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Memory
Remembering And Forgetting

With out memory, i.e. without the ability to keep what we learn in mind, and the ability
to retrieve what is in the mind, all learning becomes very temporary, and often useless.

Definitions
“The power we have to ‘store’ our experiences, and to bring them into the field of
consciousness sometime after the experiences have occurred, is termed, memory”.
-Ryburn, 1956.

“The means by which individuals draw on past knowledge in order to use such
knowledge in the present”
-the dynamic mechanism associated with the retention and retrieval of information;
-The three operations through which information is processed by and for memory are
encoding, storage, and retrieval.”
- Sternberg, 2003.

Mechanism of the process of Memorization (Engrams)

 The four stages of memory are, 1. Learning, 2. Encoding, 3. Recognition, and 4.
Recall.
 For memorization, learning is the primary condition. No learning, no memorisation.
 Every experience we undergo leaves traces of memory, which are conserved or
encoded in the form of “engrams” by our central nervous system. Recent theories,
however, indicate that it is in the electrical impulses that pass through the network of
activated neurones that keep the trace of our memory; and that when the same
neurones are stimulated again, the retrieval (or decoding) happens.
 Recognition is nothing but the awareness of an object or situation as having been
known to the person.
 Bringing back to our consciousness, what was encoded in the brain for practical use,
is called recall.

Types of Memory
 Immediate Memory
 Short term Memory
 Long term Memory

Immediate Memory
Immediate memory or sensory memory helps to recall something within a few seconds
only. Retentive time of immediate memory is extremely brief, generally from a fraction
of a second to several seconds. E.g. Remembering a telephone number only till we make
a call, and then forgetting.

Short- term Memory

According to Information Processing theorists, from immediate memory, information
pass on to short-term memory. There, the memory lasts for about 20 to 30 minutes, and
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can be extended further by effort. Short term memory is also called WORKING
MEMORY. All that we are aware of at a present moment is said to be in the short-term
memory or working memory.

Span of short-term memory is 72 units according to the invention of Ebbinghaus

However, by chunking and other combining methods, more units of information can be
held in short term memory.
E.g. 7 digit telephone no. is normal (9 3 4 1 6 7 5 ) But even more digits could be
remembered by chunking. ( 93 416 7548)

Long term Memory

Long term memory, has seemingly limitless capacity to store information that undergoes
little decay, and requires little rehearsal. Long-term memory codes information according
to meaning, pattern and other characteristics and categories. Long term memory helps us
remember things on a relatively permanent basis.

Studying Memory
Purpose
Studies are conducted….
1. To understand the process and nature of memory
2. To understand the individual differences in memory
3. To learn the economical methods of memorization

Memorisation methods used in the lab.

In the lab, generally they use three memorization methods.
 serial list:
= serial or one syllable words (rat, cap, tent..)
= number serial (29, 57, 62,99…)
= meaningless or nonsense syllables (NAL, COT, KAZ, SOK…)
 Paired associate list:
= series of paired (not necessarily related) words or digits or monosyllabic nonsense
words (corn-music, Box-cat…)
 Connected Discourse:
= entire sentences or paragraphs or longer passages from literature, either written or
spoken.

Apparatus (memory drum and computer)

 In the experiment, memory material is given either by reading or by using a tape
recorder. For the sake of accuracy and timing, a device called memory drum was
also used earlier. Now computers are used for such purposes. Words are presented
through a window (screen) that opens systematically for a specified time (eg. 1/10th
second). The task of the participant is to remember as many words as he can.
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Measures and Criteria: (abilities measured):

Recognition:
 simple recognition: eg. a photograph is given and asked whether he/ she has seen that
(of course after showing some series material to be remembered)
 multiple-alternative recognition: the participant is given many pictures from them
he/she will have to recognize a person among them.

Recall:
 Free recall: the participant is to recall the list of items given to remember in any
order, as many items as possible.
 Probed recall: the subject is given a cue to remember appropriate item. Eg. in a
paired phrase memory test, (box-cat), the first (box) syllable is given. The demand is
to remember the appropriate word that was paired with the syllable (cat).
 Serial recall: the participant is to remember the materials with their exact place as
they were presented. (eg. the first one or the last one, or the 10th one, or ….)

Methods of Ebbinghaus
General:
1. Learning method: checking how many trials a person takes to memorize a given
material. (Usually meaningless monosyllables)
2. Saving method: after a person learns a given material well, he is given a long time of
rest, during which he forgets what he learned. Then it is again seen how many trials
he needs to memorize the same material again. (Usually less number of trials). 
Question is how many trials he saves.

Economic methods:
1. Recitation method: instead of going on reading the matter, after two or three readings
the person recites the matter within his mind (to self-evaluate his memory and plan
further practice).
2. Whole and part method: some learn the whole material at a stretch. Others memorize
part by part. (for longer material this method is better).

Spaced and Un-spaced methods

1. Un-spaced: a person tries to memorize the whole material in one sitting, without any
break.
2. Spaced: a person learns a material session by session. That is takes some time to learn
and takes some rest and then again learns.
 Spaced learning method has benefits for memorization and it stays longer. It removes
the monotony, gives rest to the brain etc.

Training in Memory
 Our memory capacity is limitless. We can improve our memory by training.
 To improve memory:
o keep your mind relaxed with mild emotions. (full concentration is possible)
o have self-confidence about remembering.
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follow methods, like association of ideas, systematic thinking etc. to improve encoding
and recall.
don’t fight within yourself to recall for a long time. If you find it difficult, give it up
for the time being. When you are relaxed, attempt again.

 To improve learning:
 motivation and determination to learn.
(Create your own mood)
 interest and attention: No interest, no attention, so no effective learning.
“ Interest is the mother of attention and attention is the mother of memory”
use methods of memorization.
 use principle of association
Grouping and Rhythm
 utilize as many senses as possible (eg. use audio visuals)
 learning situation: facilitative, without disturbances
internal factor of the learner: physical and mental health, emotional status.
 change and rest
 continuous repetition and practice

Memory Techniques
 Basic is motivation, interest and relaxation.
 Repetition especially spaced repetition.
 Loci method (list) (story of Cicero) (Roman Room method)
 Association : (list) eg. body parts association.
 Link method, or chain method. (list) (visualize and associate-funny and ridiculous
images)
 Story method. (list) (create a story connecting the things you want to remember)
 Mnemonics: (list)
 Acronyms: (list) VIBGYOR
 Song method: (list) create a song. Abcd..efgh…

To remember ideas
Keep those ideas in your working memory longer, so that it will reach the long term
memory. You can,
 -paraphrase
 -raise questions
 -analyse
 compare and contrast
 device something new
 -criticize
 -practically apply
 information management (show them the slides)
Learning techniques like SQ4R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Revise, Reflect) could
be used. Recently there are also methods like Mind-Mapping, Concept-Mapping are
used to keep ideas and longer coherent data in memory.
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Forgetting
Definitions
 Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary, of the ability to recall or recognize
something learned earlier. (Munn 1967)
 Forgetting is the failure of the individual to revive (to) in consciousness an idea or
group of ideas without the help of the original stimulus (Bhatia, 1968)

The Rate of Forgetting

Ebbinghaus (1885) tested his own memory, by memorizing nonsense syllables and then
testing himself after different periods of time. The Rate of his forgetting:
Time - Forgotten
20 mts 47%
one day 66%
two days 72%
six days 75%
30 days 79%

From these two important conclusions:

 The amount of learnt material forgotten depends upon the time lapsed after learning
 The rate of forgetting is very rapid at first and then gradually diminishes
proportionately as the interval lengthens.

Theories on forgetting (factors that involved in forgetting):

1. Trace decay theory: learning results in neurological changes leaving certain types of
memory traces or engrams in the brain. With the passage of time, these traces get
weaker and weaker and finally fade away, thus forgetting happens.
 This theory could not be proved experimentally, neither do day-to-day experience
attest to it, especially with regard to long-term memory.
 However for short-term memory, this theory fits.

2. Interference theory: holds that the mechanism of interference is responsible for

forgetting. i.e. one learning interferes (or inhibits) on the memory of another learned
material. This process could be both retroactive or proactive. In the Retroactive
inhibition, new learning impairs the retention of the previously learned material. In
the proactive inhibition, the old learning or experiences disrupt the memory of new
learning. (Learning a second language)
 Similar experiences interfere easily.
 Interference theory has been successful to explain the normal, long-term and
short term memory, but not for morbid forgetting.
3. Repression Theory: Repression, according to Psychoanalysis, is a mental function (a
defence mechanism) that safeguards the mind from extreme anxiety that arise from
acute conflicts. We push the unpleasant and painful memories into the unconscious
and thus try to avoid at least consciously the conflicts that bother us. This is an
unconscious process. We usually forget things, which we do not want to remember.
High emotions also make one forget things.