1876, six years after the
Cavite Revolt attacking the friars
in the Philippines. He exposed how
some of the friars were greedy,
ambitious and immoral.
2. LA HIJA DEL FRAILE (The Child of the Friar) and
EVERYTING IS HAMBUG (Everything is mere
show).
• Jaena explains the tragedy of marrying a Spaniard.

3. SA MGA PILIPINO.
• A speech which aimed to improve the condition of the
Filipinos to become free and progressive.
4 . TA L U M PAT I N G PA G U N I TA K AY
KOLUMBUS (An Oration to Commemorate
Columbus).
• A speech he delivered in Madrid on the 39 th anniversary
of the discovery of America.

5. EN HONOR DEL PRESIDENTE MORAYTA

DE LA ASSOCIACION HISPANO FILIPINO
1884.
• Here he praised Gen. Morayta for his equal treatment of
the Filipinos.
6. EN HONOR DE LOS ARTISTAS LUNA Y
RESURRECCION HIDALGO.
• A sincere expression of praise for the paintings of
Hidalgo on the condition of the Filipinos under the
Spaniards.
7. AMOR A ESPAÑA O A LAS JOVENES DE
MALOLOS (Love for Spain or To the Youth of Malolos).
• The theme is about how girls were taught Spanish in
schools and whose teachers were the governors-general
of the place.

8. EL BANDOLERISMO EN PILIPINAS (Banditry in

the Philippines).
• Jaena refuted the existence of banditry in the Philippines
and of how there should be laws on robbery and other
reforms.
9. HONOR EN PILIPINAS (Honor in the
Philippines).
• The triumphant exposition of Luna, Resurrecion and
Pardo de Tavera of the thesis that intellect or
knowledge gives honor to the Philippines.
10. PAG-ALIS SA BUWIS SA PILIPINAS (Abolition
of Taxes in the Philippines)

11. INSTITUCION NG PILIPINAS (Sufferings of the

Philippines). Jaena refers here to the wrong management
of education in the Philippines 1887.
B. OTHER PROPAGANDISTS
 Antonio Narciso Luna de San Pedro y Novicio
Ancheta
Born: Antonio Narciso Luna de San Pedro y Novicio
Ancheta 29 October 1866 Binondo, Manila, Captaincy
General of the Philippines, Spanish Empire
Died: 5 June 1899 (aged 32) of Assassination in
Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija, First Philippine Republic.
Siblings: JuPan Luna (brother) Joaquin Luna (brother)
Pen-name: Tagailog
• Antonio Luna was a pharmacist who was
banished by the Spaniards to Spain. He
joined the Propaganda Movement and
contributed his writings to LA
SOLIDARIDAD.
• A Filipino army general who fought in the
Philippine–American War before his
assassination in 1899. Regarded as one of the
fiercest generals of his time.
Literary Works
1. NOCHE BUENA (Christmas Eve).
• It pictured true Filipino life.
2. SE DEVIERTEN (How They Diverted Themselves).
• A dig at a dance of the Spaniards where the people were very
crowded.
3. LA TERTULIA FILIPINA (A Filipino Conference or
Feast).
• Depicts a Filipino custom which he believed was much better
than the Spanish.
4. POR MADRID (For Madrid).
• A denouncement of Spaniards who claim that the Philippines
is a colony of Spain but who think of Filipinos as foreigners
when it comes to collecting taxes for stamps.

5. LA CASA DE HUEPEDES (The Landlady’s

House).
• Depicts a landlady who looks for boarders not for money but
in order to get a husband for her child.
Mariano Ponce y Collantes
Born: March 22, 1863 Baliwag, Bulacan, Captaincy
General of the Philippines, Spanish Empire
Died: May 23, 1918 (aged 55) British Hong Kong
Spouse(s): Okiyo Udanwara
Children: 4
Education: Colegio de San Juan de Letran University
of Santo Tomas, Universidad Central de Madrid
• Mariano Ponce became an editor-in-
chief, biographer and researcher of the
Propaganda Movement. He used
Tikbalang, Kalipulako, and Naning as
pennames. The common themes of his
works were the values of education.
He also wrote about how the Filipinos
were oppressed by the foreigners and
of the problems of his countrymen.
Literary Works
1. MGA ALAMAT NG BULACAN (Legend of Bulacan).
• Contains legends, and folklores of his native town.
2. PAGPUGOT KAY LONGINOS (The Beheading of
Longinos).
• A play shown at the plaza of Malolos, Bulacan.
3. SOBRE FILIPINOS (About the Filipinos)
4. ANG MGA PILIPINO SA INDO-TSINA (The Filipinos in
IndoChina)
Pedro Alejandro Paterno y de Vera Ignacio
Born: Pedro Alejandro Paterno y de Vera Ignacio
February 27, 1857 Manila, Captaincy General of the
Philippines, Spanish Empire
Died: April 26, 1911 (aged 54) Manila, Philippine
Islands
Alma mater: Ateneo de Manila University
Profession: Poet
Novelist
• A scholar, dramatic, researcher and
novelist of the Propaganda Movement.
He also joined the Confraternity of
Masons and the Asociacion Hispano-
Pilipino in order to further the aims of
the Movement. He was the first Filipino
writer who escaped censorship of the
press during the last day of the Spanish
colonization.
Literary Works
1. NINAY. The first social novel in Spanish by a Filipino.

2. A MI MADRE (To My Mother). Shows the importance of a

mother especially in the home.

3. SAMPAGUITA Y POESIAS VARIAS (Sampaguitas and

Varied Poems). A collection of his poems.
José María Panganiban y Enverga
Born: February 1, 1863 Mambulao, Camarines,
Captaincy General of the Philippines, Spanish Empire
Died: August 19, 1890 (aged 27) Barcelona, Spain
Alma mater: Holy Rosary Seminary, Colegio de San
Juan de Letran, University of Santo Tomas, University
of Barcelona
Occupation: Writer, journalist
Penname: JORMAPA.
• He was also known for having
photographic mind. He was a
member of a number of
movements for the country.
Literary Works
1. ANG LUPANG TINUBUAN (My Native
Land)
2. ANG AKING BUHAY (My Life)
3. SU PLANO DE ESTUDIO (Your Study Plan)
4. EL PENSAMIENTO (The Thinking)
C. Period of Active Revolution (1896-1898)
• The Philippine Revolution exploded on August 23, 1896, in the
event that is commemorated as the “Cry of Pugadlawin.”
Located in the outskirts of Manila, there assembled on that day
members of a secret revolutionary society known as the
Katipunan (Kataas-taasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan nang
mga Anak ng Bayan — Highest and Most Respectable Society
of the Sons of the People, founded in July 1892), led by its
founder, Andres Bonifacio, and there tore up their cedulas
(identification receipts issued for payment of taxes) as a
symbol of their determination to take up arms against Spain.
• The Revolution in August 1896, membership in
the Katipunan has soared to about 30,000, which
included some women. The Revolution broke
out because of the untimely discovery by a
Spanish friar, on August 19, of the existence of
the revolutionary society.
• Hundreds suspected of joining the Katipunan and the
Revolution were arrested and jailed; prominent
Filipinos were shipped to exile to the Carolines or the
Spanish penal colony in Africa; and still others were
executed, including Jose Rizal, who was shot by
musketry on December 30, 1896. The Revolution
spread from Manila and Cavite to Laguna, Batangas,
Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija
represented as the eight rays in the Philippine flag.
• Consequently, between November 18 and December
15, a truce (in Biak-na-Bato) was concluded between
the two sides which resulted in a temporary cessation
of hostilities. Aguinaldo agreed to go on temporary
exile to Hong Kong after the Spanish government
compensated him and his revolutionary junta with
P400,000.
ANDRES BONIFACIO
Andrés Bonifacio y de Castro
Born: November 30, 1863 Tondo, Manila, Captaincy General of
the Philippines, Spanish Empire
Died: May 10, 1897 (aged 33) of Execution at Maragondon,
Cavite, Captaincy General of the Philippines, Spanish Empire
Spouse(s): Monica (c. 1880–1890, her death) Gregoria de Jesús
(1893–1897, his death)
Children: Andrés Bonifacio y de Jesús (born in early 1896, died
in infancy)
Education: Self-educated
• Andres Bonifacio is best known as the Father of Filipino
Democracy, the Father of the Katipunan because he led
in establishing the Kataas-taasan, Kagalang-galanga
Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK). Andres
Bonifacio came from a poor family and it is said that what
he learned he got from the school of experience. He was a
voracious reader and among those he loved to read which
aroused his revolutionary spirit were the NOLI and the
FILI of Rizal.
• He joined the La Liga Filipina founded by Rizal in
1892. He established the Katipunan which triggered
the spirit of freedom especially when Rizal was
banished to Dapitan, Mindanao.
Literary Works
1. KATUNGKULANG GAGAWIN NG MGA ANA NG BAYAN
(Obligations of Our Countrymen).
• This is an outline of obligations just like the 10 commandments of
God.

2. PAG-IBIG SA TINUBUAN LUPA (Love of One’s Native Land).

• A poem with a title similar to that of Marcelo H. del Pilar.

3. HULING PAALAM (Last Farewell).

• A translation of Mi Ultimo Adios of Rizal in Tagalog
Apolinario Mabini y Maranan
Born: July 23, 1864 Barrio Talaga, Tanauan, Batangas,
Captaincy General of the Philippines, Spanish Empire
Died: May 13, 1903 (aged 38) Manila, Philippines
Alma mater: Colegio de San Juan de Letran,
University of Santo Tomas
Profession: Politician
• A Filipino revolutionary leader,
educator, lawyer, and statesman who
served first as a legal and
constitutional adviser to the
Revolutionary Government, and then
as the first Prime Minister of the
Philippines upon the establishment
of the First Philippine Republic.
•He is regarded as the "utak ng himagsikan"
or "brain of the revolution" and is also
considered as a national hero in the
Philippines. Mabini's work and thoughts on
the government shaped the Philippines' fight
for independence over the next century.
Literary Works
1. El Verdadero Decálogo (The True Decalogue, June 24,
1898).

2. EL DESAROLLO Y CAIDA DE LA REPUBLICA (The

Rise and Fall of the Philippine Republic) 1973.

3. SA BAYANG PILIPINO (To the Filipino Nation)

4. PAHAYAG (NEWS)
Emilio Jacinto y Dizon
Born: December 15, 1875 Tondo, Manila, Captaincy General of the
Philippines, Spanish Empire
Died: April 16, 1899 (aged 23) Santa Cruz, Laguna, First Philippine
Republic
Resting place: Himlayang Pilipino, Tandang Sora, Quezon City,
Philippines
Other names: "Pingkian", "Dimasilaw", "Ka Ilyong"
Alma mater: Colegio de San Juan de Letran, University of Santo
Tomas
Spouse(s): Catalina de Jesús
 Literary Works
1. KARTILYA NG KATIPUNAN (A primer
book on the Katipunan)
2 . L I WA N A G AT D I L I M ( L i g h t a n d
Darkness).
• A collection of essays on different subjects
like freedom, work, faith, government, love
of country.
3. A MI MADRE (To My Mother).
• A touching ode to his mother.
4. A LA PATRIA (To My Country).
• His masterpiece.
José Palma y Velásquez
Born: June 3, 1876 Tondo, Manila, Captaincy General
of the Philippines
Died: February 12, 1903 (aged 26) Manila, Philippine
Islands
Occupation: Soldier, writer
Known for: lyricist of the Philippine National Anthem
• He was a Filipino poet and soldier. He
was on the staff of La independencia at
the time he wrote "Filipinas", a patriotic
poem in Spanish. It was published for the
first time in the issue of the first
anniversary of La independencia on
September 3, 1899. The poem fit the
instrumental tune "Marcha Nacional
Filipina" by Julián Felipe, and it has since
been the basis for every translation of the
Philippine National Anthem.
Literary Works
1.MELANCOLIAS (Melancholies).
• A collection of his poems.

2. DE MI JARDIN (In My Garden).

• A poem expressing one’s longings for his sweetheart.
NEWSPAPERS DURING THE REVOLUTION
1. HERALDO DE LA REVOLUCION.
• Printed the decrees of the Revolutiary Government, news and
works in Tagalog that aroused nationalism.
2. LA INDEPENDENCIA (Independence).
• Edited by Antonio Luna and whose aim was for Philippine
Independence.
3. LA REPUBLICA PILIPINA (The Philippine Republic).
Established by Pedro Paterno in 1898.
4. LA LIBERTAD (Liberty). Edited by Clemente Zulueta.
References:
• Wikipedia contributors. “José Palma.” Wikipedia, 7 Dec. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Palma.
• Wikipedia contributors. “José Rizal.” Wikipedia, 26 Jan. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Rizal.
• Wikipedia contributors. “Emilio Jacinto.” Wikipedia, 15 Jan. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilio_Jacinto.
• Wikipedia contributors. “Apolinario Mabini.” Wikipedia, 31 Jan. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolinario_Mabini.
• Wikipedia contributors. “Marcelo H. Del Pilar.” Wikipedia, 28 Jan. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcelo_H._del_Pilar.
• Wikipedia contributors. “Graciano López Jaena.” Wikipedia, 5 Jan. 2022,en.wikiped a.org/wiki/Graciano_L%C3%B3pez_Jaena.
• Wikipedia contributors. “Antonio Luna.” Wikipedia, 27 Jan. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Luna.
• Wikipedia contributors. “Mariano Ponce.” Wikipedia, 22 Dec. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariano_Ponce.
• Wikipedia contributors. “Pedro Paterno.” Wikipedia, 18 Jan. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Paterno.
• Wikipedia contributors. “José María Panganiban.” Wikipedia, 4 Feb. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Panganiban.
• Cortez, Gigi. “Remembering the GOMBURZA: In Anticipation of the 150th Anniversary of Their Martyrdom in 2022.” National Historical
Commission of the Philippines, 16 Feb. 2021, nhcp.gov.ph/remembering-the-gomburza-in-anticipation-of-the-150th-anniversary-of-their-
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