IT’S ALL ABOUT ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

Ethnography is a research method central to knowing the world from the standpoint of its
social relations. It is a qualitative research method predicated on the diversity of culture at
home (wherever that may be) and abroad. Ethnography involves hands-on, on-the-scene
learning — and it is relevant wherever people are relevant. Ethnography is the primary method
of social and cultural anthropology, but it is integral to the social sciences and humanities
generally, and draws its methods from many quarters, including the natural sciences. For these
reasons, ethnographic studies relate to many fields of study and many kinds of personal
experience – including study abroad and community-based or international internships. 

DEFINATION OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Ethnography is a qualitative method for collecting data often used in the social and behavioral
sciences. Data are collected through observations and interviews, which are then used to draw
conclusions about how societies and individuals function.

Ethnography, simply stated, is the study of people in their own environment through the use of
methods such as participant observation and face-to-face interviewing.

Ethnography is a study through direct observation of users in their natural environment rather
than in a lab. The objective of this type of research is to gain insights into how users interact
with things in their natural environment.

THW AIM OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

Ethnography is a qualitative research study looking at the social interaction of users in a given
environment. This research provides an in-depth insight into the user’s views and actions along
with the sights and sounds they encounter during their day. It provides the researcher with an
understanding of how those users see the world and how they interact with everything around
them.
Ethnography methods include direct observation, diary studies, video recordings, photography
and artefact analysis such as devices that a person uses throughout the day. Observations can
be made anywhere from the user’s workplace, their home or while they are out with family and
friends. The length of the studies can vary depending on the research that is being conducted.
They can range from a couple of hours of observation, to studies that last several months.
There are two methods for observation:
1. Passive observation
Passive observation which can also be known as ‘shadowing’ is where a user or users are
shadowed while they go about their everyday tasks observed by a researcher. Sometimes
before the research begins, users will be interviewed on their own or in groups to learn more
about them and their needs. Observations will be documented throughout the day using a
number of methods such as taking notes, photographs, sketches or videos. The research may
be conducted as part of a team so that a larger number of users can be observed and therefore
gaining a greater insight quickly. This observation method is a good way for researchers to see
how users go about their day first hand and identify any disconnections of when the user tells
the researcher one thing but actually interacts in another way.
2. Contextual interviews
Contextual interviews are where the researcher will interact with users while observing them
going about their everyday tasks. The interviews will be held in a natural environment, so as not
to feel too formal. The researcher will observe the user going about their everyday tasks and
ask questions to gain insight.

Advantages of Ethnography research

 Ability to see first-hand how users interact with technology in their natural environment
 Identify unexpected issues that you might not have encountered in a usability test
 Opportunity to test new product ideas before they are released to the market to see
what demand is like

Disadvantages of Ethnography research

 Because there is a greater insight into the user it takes much longer to generate and
analyse all the findings.
 Short studies may not get a user acting naturally as they are aware of the researchers
present.
 The cost of conducting ethnographic studies is typically much higher than conducting a
usability test.

STEPS IN ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

 Identify research question
 Determine location of research
  Formulate presentation method
 Acquire permission and access
 Collect data
 Code and analyze data
 Report findings

EXAMPLES FOR ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

A classic example of ethnographic research would be an anthropologist traveling to an island,

living within the society on said island for years, and researching its people and culture through
a process of sustained observation and participation.

Example : Parking Interviews

Ellen Isaacs, with a team from the Palo Alto Research Center, sought to study how people
searched for parking, and whether the signage was clear, especially when driving by during
rush-hour. They focused on challenges people encountered, the way parking restrictions were
defined, what worked and didn’t work with the existing infrastructure, and what could be
improved to make parking better. The findings were used to inform the design of new parking
systems. Her ted talk linked above gives some great insight into her approach to ethnographic
research.

How to Plan an Ethnographic Research Study

If you’re looking to implement one or more of these types of ethnographic research, you may
be wondering how to plan an ethnographic study. Here are the steps we recommend taking.

1) Determine what the goals of your ethnographic study are. What questions are you
aiming to answer? What do you hope you will learn from the study?‍
2) Put together your ethnographic study team. Depending on your resources, you may
have to work with a team of one product developer or usability practitioner, although it
may be ideal to have a cross-functional team that will be able to make more (and more
diverse) observations as a collective than one person could individually. Don't hesitate
to reach out to other teams to help with the research. Ethnographic studies don't just
help with product, they can help with marketing, sales and customer success too. ‍
3) Choose an ethnographic research study method. Take into consideration your budget,
your timeline, and any other constraints or goals that might be relevant. Most likely,
your ethnographic research will constitute just one part of a wider research initiative, so
it's important to consider how to best add value to the process.
 4) Reach out to potential study subjects to recruit for your study. Explain to them what
you will be researching, conduct a preliminary interview, obtain consent and a waiver,
and put together a finalized list of your study’s subjects. Recruiting respondents can be
one of the hardest stages and we recommend to partner up with your customer success
team to reach out to suitable respondents. If you're looking to avoid your own
customer-base's bias, there are several companies that specialize in recruiting
respondents.‍
5) Begin your study. Get out there and observe! Take thorough notes, even more than you
might intuitively think is necessary. You’ll be grateful for them later. Make notes on the
subjects’ environment, key events and incidents, and your impressions. Remember,
ethnographic research is a great way to uncover what sort of research you still need to
do to gain the insights you need.‍
6) Analyze your data. Look for patterns and themes that jump out. What kind of
challenges and barriers did your users encounter? How did this affect them? An affinity
diagram, which is a tool that uses post-it notes to group together large numbers of
observations based on their relationships, is a great way to approach this data.
7) List the insights you have taken away from your research. Share, enrich, and combine
them, ultimately making a plan for how to implement them in your product design
process. As always, your research is only worth as much. You can use Reveall to gather
all your observations and manage your insights in a way that you can easily connect the
dots and share findings with others.

WHEN TO USE ETHNOGRAPHY

Ethnography is most useful in the early stages of a user-centred design project. This is
because ethnography focuses on developing an understanding of the design problem.
Therefore, it makes more sense to conduct ethnographic studies at the beginning of a
project in order to support future design decisions (which will happen later in the user-
centred design process).
Ethnographic methods (such as participant observation) could also be used to evaluate an
existing design – but their true value comes from developing an early understanding of the
relevant domain, audience(s), processes, goals and context(s) of use.

We would normally recommend that ethnographic methods are used for very complex
and/or critical design problems. More complex design problems (in terms of their domain,
audience(s), processes, goals and/or context(s) of use) are likely to need the deeper
understanding which ethnographic studies can bring. Equally, highly critical systems (where
failure or error can lead to disaster) could also justify significant ethnographic research.
TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

There are several types of ethnographic research, namely; business, educational and medical
ethnographic research. All based on different fields of human endeavor and each type is
defined by specific characteristics. Ethnographic research is a multi-dimensional research design
that can be adapted to different fields including business, medicine, education, and
psychology. 

Business Ethnographic Research

Business ethnographic research is a research design that involves observing consumer habits
and target markets in order to discover true market needs and the overall disposition to your
product or service. It is an extremely beneficial research tool that can help your organization
identify its customers’ needs and satisfy market demands. 

This research method combines different techniques including fieldwork, physical interviews
and online surveys in order to gather useful data on the consumer habits of target markets.
Business ethnographers use these techniques to analyze how clients interact with an
organization’s services and come up with useful conclusions that can be used to develop
effective market strategies. 

In carrying out a business ethnographic research, it is necessary to work with a customer or

client-oriented framework that focuses on target markets rather than the business. The aim of
this research design is to discover recurring client behavioral patterns that can serve as key
market insights.

In order to gather useful data, the researcher must ask the right questions. Some question
samples for business ethnographic research include the following:

 What do you enjoy about this product or service?

 Why do you use this product?
 What specific needs does the product meet for you?
 What specific needs does the product fail to meet?
 Does the pricing of the product equate its value? 

Educational Ethnographic Research 

Educational ethnographic research is a research design that involves observing teaching and
learning methods and how these affect classroom behaviors. This research model pays
attention to pedagogy, its effects on learning outcomes and overall engagements by
stakeholders within the classroom environment. 

Typically, educational ethnographic research studies students’ attitudes, academic motivations,

and dispositions to learning. To do this, the researcher combines non-participant observation
methods with direct participant observation techniques in order to gather the most relevant
and objective data. 

Question samples for educational ethnography research include:

 Do you enjoy this teaching method?

 Does the teacher allow for feedback in his or her classes?
 Does the teaching method communicate objectives clearly? 
 What is the student’s attitude toward learning? 

Medical Ethnographic Research 

Medical ethnographic research is a type of ethnographic research used for qualitative

investigations in healthcare. This research design helps medical practitioners to understand the
dispositions of patients ranging from the simplest to the most complex behavioral patterns. 

Medical ethnographic research enables the healthcare provider to have access to a wealth of
information that will prove useful for improving a patient’s overall experience. For example,
through ethnographic research, a healthcare product manufacturer is able to understand the
needs of the target market and this will, in turn, influence the product’s design. 

In addition, medical ethnographic research exposes healthcare professionals to insights on the

complex needs of patients, their reaction to prescriptions and treatment methods plus
recommendations for improvement. Here are a few questions that can be used for medical
ethnographic research:

 For how long have you used this drug?

 For how long have you been on this treatment? 
 What positive changes have you noticed so far?
 Have you noticed any side effects so far?
 Does this medication or treatment meet your needs? 
METHODES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

Typically, there are 5 basic methods of ethnographic research which are

 naturalism,
 participant observation,
 interviews,
 surveys, and
 archival research.

Carrying out ethnographic research will involve one or more research techniques depending on

the field, sample size, and purpose of the research

 Live and work

Also known as naturalism, live and work is an ethnography research technique in which the
researcher observes the research variables in their natural environment in order to identify and
record behavioral patterns. It may involve living in the natural environment of the group or
individuals being researched for a period of time in order to record their activities. 

Naturalism is the oldest method of ethnographic research and it may create some degree of
rapport between the ethnographer and the research variables. When using this method, the
researcher must ensure that he or she limits interference with the subjects to the barest
minimum in order to arrive at the most objective research outcomes. 

Naturalistic observation can be disguised or undisguised. Disguised naturalistic observation

involves recording the subjects in such a way that they are unaware of being studied while in
undisguised naturalistic observation, the research subjects are aware of the fact that they are
being understudied. 

The live and work method allows the researcher to gather the most accurate and most relevant
data as a result of observing the research subjects in their natural environment. However, this
technique is not favored by modern ethnographers, especially in fields like medicine and
education, because it is expensive and it takes a lot of time. 

 Participant Observation
Participant observation is a data collection method in ethnography research where the
ethnographer gathers information by participating actively and interacting with the research
subjects. This method is quite similar to life and work techniques. 

The major difference between participant observation and live and naturalism is that in the
former, the ethnographer becomes an active member of the group being observed. This gives
the researcher access to information that can only be made available to members of the group. 

There are 2 types of participant observation which are, disguised participant observation and
undisguised participant observation. In the former, the ethnographer pretends to be a part of
the research subjects while hiding his or her true identity of being a researcher. 

In undisguised participant observation, the ethnographer becomes a part of the group being
observed and reveals his or her identity as a researcher to the group. This technique is more
prone to reactivity, unlike disguised participant observation. 

The primary advantage of participant observation as a research technique is that the

ethnographer is exposed to more information. He or she is better able to understand the
experiences and habits of the research subjects from the participant's point of view. 

There are a number of limitations associated with this research technique. First, the presence
of the researcher can affect the behaviors of the research subjects; especially with undisguised
participant observation, and this can affect the authenticity of the result. 

 Interview

An ethnographic interview is a qualitative research method that merges immersive observation

with one-on-one discussions in order to arrive at the most authentic research outcomes. In this
research design, the ethnographer converses with members of the research group as they
engage in different activities related to the research context. 

During this contextual inquiry, the researcher gathers relevant data related to the goals and
behaviors of the members of the research group. As the ethnographer observes the research
subject in its natural environment, he or she has the opportunity to ask questions that reveal
more information about the research group.

An ethnographic interview is usually informal and spontaneous, and it typically stems from the
relationship between the researcher and the subjects. The ethnographic interview often results
from the participant observation method where the ethnographer actively engages with the
members of the research group in order to find out more about their lives. 
As a two-way research method, an ethnographic interview allows the researcher to gather the
most relevant and authentic information from the research group. However, it can also be
affected by experimental bias as a result of the relationship between the ethnographer and the
subjects. 

 Surveys

 An ethnography survey is an inductive research method that is used to gather information

about the research subject. This research design is also referred to as analytic induction and it
involves outlining hypotheses in the form of survey questions and administering these
questions in the research environment. 

Administering a survey will help the ethnographer gather relevant data, analyze this data and
arrive at objective findings. The aim of carrying out an analytic induction is to discover the
causative factors of certain habits of the research group and come up with accurate
explanations for these behaviors. 

In order to gather the most relevant responses using this, it is best to include different question
types in your survey. Likert scale questions, open-ended questions, multiple-choice questions,
and close-ended questions are common types of ethnography survey questions. 

To make your ethnography survey even more effective, you can create and administer it online
using data-collection tools like Formplus. Formplus allows you to build your ethnography survey
form in minutes using the Formplus builder and you can easily share your survey with
respondents via available multiple sharing options.

High survey drop-out rates and survey response bias are some of the major limitations of this
research method. However, this method is fast and cost-effective especially when carried out
online and if done right, it can reveal useful insights about a research group. 

 Archival Research

Archival research is a qualitative approach to ethnographic research in which the researcher

analyzes existing research, documents and other sources of information about the research
group in order to discover relevant information. This method can also be referred to as
understanding.

Archival research adopts ethnography to a collection of related documents from the past which
substitute for actual physical presence in the research environment. It pays absolute attention
to every piece of information about the research variables. 
As a method of data collection in ethnography, archival research reduces the chances of
experimental biases since the researcher does not directly interact with the subjects. Also, it
allows the ethnographer to have access to a large repository of research data that results in
more accurate findings. 

However, because archival research is often subject to randomization, its findings may not
accurately reflect the research group. Also, archival data is not full-proof as there may be biases
when the data is recorded and this will affect the research outcomes. 

Risks Associated with Ethnographic Research

Unlike other research methods, ethnographic research tends to be sporadic and extends for a
long period of time. And although respondents can stop participating in the research process at
any time, there are still a few risks they are likely to encounter during this research

1. Psychological Risks

During uncomfortable topics, respondents may feel psychological triggers like guilt, fear,
sadness, etc This can cause them to lose interest in the research or pull out from participating.
In some cases, research participants may need constant reassurance to encourage them.

2. Social Risks

Depending on the research subject, there are social risks that are posed to a respondent during
ethnographic research. These risks include stigmatization or condemnation from their
community particularly if confidential information is shared and friction in personal
relationships. This can further lead to a psychological risk. 

3. Physical and Economical Risks

Although these risks are uncommon in ethnographic research, it is imperative that you prepare
for them as a researcher. In politically volatile communities, or research that involves tedious
physical activity, physical risks are on the high side.

Economic risks can arise when research participants are removed from their jobs or limited
from carrying out profitable ventures.

During your study, ensure that you disclose the possible risks to your research participants and
elaborate on how you intend to mitigate these risks. 
 FAQs means: a document (as on a website) that provides
answers to a list of typical questions that users might ask
regarding a particular subject
FAQ’s on Ethnographic Research
also : a question included in such a document

 Does Ethnographic research come before or after a survey?

Most research uses data collected from various studies to validate a hypothesis or seek better
clarity. So it is often conducted after a large-scale survey or quantitative segmentation study.
However, it all largely depends on what the goal of the research is.

 Is ethnographic research qualitative or quantitative?

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method where researchers study their

respondents in their own environment

 How long does an ethnographic research project take?

The duration of your ethnographic research completely depends on the scope of your study.
However, they usually last for a couple of months.

 Do ethnographers use field guides? 

Yes. In ethnographic research, there are field guides to help guide the research process.
However, it's just a tool, and most times, it isn’t followed verbatim on the field. 

 How do I create a database for comparative analysis during Ethnographic?

HISTORY OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Ethnography originated in early anthropology in the 1800s. The roots of ethnography can be
traced back to colonization of the ‘New World’, when anthropologists became interested in
exploring races and cultures outside Europe. The primary focus was to study ‘primitive’,
unindustrialized peoples and cultures using written description and records, as well as
photography (Kelly and Gibbons 2008, Lambert et al 2011, Rees and Gatenby 2014).
Ethnographers typically spent months or years conducting research, during which they were
‘detached’ from those they were observing. They were then seen as the authority on the
cultures they 3 observed and the conclusions they drew. Being detached meant researchers
observing without their beliefs and values influencing them. However, Fetterman (2010) argued
that this approach relied heavily on researchers’ ability to describe and explain communities in
richness and complexity. The method was therefore often influenced by the researchers’
preconceptions of and prejudices concerning cultures other than their own.

Ethnographic approaches informed by philosophical paradigms

Positivist ethnography

Positivist ethnography advocates objectivity about and distance from the matter being studied.
Here, as objectivity requires researchers to remain as detached as possible, results are focused
on facts rather than the researcher’s beliefs and values

Post-modern/constructivist ethnography
Post-modern approaches emphasise that reality is created through people’s interactions,
perceptions and experiences of the social world. In this way, the world is constructed socially or
by individuals.
critical ethnography
considers how participants and communities are represented, and the constraints 7 and
repressive aspects of injustice, inequality and control
Realist ethnography
Realist philosophers have negotiated the differences between the positivist and constructivist
paradigms in the concept of meaning by proposing that the processes that produce social
phenomena have natural and social explanations

TIP
CONCLUSION

We would generally recommend that an ethnographic approach may be suitable for the
early stages of a user-centred project that deals with a particularly complicated or critical
design challenge. This is because ethnographic methods allow a particularly deep
understanding of a design problem’s domain, audience(s), processes, goals and context(s) of
use. These ethnographic methods can also be very useful in discovering and exploring
previously unknown issues.

Ethnographic studies are a good way to really understand your users and the challenges they
may face while going about their everyday lives. The research will give you insights to your
users that you may not have seen if they were in a lab being asked to complete a task.
However, Ethnographic studies can be costly and time-consuming, so making sure that you get
the research method right is crucial to making sure that you are getting the research questions
answered. Having conducted a study, you then need to present your findings back in an
informative and meaningful way that will allow teams to use the information to make informed
changes, making sure that your own opinions have not come into the findings.
Ethnographic research helps individuals and organizations to gain useful insights into users'
behaviors as influenced by their natural environment. This form of systematic investigation
bridges the gap between the ethnographer and the research variables because the researcher
has the opportunity to be a part of their experiences. 
Administering online surveys for ethnographic research will speed up your data collection
process and would allow you to save costs and have more control over your sample size. You
can use Formplus to create and administer online ethnographic research surveys easily. 
Perhaps the most critical decision within an ethnographic study is the choice of ethnographic
researcher. This individual will design, conduct and analyse the study’s findings – so it is
essential that they have the skill and experience to make sure the study is representative,
accurate and fair.
Post-modern/constructivism is an approach commonly used in ethnographic study. This
approach values the ‘thick description’ of communities and cultures and the perspectives and
experiences of participants. It has been criticised for subjectivity and the risk of bias. Situated
between positivist and post-modern ethnography is post-positivist (realist) ethnography. This
focuses on finding the most plausible explanations for why actions, behaviours or events occur,
valuing modified objectivity. Following the rise of the internet, online gaming and social media,
the concept of ‘virtual’ or netnography has become more common and is likely to develop as
technology advances. This paper has presented an overview of the historical context of
ethnographic study, with a discussion of the components and principles of social anthropology,
positivist ethnography, critical ethnography and critical realist ethnography. In doing so, it has
provided an introduction to ethnography throughout its progression and development to serve
as a starting point for those who are new to ethnography or want to undertake ethnographic
study, while providing a critical view of the differing perspectives in it.
Source