Forces

FORCES
Air
resistance

Gravity pull
Buzz

 What are the different types of

forces?
 How do we solve problems
involving translational and rotational
equilibrium?
Diagnostic Test
 Electromagnetic Forces
Contact Forces

tension lift

weight normal reaction

weight

weight
Website: Amazing table cloth !!!
http://youtube.com/watch?v=cuG8sIiV8iQ&feature=related
 Learning Objectives
(a)recall and apply Hooke’s law (F = kx, where k is the force
constant) to new situations or to solve related problems

(b)describe the forces on a mass, charge and current-carrying

conductor in gravitational, electric and magnetic fields, as
appropriate

(c)show a qualitative understanding of normal contact forces,

frictional forces and viscous forces including air resistance
(no treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is
required)

(d)show an understanding that the weight of a body may be

taken as acting at a single point known as its centre of
gravity
(e) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of
a couple
(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces
which tends to produce rotation only
(g) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to
solve related problems
(h) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant
force and no resultant torque, a system is in equilibrium
(i) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium
(j) derive, from the definitions of pressure and density, the
equation p = gh
(k) solve problems using the equation p = gh
(l) show an understanding of the origin of the force of
upthrust acting on a body in a fluid
(m) state that upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the weight of the fluid displaced by a
submerged or floating object
(n) calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight of the
displaced fluid
(o) recall and apply the principle that, for an object floating
in equilibrium, the upthrust is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the weight of the object to new
situations or to solve related problems
 Concept Map
Translational Rotational
Acceleration Acceleration Conservative vs.
Non-Conservative Forces
Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion
Viscous Drag
Not in Equilibrium
Forces Types Friction
In Equilibrium
Gravitational Upthrust
Newton’s 1st Law of Motion Force
Electric Elastic Force
Translational Rotational Force Magnetic
Equilibrium Force
Equilibrium

F  0   0 Pg 2
 What is a FORCE?
A force is a push or pull which one body exerts
on another and can be defined as the rate of
change of momentum.

10
Pg 3
 Example 1
Gravitational force:
weight
• is due to the interaction
between masses F

• on an object is called
weight if it is due to the
gravity of the Earth

12
Pg 3
 Electric force:
• is due to the interaction between charges

F + + F

F F

F F
+

13
Pg 3
Magnetic force:
• is due to the interaction between magnetic
materials

S N S N
F F

F S N N S F

Pg 4
 wire wire
Magnetic force also acts
on moving charges and
current-carrying conductors I1 I
F 2
F
when they are placed in
magnetic fields

wire wire wire wire

I1 I2 I1 I2
F F F F

Pg 4
 Example 2 Forces on the BLOCK
(not on the table)
Forces on the BALL
N

W
N = normal reaction (or
T = tension normal contact force)
W = weight W = weight of block
16
Pg 4
 Forces on the block Forces on the ball
(pushed to right)
N
U R
F f

W W
F = forward force U = upthrust (in fluid)
f = frictional force R = drag force (force of
N = normal reaction resistance during motion)
W = weight of block W = weight of ball
17
Pg 4
Frictional Forces
Frictional force is the force exerted by one body on
another body when two bodies slide over one another. It
is caused by irregularities in the surfaces in mutual
contact and depends on the surfaces in contact as well
as how much they are pressed against each other. It is
the component of contact force along surface of
contact.

Pg 5
Frictional Forces
 Force exerted by contact surface on object.
 Acts in a direction that opposes motion of object.
 Dissipative in nature.
 Static Friction
 Friction between 2 surfaces that have no
relative motion between one another.
 Kinetic Friction
 Friction between 2 surfaces that are moving
relative to one another.
 For the same 2 contact surfaces,
Static Friction > Kinetic Friction

Pg 5
 Frictional Forces
(Not in syllabus)
Friction proportional to normal force acting on
the surface
Proportionality constant is known as
coefficient of friction, μ
FN
friction = μFN Fpush

friction
Viscous / Drag Force
 Force exerted by a fluid on a object moving through it.
 Acts in a direction that opposes motion of object.
 Its magnitude increases with increase of speed of the
object.
 Fluid under viscous flow conditions flow at varying
speeds within the same cross section.
 The fluid may be regarded as being made up of
several thin layers and each layer moves with different
speeds due to friction between layers.

Pg 5
Viscous / Drag Force

Pg 6
Terminal Velocity
When the man falls from rest in
air, drag force F = 0 N.
If we assume upthrust to be
negligible, the man undergoes
free-fall.
As the man accelerates
downwards, drag force F
increases.
Hence resultant force decreases.
Eventually the drag force
increases to a value such that
resultant force on the man is
zero.
The man continues to fall at a
constant speed. (a.k.a Terminal
Velocity) Pg 6
Terminal Velocity
Terminal Velocity
Quiz Question:
What happens when the parachute deploys when
the man falls at terminal velocity?
Velocity / m s-1
terminal velocity
(parachute opens)

acceleration terminal velocity

0 Time / s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lBk62CWsGok
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ur40O6nQHsw
Example 3
The mass of a diver is 61 kg. In a free-fall dive from an
aircraft, before the parachute was opened, the diver reached a
terminal speed of 90 m s-1.
Calculate
(i) the weight of the diver,
Weight of diver = mg
= 61 × 9.81 ≈ 598 N
(ii) the force of air resistance on the diver when at terminal
speed,
At terminal velocity, diver is in translational
equilibrium. By Newton’s First Law:
Air Resistance = Weight of diver = 598 N

Pg 7
 Example 3
(iii) the magnitude and unit of the constant k in the expression
air resistance = kv2,
F = kv2 = 598 N
598 = k(90)2
k ≈ 0.0738 kg m-1
(iv) using the expression given in (iii), estimate the air
resistance on the diver when he is moving with a speed
of 25 m s-1.
F = kv2
= 0.0738(25)2
≈ 46.1 N
Pg 7
Example 3
(v) Sketch appropriate graphs to show how each of the
following quantities vary with time:
1. the velocity of the diver,
2. viscous drag acting on the diver,
3. the resultant force on the diver.

Pg 7
Example 3
V
Air Resistance = kv2 VT

F t
Weight

Resultant Force
t

Air Resistance

Pg 7
 Centre of Gravity (C.G.)
• Every particle of mass is attracted toward
the center of the earth by the force of
gravity.
• The whole weight of a body may be taken
as acting at a single point known as its
centre of gravity (C.G.).
• The C.G. of a homogeneous, symmetric
body must lie on its axis of symmetry.

31
Pg 8
 Centre of Gravity (c.g.) of an
asymmetric “plate-like” object

32
 Free-Body Diagrams
 A mechanical system may consist of more than
one object or body.

 A free-body diagram takes into account all the

forces acting on a given body, and these are
marked out on the diagram.

33
Pg 8
 Example 4
(Treat the entire plane as a single body)

D T

W
L = lift W = weight
T = thrust D = drag
34
Pg 8
 Example 5: Beware!
Smooth pulley

Forces aren’t
labeled.
Which forces act on
which objects?!
Can be confusing!

35
Pg 8
 This “system” contains more than
Example 5 one object. Better to isolate each
object.
T T’
T

T T
Wp
W1 W2
T = tension in string
W = weight of object
36
Pg 8
Hooke’s Law
 Hooke’s law states that force is directly proportional to
extension, providing that the elastic limit has not been
exceeded.

F = kx
x x

Material under Tension Material under Compression

Pg 9
 Hooke’s Law

Mathematically,

F   or F  k 
where F = external force in N
k = spring constant in N m-1
x = deformation (or extension) in m
The spring constant is a measure of the stiffness
of the elastic object.
38
Pg 9
Hooke’s Law:
Force – Extension Graph

F = kx
F

Gradient = k

0 x

Pg 9
Force – Extension Graph
Conceptual Question:
What happens to the F-x graph when a material is
stretched beyond its limit of proportionality?

Limit of Proportionality

0 x
Pg 9
 k1 k2
= k1 k2
= keff

F F1 F2 F

Neglect weight
of the springs F = F1 + F2
keff x = k1x + k2x
keff = k1 + k2
41
Pg 9
 x = x1 + x2
k1 k1
x1 F F F
keff  
= F = keff k1 k2
k2
x
x2 1 1 1
F  
keff k1 k 2
F F
k2
Neglect weight
of the springs
F

42
Pg 9
 Notes for Hooke’s Law:

(i) The law applies to springs as well as metals in the

form of wires.

(ii) If two springs of spring constant k1 and k2 are

connected in parallel, they can be replaced by a
single spring of spring constant
keff = k1 + k2

(iii) If the two springs are connected in series, they

can be replaced by a single spring of spring
constant 1  1  1
43
k eff k1 k2
Pg 9
 Example 6
A spring obeying Hooke's law has an unstretched
length of 50 mm and a spring constant of 400 Nm-1.

What is the tension in the spring when the overall

length is 70 mm?

Extension, x = 0.070 – 0.050 = 0.020 m

Tension, F = kx = (400)(0.020) = 8.0 N

44
Pg 10
 Elastic Potential Energy (EPE)
An external force Fext acting on a wire causing it
to extend from x1 to x2 performs work given by

x2
W = Fext dx
x1

This work is stored as elastic potential energy

in the wire. The elastic potential energy is equal
to the area under the force-extension curve,
between the limits x1 and x2.
45
Pg 10
 EPE
Force / N

Area under the F-x

graph gives the amount
of energy needed to
stretch spring from an
extension of x1 to x2.
x1 x2 Extension x /m

46
Pg 10
Energy stored in a deformed material
Force
Strain energy

extension
0
The energy stored (known as elastic potential energy or
strain energy) in a deformed material that obeys Hooke’s law,
such as a spring or wire, can be found from the area under
the force-extension graph.

1 1 2 F2
Elastic PE, U  Fx  kx 
2 2 2k 47
Pg 10
 Example 7
A force of 10 N acting on a certain spring gives an
extension of 40 mm. Two such springs are connected
end-to-end and this double-length spring is extended
by 40 mm. Assuming that the springs conform to
Hooke’s Law, what is the strain energy?

48
Pg 11
 Solution

Thinking process:
 Since there is no information on the
mass of the spring, assume that it is
“light”, i.e. it has negligible mass.

 Note that, when connected end-to-

end, each spring experiences the
same applied force.

49
Pg 11
 Solution
Spring constant for each spring,

F 10
k1  k 2   3
 250 N m -1

x 40 10
1 1 1
Series:  
k eff k1 k 2

Keff = 125 N m-1

50
Pg 11
 Solution

Strain Energy = EPE

1 1
 keff x  (125)(0.040) 2
2

2 2
= 0.10 J

51
Pg 11
 Example 8

 What would be the energy required to extend the

spring of spring constant k from an extension of x1
to x2?

1 2 1 2
Force Energy  kx2  kx1
F 2 2

extension
0 x1 x2 x

52
Pg 11
Example 8
 The extension of a rubber band when a variable force is
applied is given by the graph below. The original length of
the spring is 0.05 m. What is the increase in potential
energy stored when the rubber band when it extends
from 0.1 m 0.4 m?

Force / N
F F  kx  2  k (0.05) k  40 Nm 1

1 2 1 2
Energy  kx2  kx1  2.4 J
0.05 0.10 0.40 Length / m
2 2
0 0.05 0.35 Extension / m

Pg 11
Questions to ponder:

1. Why do balloons filled with normal air sink

but balloons filled with helium rise?

2. Some ice cubes are floating in a cup of

water. When all the ice cubes have melted,
would the water level in the cup of water rise,
sink or remain the same? Why?
 How can this huge chunk of
metal float on water?

55
 submarine

Why is the submarine able to float in water?

http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/submarine1.htm
Dead Sea

A tourist demonstrates the unusual

buoyancy caused by high salinity
 Upthrust
 An upthrust or buoyant force U is provided by the
surrounding fluid displaced by a submerged or floating
object.
 It is a vertical upward force that acts through the centre
of buoyancy of the body.
 It is the resultant force due to a difference in pressure at
the top and bottom surface of the body.
 The upthrust on a body in a fluid may be calculated
using Archimedes’ Principle.
Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted by the
surrounding fluid when a body is submerged fully or
partially in a fluid. It is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
Pg 12
Archimedes’ Principle
Considering a solid cylinder of height h and
cross-sectional area A, submerged in a h1
fluid of density ρ:
h2
Pressure on the top surface:
Weight of the column of fluid above
P1 = + Patm
Cross-sectional area
Ah1  fluid g
  Patm
A
 h1  fluid g  Patm
mf g  f Vg
Similarly, pressure on the bottom surface: p f  
A A
P2  h2  fluid g  Patm   f gh
Pg 12
 Archimedes’ Principle
Hence, the downward force,
F1   h1  fluid g  Patm  A
F1
Similarly, the upward force, h1
F2   h2  fluid g  Patm  A h2
Thus the upward resultant force,
h
U  F2 - F1
  h2  fluid g  Patm  A -  h1  fluid g  Patm  A
  h2 - h1   fluid gA F2
 h fluid gA
Upthrust is equal in magnitude
U   fluid gV fluid displaced to the weight of fluid displaced
 m fluid g by the body.
Pg 13
 Example 7
(a) What is the buoyant force (upthrust) on a human body of
volume 7.4 × 10-2 m3 when totally immersed in
(i) air of density 1.3 kg m-3
(ii) sea water of density 1030 kg m-3 ?
Since the body is totally immersed in the fluid, the volume
of body would equal the volume of fluid displaced.
(i) By Archimedes’ Principle:
U   fluid gV fluid displaced
 (1.3)(9.81)(7.4 10-2 )  0.94 N
(ii) By Archimedes’ Principle:
U   fluid gV fluid displaced
 (1030)(9.81)(7.4 10-2 )  748 N
Pg 13
Example 7
(b) Hence explain why the upthrust acting on a human
body when in air is normally ignored.

The average person weighs about 600 N and the upthrust in

air of about 1 N is less than 0.2% of the weight of the
person, making it negligible.

Pg 13
Principle of Floatation

 Principle of Floatation states that when an object is

floating in equilibrium in a fluid, the weight of the
object is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by
the object.

Pg 14
Example 8
A student rolled a lump of plasticine into the shape of an
air-tight sphere. He dropped the plasticine into a bucket
of water and observed that the plasticine sank to the
bottom of the water.

Using Archimedes’ Principle and the Principle of

floatation, show that the density of the plasticine must be
greater than the density of water.

Pg 14
Example 8
Since the plasticine sinks,
 weight of plasticine  upthrust due to water
By Archimedes’ Principle: Upthrust  W fluid displaced
Therefore Wplasticine  W fluid displaced
 plasticine gV plasticine   water gVwater displaced
When the plasticine is fully submerged, Vplasticine = Vwater displaced
Hence  plasticine   water Shown!

http://youtube.com/watch?v=aR0b4QRhfU0&feature=related Pg 14
How would it be possible for the student to make the lump of
plasticine float in the bucket of water, even though the density
of the plasticine is greater than that of water?

By moulding the plasticine into a bowl, it is able to displace a

greater amount of water.
By Principle of Floatation:
U=W
ρf Vf g = ρpVpg

In order for plasticine to float, Vf > Vp

Plasticine must be able to displace larger volume of water than

its volume.
Real life applications of this: Ships and boats

Pg 14
Example 9
A boat floating in fresh water displaces 35.6 kN of water.
(a) What weight of water would this boat displace if it
were floating in salt water of density 1024 kg m-3?
(b) What is the volume of salt water displaced?
(a) For the boat to float, the upthrust on the boat must be
equal to the weight W according to the Principle of
Floatation whether in salt or fresh water. Hence weight
of sea-water displaced = 35.6 kN.
(b) Upthrust = weight of salt water displaced
 sVs g  35.6
1024   s
9.81 V  35.6  10 3

Vs  3.54 m3
Pg 15
Example 10
A solid weighs 237.5 g in air and 12.5g when totally
immersed in water. Calculate the relative density of a
liquid in which the solid would float with one fifth of its
volume exposed above the liquid surface. Take density
of water as 1000 kg m-3.

Pg 15
Pg 15
 Conditions for Equilibrium

For a Body
 Translational Equilibrium: The resultant force
on it must be zero in any direction.
F O
 Rotational Equilibrium: The resultant torque
acting on it must be zero about any axis of
rotation. 
  O

Pg 16
 Conditions for Equilibrium

For a Particle or Point Mass

 The resultant force on it must be zero in any
direction.
F O

Note:There is no need to determine the

resultant torque as being a particle or point
mass, forces will act through its centre of
mass.

Pg 16
Translational Equilibrium
For a body / particle in equilibrium, it must be in translational
equilibrium.

F O

Vector sum of forces must be zero

Forces must form a closed Summation of the

polygon with its direction components of forces along
taken in order the x , y (and z) axes is zero
Pg 17
Translational Equilibrium

Summation of the components of forces along the x , y

(and z) axes is zero.

F x O

F y O

Pg 17
Translational Equilibrium

Forces must form a closed polygon with its direction

taken in order.

Pg 17
MOMENTS
MOMENTS
Moment of a Force
 The moment of a force about a point is defined as the
product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance of the force from the point
(pivot).
 Its direction is given by the Right-Hand Corkscrew
Rule. P
MP Considering moment of F about point P
Magnitude of moment, MP= S F
S

In vector notation:
Magnitude of moment, M P = S × F
F

Pg 18
 Torque of a Couple
 A couple is a pair of forces of equal magnitude but
acting in opposite directions whose lines of action are
parallel but separate.
 The torque of a couple is defined as the product of
one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between the forces.

τ
F
d
Magnitude of torque,  = d  F
F

Pg 18
 PAIRS
PAIRS OF OF EQUAL
EQUAL AND OPPOSITE
AND OPPOSITE FORCES
FORCES
THAT
THAT
THAT PRODUCE
PRODUCEROTATION
PRODUCE ROTATION
ROTATION

F
 Rotational Equilibrium

For a body in equilibrium, it must be in rotational

equilibrium. 
  O

The resultant torque acting on it must be zero in all axes.

Summation of moment of forces about every point is zero.

Principle of Moments

Pg 18
 Principle of Moments

Principle of Moments states that when a system is in

equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about any
point must be equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moments
about the same point.

Pg 19
Example 11
A uniform rod of XY of weight 10.0 N is freely hinged to a wall
at X. It is held horizontal by a force F acting from Y at an angle
of 60o to the vertical as shown in the diagram. What is the
value of F?

Pg 19
 Example 11
Consider the free body of rod XY
L F F
Fwall on rod

WXY = 10.0 N
Since the rod is in equilibrium,  = 0   M Every Po int =0
Taking moment about X: by principle of moments:
Anti-Clockwise Moments= Clockwise Moments
1 
 
F Cos 60 L  W  L 
0

2 
F  10.0 N Pg 19
 Special Cases of Equilibrium
For a two-force body
For a rigid body at equilibrium subjected to forces
acting at only two points, the two forces must
1. have the same magnitude
2. have the same line of action
3. be opposite in direction

Pg 19
 Special Cases of Equilibrium

For a three-force body

For a rigid body at equilibrium subjected to forces
acting at only three points, the lines of action of the
three forces must either be
1. concurrent (intersect at a point) OR
2. parallel

Concurrent Parallel
Pg 20
Conceptual Question
If the line of action of 3 coplanar forces intersect at a
point, the 3 forces must be able to maintain a body in
equilibrium. Is this statement true or false?

Pg 20
Conceptual Question
If the line of action of 3 coplanar forces are parallel,
the 3 forces must be able to maintain a body in
equilibrium. Is this statement true or false?

Pg 20
Example 12
The diagram below shows a heavy flagpole PQ hinged at a
vertical wall at end P and held by a wire connected to the
end Q and a point R on the wall. The weight of the flagpole
is W and the tension in the wire is T. What is the direction of
the force exerted by the wall on the flagpole?
Since the flagpole is in equilibrium
subjected to forces acting at only three
T
points,
the lines of action of the three forces will
intersect and their direction may be
represented by the sides of a triangle
taken in order so that they form a
closed loop.
Thus the direction of the force exerted
W
by the wall on the flagpole is from P to
S Pg 20
 Example 13
A block of mass 20 kg is to be lifted by a light horizontal
level of length 1.0 m. Where should the lever be pivoted
so that a force of 50 N can balance the block as shown
by the figure below?

89
Pg 22
 Let F = 50 N, and let the
weight of the block be W.
x
By Principle of Moments
For rotational equilibrium (take moments about pivot),
Anti-clockwise moments = Clockwise moments
Fx = W(1.0 – x)
x(F + W) = W

W 20(9.81)
x 
F  W 50  20(9.81)
 0.80 m
90
Pg 22
 Example 14
A smooth sphere of weight W is supported by a string and is
in contact with a smooth vertical wall. One end of the string is
fastened to a point on the surface of the sphere and the other
end is attached to a point on the wall. If the length of the
string is equal to the radius of the sphere, find the tension T in
the string and the reaction N of the wall on the sphere in
terms of its weight,W.
C
T


A N
O

91 W
Pg 22
 T sin   W
C
T
W

T  0
 1.15 W
A N sin 60
O

Resolving forces
W horizontally for
equilibrium,
Given: OC = 2AO
1
cos      60 0 T cos   N
2
 N  T cos 60 0

Resolving forces
vertically for equilibrium,
 0.58W
92
Pg 22
 Example 15
A uniform beam of weight 400 N is 5.0 m long.
One end of the beam is hinged to a vertical wall
while the other end is attached by a 3.0 m long
horizontal rope to a point on the wall.

rope Find
C B (1) the tension T in the rope,
beam (2) the magnitude of the
wall
force exerted by the
hinge on the beam.
hinge A

93
Pg 23
 Method 1 T
T C B

C B

Rv

A Rh
W
A W
R
Rv
The diagram above 3.0
can be redrawn as cos   Rh
5.0
follows:
94
Pg 23
 Rotational equilibrium: Problem-solving tip:

Taking moments about A, Take moments about

a point through which
T (5.0 sin )  W (2.5 cos ) an unknown force
T  150 N acts.

Translational equilibrium:
R
Rv
Rv  W  400 N
Rh  T  150 N Rh

R  Rh  Rv  1502  4002
2 2

R  427 N  430 N
95
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 R
Method 2
T T
C B
α W
R
α
T
A W tan  
W
1.5
tan   W
4.0 cos  
R
96
Pg 23
 Example 16
A heavy uniform beam AB is 3.0 m long and has a weight of
400 N. It is suspended in a horizontal position by two vertical
strings attached to its ends. Each of the strings can
withstand a maximum tension of 350 N. How far from A can
an object of weight 200 N be placed on the beam so that one
of the strings is on the verge of breaking?

TA 1.5 m TB
d
A B

200 N
400 N
97
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 TA 1.5 m TB
Problem-solving tip:
d
A B Take moments about
a point through
200 N which an unknown
400 N force acts.

Taking moments about B,

TA (3.0)  400(1.5)  200(3.0  d )
For the string at A to be on the verge of
breaking, TA = 350 N

98
Hence, d = 0.75 m.
Pg 24