Recommended Phasor Diagram For Synchronous Machines

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88, NO.
11, NOVEMBER 1969 159a
create greater facility in their use may be very helpful in the further other components that have been used more extensively in the past.
analysis of complete power systems. The more completely the characteristics of these components are de-
If is of course recognized that the a, f, and -y components, as veloped, the more readily the extended possibilities can be evaluated.
used in this series of papers, have a close relationship with the a,
,, and 0 components whose application was popularized by the late
Miss Edith Clarke. However, with the increase in complexity of
systems, it is highly desirable to utilize matrix methods to the
maximum extent possible and to utilize transformations in which
power terms are invariant to the tranformation. In this respect, the H. H. Hwang: The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to
a, i, and y components are preferred to the previously used a, , Prof. Lewis for his valuable discussion to the paper.
and 0 components in which power invariance is not preserved. The discussion by Prof. Lewis not only presents a thorough
There are also other advantages to the a, A, and -y components understanding of the characteristics of various components, but
that may have value as system analyses are extended to new cases. also provides a clear outline for solving more complex system
Symmetrical-component relationships for studying unbalanced problems. In particular, the following problems can be readily
short circuits have proved convenient only if the short circuits have solved by using the information provided.
been applied symmetrically, as viewed from the reference phase. 1) Transient Analysis of Machine Networks: The a, f, and -y compo-
That is, if phase a is the reference, as is usually the case, a single- nents can be applied to a system consisting of two or more machines
line-to-neutral fault is applied to phase a, and line-to-line and without any additional transformations. Therefore, it is possible to
double-line-to-neutral short circuits are applied to phases b and c. simulate each machine in the system by the performance equations
Any other combination of phases introduces the necessity of a phase given in the paper under any particular fault conditions. Although
shift that is impractical to handle with network analyzers and the work needed to solve the set of simultaneous equations simulat-
also introduces an awkward step of phase shift when digital computers ing the system becomes more laborious as the number of machines
are used. On the other hand, a, 3, and y components can be much increases, the solution is obtainable in general.
more readily adapted to unbalanced short circuits on any phase, 2) Analysis of Simultaneous Faults Applied on Different Phases:
regardless of which phase has been chosen as reference. This facility Prof. Lewis has outlined clearly the use of the a, g, and -y components
can be of distinct advantage when the necessity arises for two or for solving this type of problem. The author intends to extend the
more simultaneous unbalanced short circuits applied on different present work to the cases of simultaneous faults and believes that
phases. Since the phase designation is arbitrary, the first unbalanced the results would be of practical value.
short circuit can be assigned in the preferred way, but an arbitrary The author sincerely appreciates Prof. Lewis' valuable suggestions
choice is no longer available for the second or subsequent short for advancing the present work.
circuits applied to diff erent phases.
For these various reasons, it appears that the a, ,B, -y and com-
ponents may be more readily adaptable to complex requirements than Manuscript received March 17, 1969.
Recommended Phasor Diagram for

Synchronous Machines
IEEE COMMITTEE REPORT
Abstract-A phasor diagram for excited-field synchronous ma- INTRODUCTION

chines is recommended for adoption by USASI and IEC. The di- THE flux-linkage and voltage equations that have been in
agram and the choice of direct and quadrature axes are defined so
that the laws of induced voltages are expressed in "natural" form. general use, particularly in the United States, for the
The recommended diagram overcomes certain apparent inconsis- analysis of synchronous machines with excited field windings,
tencies in the phasor diagram in USASI Standard C42. 10-1957. have contained reversed signs for certain armature-related
terms. These were introduced for convenience in analyzing
synchronous generators where the armature current usually
Paper 69 TP 143-PWR, recommended and approved by the produces a demagnetizing effect. These so-called "nonnatural"
Rotating Machinery Committee of the IEEE Power Group for
presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, signs have represented a point of difficulty to the student and
N. Y., January 26-31, 1969. Manuscript submitted September 18, new engineer, but have not been a source of serious problems to
1968; made available for printing November 25, 1968.
The members of the Advisory Working Group IEC Matters of the practicing analyst and designer.
on
the Synchronous Machinery Subcommittee of the IEEE Rotating The phasor diagram (Fig. 13) accepted now as standard
Machinery Committee are: D. B. Harrington, Chairman, C. Con- in this country since its publication as [14, Fig. 10.31.020] is
cordia, W. C. Dumper, W. J. Foley, M. R. Lory, H. Majmudar,
J. A. Oliver, and L. T. Rosenberg. based on the flux-linkage and voltage equations with the "non-
1594 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER 1969
j lad Xad
/
/
/
/ /
Fig. 2. Phasor diagram of generator operating at

Fig. 1. Phasor diagram of overexcited generator. underexcited power factor.
natural" signs. This United States of America Standards produced by that voltage. Finally, the proposed phasor diagram
Institute (USASI) diagram was adopted only after lengthy is compared with [14, Fig. 10.31.020] citing the reasons for
study in American Institute of Electrical Engineers and American making a change. Comparison is also made with one diagram
Standards Association. It has preserved the conventions that being considered by IEC.
have been in general use since the first complete mathematical The equations used in this paper are in the Standard Inter-
formulation of the two-axis theory by Park [12]. national (SI) units based on rationalized MKS [16].
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is
now in the process of determining its standard form of the RECOMMENDED PHASOR DIAGRAM
phasor diagram. When it has been chosen, it will be published
as a recommended diagram for use by all countries. In its de- Fig. 1 is the recommended phasor diagram proposed as a
liberation, the IEC Subcommittee 2G on Synchronous Machine revision to [14, Fig. 10.31.020], reproduced here as Fig. 13; it is
Quantities has rejected the diagram of [14]. It is now clear that drawn for the steady-state operating condition of a synchronous
the international community will select a phasor diagram based generator operating at an overexcited power factor with balanced
on flux-linkage and voltage equations with the "natural" signs polyphase currents. The diagram is oriented to place the current
of (1), (2), and (4). phasor 'a in a horizontal position. Another commonly used
The question remaining for IEC to answer is how to ac- orientation places the terminal voltage phasor Ea in a horizontal
commodate the inherent characteristics of a synchronous ma- position.
chine for which the "unnatural" signs were introduced. Ap- For reference and completeness, Figs. 2-4 are presented as the
proaches being discussed concern the directions to be chosen for diagrams for a ge-ierator operating at an underexcited power
the direct and quadrature axes, and whether the phasor diagram factor and for a motor operating at overexcited and under-
should consider armature current positive for generator or for excited power factors, respectively. On these diagrams, the
motor action. following phasor quantities are shown (effects of magnetic
The purpose of this paper is respectfully to recommend a saturation neglected for simplicity):
phasor diagram that is natural in all respects and would be
consistent with the equations with natural signs for flux linkage Armature Voltages (Volts)
and voltages. This diagram will be processed through IEEE Ea terminal voltage
Standards channels as a recommended revision to [14]. It will Eag, voltage due to net air-gap flux; also called "virtual
also be proposed as a USA National Committee recommendation voltage" and the "voltage behind leakage reac-
to IEC in 1969. tance"
The presentation of this paper is to serve as a forum of United Eaf voltage due to flux produced only by the field-winding
States opinion on the suitability of the recommended diagram to current
replace [14, Fig. 10.31.020]. laRa voltage across armature resistance
The paper is organized so that the recommended phasor IaXi voltage across armature leakage reactance
diagram is presented along with a description of its features. ladXa voltage across direct-axis armature magnetizing
Following this, the reasons for selecting this diagram are es- reactance
tablished by developing in simple and basic terms the equations jIaqXaq voltage across quadrature-axis armature magnetizing
representing the natural laws of induced voltage, and the current reactance.
IEEE COMMITTEE REPORT: PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 1595
LA zox
V~ 1-A
VgA -1.
Fig. 3. Phasor diagram of overexcited motor. Fig. 7. Determination of instantaneous phase quantities of phasor.
Armature Current (Amperes)

la armature current
4I direct-axis component of armature current; sense of
phasor I,, in Fig. indicates that flux produced by
1
armature current is opposed to that produced by field

current
laq quadrature-axis component of armature current.
Axes of Symmetry of Pole Structure (Ordinarily the Rotor)
Direct axis centerline of a north pole; positive direction is
Xaq
taken in direction of field-winding produced
/ magnetic flux
Quadrature axis centerline between poles; positive direction
is taken as lagging the positive direct axis
/
by 90 electrical degrees.
Flux Linkages with Armature Winding (Weber-Turns)
Fig. 4. Phasor diagram of motor operating at Wag flux linkage due to net air-gap flux
underexcited power factor.
Waud direct-axis component of flux linkage due to net air-
gap flux
Ia Wagq quadrature-axis component of flux linkage due to net
Power System air-gap flux
or Wad flux linkage due to direct-axis component of armature
t;a Load
current; sense of Wad in Fig. 1 indicates that flux
Generator produced is in opposition to that produced by field
winding
Fig. 5. Recommended reference polarity of Waq flux linlkage due to quadrature-axis component of
positive voltage and direction of positive cur- armature current
rent for generator.
Waf flux linkages due to field-winding current.
The voltage and current phasors are established in accordance
4-
I
with the sign convention for the machine as a source shown in
Power Fig. 5 and 6, drawn for a generator and a motor, respectively.
Supply Ea
From the recommended phasor diagram, the instantaneous
values of the voltages, currents, and flux linkages in the phases
Motor of the armature can be obtained. (Each of these quantities is
considered to vary sinusoidally with time.) Conceptually, the
Fig. 6. Recommended reference polarity of phasor diagram as shown in Figs. 1-4 rotates counterclockwise at
positive voltage and direction of positive cur-
rent for motor. synchronous speed, measured in electrical radians (or degrees)
per second. The stationary axes of the various (usually three) 'I,
phases are superposed on the rotating phasors. The instantaneous
value of any voltage, current, or flux linkage of any phase is the
projection of the phasor on the axis of that phase as shown in
Fig. 7. The displacement of phase axes is in electrical radians
(or degrees).
A study of the recommended phasor diagram will show that the
flux linkage produced by armature current is represented by a
phasor having the same direction and sense as the current
phasor. A phasor for magnetomotive force would also
follow this relationship. Hence, when the phasor of the direct-
axis component of armature current (4,d) has the opposite
sense to that of the positive direct axis, as shown in Fig. 1, the
flux produced by armature current only, is opposed to that
produced by the field winding.
Similarly the direction of a voltage phasor is such that it Fig. 8. Coil with reference positive directions of current and flux
bears the proper phase relation to the flux that produces it linkage and positive polarity of voltages indicated.
(i.e., generated voltage lags flux linkage by 90 degrees) and to
the currents and other voltages in the electric circuit of the source. If the reference positive polarity of voltages in Fig. 8
machine. were reversed, but the reference positive direction of current
and flux linkage were retained, we would have a motor or load
ASSUMPTIONS AND RATIONALE convention; that is, positive voltage at the terminals would
Reference Direction or Sign of Flux Linkages tend to cause positive current through the coil as a load. (The
Flux linkage of a circuit or portion thereof, produced by cur- relations of the various quantities using a "load" convention are
rent in the same circuit element (self-linkage) is considered to discussed in Appendix I.)
have the same sign as the current. Thus self-inductance of a The scalar equation of instantaneous voltage balance for the
circuit is always positive. coil of Fig. 8 can be written as
Further, the flux linkage in a circuit 1 due to current in e = e2 -iR. (3)
another circuit 2 will be positive if the flux-linking circuit 1 has
the same sense as that produced by positive current in circuit 1. The question now is simply this: Is e2 +d,6/dt or e2 =-db/dt?
=
If positive current in circuit 2 produces positive flux linkages in Lenz's law states that the voltage induced by changing flux
circuit 1, the mutual inductance between the two circuits is linkage will be of the polarity to cause current to oppose the
positive. In a rotating machine, where some circuits move change. Examination of Fig. 8 in light of the polarity chosen for
relative to others, the mutual inductances may be positive or positive e2 will indicate that induced voltage will be produced in
negative at any particular instant. accordance with scalar equation
In a three-phase synchronous machine, the flux linkages of
one of the three phases (phase A) and of the field winding may e2 de
= - - (4)
be expressed as follows in terms of the various machine induc- dtM
tances and circuit currents (subscript k refers to the kth amortis- Using (4), (3) can be rewritten as
seur circuit):
JVA = LAAiA + LABiB + LACiC + LA fif + LAkik (1) e = - dQ- iR. (5)
dt
Pf = IfAiA + LfBiB + LfCic + Lffif + Lfkik. (2) If el, I, and i are sinusoidal, the following phasor equation can
Reference Polarity of Induced Voltage be written from (5):
The subject of the sign of induced voltage has drawn much El = -jwW - IR. (6)
controversy as indicated in the Introduction and in [10]. How- The flux linkage il is the result of currents in all circuits that
ever, one thing is certain regardless of the sign that is used; link the coil shown, as well as the current i in the coil.
the resulting circuit equation must satisfy Kirchhoff's voltage Starting from such equations as (5) for each phase of the
law and Lenz's law of induced voltage. The sign of induced machine, (7) has been derived in [10] and [11].
voltage is then automatically determined once the conventions
regarding the sign of the flux linkage, and the reference for Eaf =
+ IaRa + jIaXI + JIadXad + jIaqXaq.
Ea (7)
positive direction of current and for positive polarity of voltage
are assigned. Reference Direction of Current
Consider, for example, the circuit of Fig. 8, which includes a The direction of positive current in a coil is such that the
coil with lumped resistance. The reference positive direction of resulting flux linkages with the same coil are positive, as stated
current and positive polarity of voltages shown correspond to a earlier under "Reference Direction of Flux Linkages."
"generator" or "source" convention. That is, if a resistor is This choice of positive current implies the use of the "source"
connected across the terminals, a positive current would flow or "generator" convention if the negative sign of (4) is to be
through the resister when a positive voltage el exists. In this retained (see Appendix I). Figs. 5, 6, and 8 (as well as Figs. 1-4)
context, the resistor could be considered a load and the coil, the are prepared according to the source convention. A reversal in
the direction of positive current, maintaining the direction of

positive voltage in these diagrams, would produce the "load"
or "motor" convention.
Reference Direction of Power
The consequence of the above conventions for voltage and
current is that positive electrical power flow is from the syn-
chronous machine to the connected system. A corollary to this
is that positive mechanical power flow is directed along the
shaft from connected apparatus, such as a prime mover, to the
synchronous machine.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND PHASOR DIAGRAM Fig. 9. Steady-state equivalent circuit for nonsalient-
FOR NONSALIENT-POLE MACHINE pole synchronous machine.
For simplicity, we shall first consider the case of a nonsalient-
pole synchronous machine, where the direct- and quadrature-
axis reactances are equal (synchronous reactances: Xd = Xq).
As has been discussed earlier, the choice of phasor diagram Eaf
for a synchronous machine is not uniquely determinable, but ,/j IaXad jIoXd
depends on individual preferences regarding internal and
external relations. Appendix II comprises a short bibliography
with a brief description of the conventions used by various
authors.
The recommended phasor diagram in terms of a nonsalient-
pole machine is based on the equivalent circuit of Fig. 9. Note
that the reference positive direction for current and positive
polarity for voltages are the same as in the simple coil of Fig. 8.
Fig. 10 is a phasor diagram of the current and voltages of an
overexcited nonsalient-pole generator. Subscripts f and a refer
to the field and armature windings, respectively: Eaf is armature
voltage due to field current. Subscript g refers to the net effect of
air-gap flux; Ea, is armature voltage due to the resultant air-gap K#1 v *-b Io
flux. Fig. 10. Phasor diagram of current and voltages
The phasor diagram of Fig. 10 can be shown to be consistent of overexcited nonsalient-pole generator.
with commonly held conceptions in circuit theory. The voltage
balance phasor equation for the equivalent circuit of Fig. 9 can
be written as
Eaf = Ea + laRa + jIaXi + JIaXad (8)
= Ea + laRa + iIaXd. (9)
From the point of view of circuit theory, the machine is
represented by a source of induced voltage Eaf in series with an
internal impedance Ra + jXd. Thus, + jIaXd represents the
voltage across the internal reactance and + laRa, the voltage
across the armature winding resistance. Hence, Ia is shown in ilaXod
Fig. 10 to be in phase with the voltage laRa, and Ia lags the
voltage IIaXd by 90 degrees in accordance with commonly held
conceptions.
Superposition of Diagram of Flux-Linkage Phasors on
Diagram of Electrical Quantities ~jIaX*
10_R
The phasor diagram of Fig. 10 was developed using only cur- I,aR,a
rent and voltages for simplicity. It is common to superpose the .7
phasors of the various components of armature-winding flux 'Paf

linkage on the diagram of the electrical phasors. Fig. 11 is such a
combined diagram, adding the magnetic phasors to Fig. 10.
The armature flux linkage Waf due only to field current leads lad .,/ °g
the voltage Ea,f which it produces, by 90 degrees. This is inter- Fig. 11. Phasor diagram of overexcited nonsalient-
preted as indicating that a particular phase (say phase A) will pole generator.
be linked by field-winding-produced flux (Paf, A) in the positive
sense 90 degrees before the voltage (eaf, A) produced by that

flux reaches a positive maximum in the same phase. The proper
phase relation between these two phasors can be verified by noting
that as Waf rotates counterclockwise relative to phase-A axis,
the phase-A linkage Paf, A is decreasing (d3baf, A/dt < 0), when
the voltage eaf, A is positive. Hence, in accordance with (4), the
following relationship can be written:
dlVaj, A
eaf, A =-
d
v_A (10)
dt
Similarly, the flux linkage Wa0 due to net air-gap flux leads
by 90 degrees the voltage it produces, Eag. The net air-gap
flux linkage is the phasor sum of the linkages produced by the
field winding Waf and the armature winding Wa.
It should be noted that the flux linkages due to the armature
current have the same direction and sense as the armature
current. This satisfies the spatial positions of the two components
of air-gap flux linkage (Waf and Wa), and the resultant Wag.
The essence of the generator convention for current is that the Fig. 12. Two-pole synchronous machine with positive
flux linkage due to armature current is added phasorially to reference axes.
that due to the field current to produce a resultant air-gap
flux linkage. (If the motor convention were adopted, the phasor physical concept that the magnetic effect of the armature current
for current would be reversed in Fig. 11.) tends to oppose that of the field current of a synchronous genera-
The voltage due to armature current requires careful con- tor operating at overexcited power or at high underexcited power
sideration. Examination of the chosen positive reference polarity factor.
of voltage across the armature reactance Xd and the direction of 3) From a strictly mathematical point of view, the recom-
positive current will show that this corresponds to considering mended positive reference direction for the direct axis is con-
Xdas a load. The concept of Fig. 9 is that eaf is the source and its sistent with the use of a positive sign in the coefficient of Park's
load consists of the machine's armature reactance Xd resistance transformation to determine the direct-axis component of
R, and the external electrical circuit. current or voltage from the phase quantities. Thus the co-
The discussion in Appendix I of Fig. 15 and the phasor diagram efficient Cd in the following transforming equation for a three-
of Fig. 16 indicate that the voltage across a load inductance leads phase machine is positive:
the current and the flux linkage (when the latter has the same
sign as the current). Thus it is that in Fig. 11 the voltage due to id = Cd [iA COS 0 + iB COS - -)+ ic cos + -)
armature current jIaXXa leads the flux linkage Wa producing it.
The phasor diagram of the flux linkages is geometrically (11)
similar to a diagram of air-gap fluxes. A similar diagram is also where 0 is the angle measured in electrical radians in the direction
commonly drawn for the MMFs in the machine. For a nonsalient- of synchronous angular velocity, from the axis of phase A to the
pole machine, operating in the linear part of the magnetization axis of positive rotor flux, the direct axis, as shown in Fig. 12
curve, the MMF diagram is also geometrically similar to the for a two-pole machine.
flux-linkage diagram. Two numerical values for Cd have appeared in the literature;
Orientation of Direct and Quadrature Axes 2/3 andV/2/3. The form of the phasor diagram is not affected by
the magnitude of Cd, and hence the selection of the phasor di-
The orientation of the direct and quadrature axes has been agram is made independently of the merits of the two choices for
one of the major points of disagreement among many engineers. C5.
The recommended orientation is shown in Fig. 11 for a nonsalient-
pole machine. The recommendation is based on the directions of Quadrature Axis
flux due to field current and certain other inherent characteristics The positive direction of the quadrature axis is chosen to lag
of the synchronous machine, as discussed under the headings of the direct axis. That is, as the machine rotates, a point on the
the two axes. armature will be in the quadrature axis 90 electrical degrees of
rotation after it is in the direct axis. The reasons for this choice
Direct Axis are as follows.
The recommendation of Lewis made a decade ago [15], 1) The direction of the voltage generated by the flux due to
is adopted as the proposed standard location of the direct axis. field current is in the positive quadrature axis.
It is chosen to lead by 90 degrees the phasor of the armature 2) In mathematical analysis, the coefficient Cq in the following
voltage generated by flux produced by the field winding acting quadrature-axis transformation is a positive number:
alone. The purpose of this choice is to establish the following
relationships. ,C [tA sin C + iB sin - 3 ) + ic sin +
1) The flux linkages produced by the field current have the
same sense and direction as the positive direct axis. Positive (12)
field current produces positive direct-axis magnetization. Thus both Cd and Cq are positive numbers if the positive refer-
2) The direct-axis component of armature current (lad in Fig. ence directions of the direct and quadrature axes are chosen as
11) is in the negative direct axis. This is consistent with the recommended.
A
XdIo / \
/\
/ tA
,/ v-~
Fig. 13. Phasor diagram of overexcited synchronous generator of [14, Fig. 10.31-020].
3) For a generator, the quadrature-axis component of armature

current iaq and the voltage due to field current eaf have positive
values when referred to the reference direction of the quadrature
axis. Since the product IaqEa?l represents the electrical power ,11-
transmitted from the rotor to the stator, it is quite reasonable to
ask that both Iaq and Eaf be positive numbers for generator
operation.
4) It is common in system analysis to establish voltage as the
phasor reference axis. Using this principle, the quadrature axis
can be taken as the real axis. The direct axis then becomes the
imaginary axis and the various electrical phasor equations can
be written in terms of voltage and current phasors of the form
E = Eq +jEd and I -I = + j1d-
Fig. 14. Phasor diagram of overexcited synchronous generator
RECOMMENDED PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR of [171.
SALIENT-POLE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
The phasor diagram (Fig. 1) for an overexcited salient-pole If it is assumed that the sense of the armature flux linkage due
synchronous generator is a natural extension of that for the to field current (Wtf in Fig. 1) is the same as the direct axis
nonsalient-pole machine of Fig. 11. in Fig. 13, one concludes that the armature voltage, Ei (Eaf
Two corresponding differences are 1) the reactance voltage in Fig. 1) leads the flux linkage that produces it and is given by
phasor jIaXaa is replaced by two phasors, jlaqXaq and jI,dXm,
while 2) the flux-linkage phasor due to armature current ei= + dtaf
dt
a (13)
Wa is replaced by the quadrature-axis phasor 'Paq and the
direct-axis phasor Wad. This is to account for the different A more appropriate interpretation of the difference between
magnetic reluctances in the two axes and hence the unlike mag- Fig. 13 and Fig. 1 is that in Fig. 13 the voltage and current
netizing reactances, X,, and Xaq. phasors are reversed relative to the direct axis; namely, that
positive direct-axis current shown as l,a in Fig. 13 is a demagne-
COMPARISON WITH USASI STANDARD C 42.10-1957 tizing current, producing a demagnetizing direct-axis MMF.
Fig. 13 is a reproduction of [14, Fig. 10.31.020], included to Also, the positive reference polarity for voltage is such that
facilitate comparison with the corresponding recommended a positive voltage would produce a demagnetizing current
diagram, Fig. 1. relative to the field-winding current. The consequence of this
There is one difference evident between the recommended approach is the "unnatural" positive sign of (13). This is the
diagram and the USASI diagram. The sense of the direct axis has reason for the recommended revision.
been reversed relative to the current and voltage phasors shown. Several constructions shown in Fig. 13 are not shown in Fig. 1
for the sake of simplicity. If Fig. 1 is accepted as a revision to
yIn salient-pole machines, the voltage Eaq behind quadrature-axis
[14], it will be necessary to add these constructions in order to
synchronous reactance must be used instead of Ear,. define certain quantities such as Ead and E1.
The magnetic phasors were added to Fig. 1 to aid in explaining iA phase A current (amperes)
the important internal relationships of a synchronous machine. Iad
The flux terms are not now defined in [14]. It is recommended laq
that definitions of these phasors be added. iB phase B current (amperes)
ic phase C current (amperes)
COMPARISON WITH IEC if field current (amperes)
Fig. 14 is a reproduction of [17, Fig. 1]. At this writing Fig. 14 ik current in kth amortisseur circuit (amperes)
has no official status in the International Electrotechnical Com- i V/-,1 the complex operator
mission. General agreement has been expressed orally by IEC LAA self-inductance of phase A (henrys)
Subcommittee 2G regarding the relation that the following LAB mutual inductance between phases A and B (henrys)
equation should have a negative sign: LAC mutual inductance between phases A and C (henrys)
La! mutual inductance between one phase of armature
d.d (14) winding and field winding (henrys)
e, =
dt Lak mutual inductance between one phase of armature
From this it follows that the direct axis should be located so as to winding and kth amortisseur circuit (henrys)
lead Eq by 90 degrees as in Fig. 14. LfA mutual inductance between field winding and armature
It will be noted that the recommended diagram, (Fig. 1) is the phase A (henrys)
same as the IEC proposal with respect to the choice of the loca- LfB mutual inductance between field winding and armature
tions of the positive direct and quadrature axes, relative to the phase B (henrys)
current and voltage phasors. The flux-linkage phasors in Fig. 14 Lfc mutual inductance between field winding and armature
do not show the components due to field current and armature phase C (henrys)
current, but do show the net air-gap flux linkage v and its Lff self-inductance of field winding (henrys)
direct- and quadrature-axis components (Wd and Wq). Lfk mutual inductance between field winding and kth amor-
The location of the quadrature axis has not been finally tisseur circuit (henrys)
settled by IEC, but Fig. 14 has strong support. Further, it has R resistance (ohms)
not been determined whether to adopt the generator convention Ra armature resistance (ohms)
or the motor convention (for the latter, armature current I t time (seconds)
would be reversed). Xad direct-axis armature magnetizing reactance (ohms)
One of the purposes of this paper is to urge IEC to adopt the Xaq quadrature-axis armature magnetizing reactance (ohms)
diagram of Fig. 1, and the conventions implicit in it. Xd direct-axis synchronous reactance (ohms)
Xq quadrature-axis synchronous reactance (ohms)
CONCLUSIONS Xi armature-leakage reactance, relative to rotor circuits
(ohms)
It is highly desirable that a phasor diagram be adopted as a load angle (electrical radians or degrees)
standard, true to the physical laws governing synchronous ma- 0 angle measured in direction of rotation from phase A
chines, in the most natural sense. Fig. 1 is recommended for this axis to direct axis (electrical radians or degrees)
purpose. 69pf power factor angle (electrical radians or degrees)
1 flux linkage: when a direction is implied, flux linkage
LIST OF SYMBOLS takes its direction from dominant direction of mag-
Physical units used to measure the following quantities are netic flux (weber-turns); also, IEC symbol for Va>
given. Note, however, that it is common to evaluate synchronous VIA phase-A flux linkage (weber-turns)
machine quantities in per unit by dividing each by its appropriate Oad
base value. Qaf*
Items marked with an asterisk are defined in the discussion of Vlag
Figs. 1-4. Capital letters refer to phasors and are also used to Vlagd
identify the positive direction of certain quantities. Lower-case Qagq
letters refer to instantaneous values. Phasor quantities indicated ,ff field-winding flux linkage (weber-turns)
by capital letters in bold-face italics, followed by lower-case ld IEC symbol for Vagd
italic subscripts, correspond to the same letters, in the figures, oq IEC symbol for a
that are set over a bar and a tilde. Co angular frequency (radians per second).
E voltage potential difference between two points in APPENDIX I
electric circuit (volts)
Ea* MOTOR OR LOAD CONVENTION
Eaf* As indicated in the text, the recommended diagram is based
Eag* on a generator or source convention. This appendix presents and
USASI symbol for Ear discusses the load or motor convention for the purpose of back-
Eq IEC symbol for Ear ground and comparison.
el terminal voltage of coil including lumped resistance Fig. 15 shows a coil with lumped resistance and the reference
(volts) positive direction for current and flux linkage, and positive
e2 induced voltage in coil (volts) polarity for the voltages, for the "load" convention. Here
I electric current (amperes) again, we have used the convention that positive current pro-
Ia * duces positive flux linkage.
[4] d Electrical Circuits Incluing Machines, 2nd ed. Lon-

~T,01 don: Longmans, 1967.
The q-axis lags the d-axis. The positive d-axis is in the direction
of the field axis. The discussion of generator is with source
convention, that of motor with sink convention.
[5] A. E. Fitzgerald and C. Kingsley, Jr., Electric Machinery;
the Dynamics and Statics of Electromechanical Energy Con-
version, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.
The q-axis leads the d-axis. Cd is positive and C, is negative.
[6] W. J. Gibbs, Electric Machine Analysis Using Matrices. Lon-
don: Pitman, 1962.
The same conventions as used in [1].
[7] N. N. Hancock, Matrix Analysis of Electrical Machinery.
Fig. 15. Coil with polarities for "load" convention. New York: Pergamon 1964.
The same conventions as used in [1].
[8] M. Kostenko and L. Piotrovsky, Electrical Machines. Moscow:
Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1962.
The phasor diagrams are referred to as EMF diagrams. The
terminal voltage is chosen to be the positive real axis. The
positive imaginary axis is chosen 90 degrees, leading the real
axis. The mathematical analysis deals with two-phase machines
only. The q-axis leads the d-axis.
[9] Y. H. Ku, Electric Energy Conversion. New York: Ronald,
1959.
The q-axis is shown lagging the d-axis in the phasor diagram.
However, the q-axis is assumed to lead the d-axis in the math-
ematical analysis.
Fig. 16. Phasor diagram for quantities of Fig. 15. [10] W. A. Lewis, The Principles of Synchronous Machines. Chi-
cago: Illinois Institute of Technology, 1954.
The q-axis is chosen to lag the d-axis. Cd and Cq are both positive
numbers.
Equation (15) presents the familiar relation between the [11] H. Majmudar, Electromechanical Energy Converters. Boston:
voltage across an inductance and the current that is caused to Allyn and Bacon, 1965.
pass through it. This is further developed as the derivative re- The q-axis is chosen to lag the d-axis. Cd and C, are both
positive numbers.
lation in (16) and the phasor relation in (17) between voltage [12] R. H. Park, "Two-reaction theory of synchronous machines,
and flux linkage. generalized method of analysis-pt. I," AIEE Trans., vol. 47,
pp. 716-730, July 1929.
d(Li) (15) The q-axis is chosen to lead the d-axis. The positive d-axis is the
same direction and sense as the field axis. Cc is a positive
dt number and C, is a negative number.
e2 + d;(15) [13] D. C. White and H. H. Woodson, Electromechanical Energy
Conversion. New York: Wiley, 1959.
d2dt
+ (16) The conventions are the same as in [12].
[14] "American standard definitions of electrical terms-rotating
machinery," USASI Standard C42.10, 1957.
E2 = + jW. (17) [15] W. A. Lewis, "Simplicity in three-phase system circuit con-
ventions and concepts," Elec. Engrg., vol. 77, pp. 937-939,
Fig. 16 shows the phasor diagram representing (17), based on October 1958; ibid., pp. 1038-1040, November 1958; ibid.,
pp. 1126-1128, December 1958.
the load convention. Here, we see the familiar relationship of the [16] "Recommended practice for units in published scientific and
voltage leading the current. technical work," IEEE Publ. 268, April 1966.
[17] "Phasor relationship of synchronous machines," IEC Study
The "load" convention may also be thought of as the "passive- Document 2G (Secretariat) 14, July 1967.
element" convention in network theory.
APPENDIX II
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE PHASOR CONVENTIONS
Some explanatory notes on the conventions for synchronous- Discussion
machine phasors as they can be found in the literature [1]- [13]
are given with the references.
R. H. Park (Brewster, Mass.): Relative to the paper under discussion,
REFERENCES the November 9, 1965; northeast U.S. and Ontario, Canada, and the
PJM blackouts have brought home the fact that the behavior of
[1] B. Adkins, The General Theory of Electric Machines. London: synchronous machines under abnormal conditions can represent a
Chapman and Hall, 1957. factor of great importance.
The equations are written for motor operation, i.e., using load or This has implied, and will imply, a growing need for power system
sink convention. The field is assumed to be on the stator, the engineers to possess, and, where they do not possess, to acquire, a
saliency is consequently assumed to be on the stator side. The knowledge of synchronous machine theory, and it is therefore
q-axis lags the d-axis. The coefficients Cd and Cq in Park's important that the subject of how the theory can best be formulated
transformation are both positive.
[2] C. Concordia, Synchronous Machines, Theory and Performance. be given careful attention.
New York: Wiley, 1951. In a valuable 1958 paper [18] W. A. Lewis discussed the desir-
The q-axis leads the d-axis. Also the d-axis is directed opposite ability of changes in representation of synchronous machine circuit
to the field axis. The phasor diagram, therefore, is identical to conventions and concepts. One change corresponded to the con-
that given in [14]. vention that Cd (11) be chosen equal to a/2/3 and that the sign
[3] A. Draper, Electrical Circuits Including Machines. London: of C,, of (12) should be taken as positive.
Longmans, 1964.
The q-axis lags the d-axis. The positive d-axis is along the axis of
the field. That is, positive id and positive if produce flux
in the same direction. Also, Cd and C,, are positive numbers. Manuscript received February 14, 1969.
As Prof. Lewis pointed out, utilization of the value V2 /3 as Coming now_to the choice of magnitude Of Cd and Cq, the choice
against 2/3 has the effect of equalizing the reciprocal mutual co- Cd = C = V/2/3 yields
efficients of inductance in equations expressing direct- and quadra-
ture-armature linkages and rotor-circuit linkages expressed in volt- i 'V2/3(id~d + iqq), amperes
= (22)
seconds in terms of direct- and quadrature-armature currents and P * e i + 3eoio, watts
= (23)
rotor currents expressed in amperes, thereby achieving the ad-
vantages of providing a way to facilitate relating measured values of
rotor quantities with direct- and quadrature-armature quantities,
torque t* i,
T = X synchronous watts (24)
and also of providing a link with conventional circuit analysis, and whereas, if we take q = jd, the choice Cd = 2/3, Cq = - 2/3 yields
allowing construction of equivalent circuits in which rotor quantities
have measured values. i = idd+±iq, amperes (25)
As it happens, the same points were made by the writer in [19], P = 3/2e. i + 3eoio, watts (26)
which, incidentally, also pointed out that when magnetic distortion
due to saturation under load is taken into account, it is in principle T = 3/2TX i, synchronous watts. (27)
necessary to take into account the fact that mutual coefficients of If then unit values of armature current, voltage, and flux linkages
direct and quadrature quantities will not be zero. Thus the writer are taken to be peak values at rated load and unit voltamperes is
and Prof. Lewis are in full accord to the above-cited extent. taken as rated value, both sets of equations, (5)-(7) and (8)-(10)
Prof. Lewis has also suggested that per-unit systems in which
the magnitudeof Cd and C, is taken equal to V/2/3 may possess expressed in terms of per-unit quantities take the form
advantages from some standpoints. However, as Lewis noted, the i=idd + iqq, per unit (28)
constant user of synchronous machine theory will soon be long past
the conceptual problem, and will prefer to elect use of whatever P ei + 2eoio, per unit (29)
per-unit system offers advantages in his day-to-day activities. T = !X i, per unit. (30)
Prof. Lewis also concluded in [18] that it could be useful to take
the sign of Cq positive, which implies that the reference direction of It also follows that in per unit, and taking q = jd,
the quadrature axis will lag the reference direction of the direct axis.
'Presumably there are pros and cons on this score.
The writer retains a preference for Cq being chosen negative for id= (2/3)[iacos cos (0 - ) +iccos (0 + )]
+ib (31)
reasons that tie to the concept of space vectors. To bring out what is
involved, it may be noted that d and q quantities are expressed in iq= - (2/3)[ia sin±+ib sin(0 - )+i± sin(+ J)]
terms of 0, which is a space quantity, and which therefore implies the
possibility of their representation as components of space vectors. (32)
In this connection, aside from zero-sequence components,
as far as large power system generators are concerned, exist only
which,
in the case of faults involving generator leads, equations of the type
ia= id~COS 0 - i4 sin 0 + i6 (33)
of (11) and (12) imply that instantaneous values of phase currents all as per [12], except for the term 2eoio, which in [12, (17)], through
are equal to the projections of a space vector i having components a real or typographical error, was shown as eoio.
(2/3)[id/Cd)d] and (2/3)[iq/C)q] on unit vectors a, b, and c, which
line up with the magnetic axes of the windings of phases a,b,c,
A point to note is that taking |Cd |Cqf
= = V2/3 in setting up
equations in terms of measured quantities, as volts, amperes, and
respectively. However, ifCd is taken positive, which conforms to flux linkages in voltseconds, does not conflict with arriving at per-
general practice, it also follows that d = ei0a. If then C. is taken unit results in which lCdl =|Cd = 2/3.
positive, it follows that q = ej(0--/2)a in accordance with Fig. 12. In the day-to-day practice of analysis of synchronous machine
However, when it comes to a matter of preference, the writer's performance under operating conditions, the relationships (28)-(33)
position has been and for the time being, at least, remains that there offer practical advantages.
is an advantage in counterclockwise rotation in order to conform Analysis of power system performance represents the largest field
with the Argand diagram, and to facilitate employment of the of practical use of synchronous machine theory, and considerations of
operator j, which has always been used to mean a 90-degree counter- convenience will in all probability govern the type of synchronous
clockwise rotation. machine representation that practitioners will prefer to utilize.
On this basis, as in [12, Fig. 1], the choice is b = ei(2r/3) a, c= Also, there is the point that a change in representation from what has
e-i(2ir/3) a, q = ej(0+7r/2) a = jd, which conventions, however, im- characterized past practice probably would find little support unless
ply that the sign ofCq be taken as negative. there were a very practical reason for the change, if only because
In the writer's view, the negative sign hardly has to be regarded problems would be presented in relating new representations to
as queer or unnatural. However, a main point is not whether the those that have had long use and are already embedded in the
approach happens to appear natural, but rather whether the con- technical literature.
ventions and forms that follow from them have value in respect to Coming back now to the balance of the content of the paper,
facilitating other presentations, and in the carrying out of analytical certainly, equations (1) and (2) are easier to write and keepa track
procedures. of than are equations that contain negative signs. However, form
Whereas Prof. Lewis indicated in [18] a mild preference for the incorporating negative signs also can be viewed as havinga motor. merit,
sign of Cq being chosen positive, it could be that the arguments pre- where the principal object of study is a generator as against
sented above would reverse his views. In general, it should be recognized that after a student has mastered
Returning now to the matter of the magnitude of Cd and Cq, we an initial approach, which preferably should represent something
may note that (11) and (12) imply that the armature phase currents that is not unduly difficult to teach, he could properly be encouraged
are representable by equations that, for phase a take the form, to advance to the examination of variants useful from a practical
la = (2/3)[(id/Cd) cos 0 + (iq/Cq) sin 0] + io (18) standpoint, but less obvious than what he had first learned. In
particular, having mastered the theory in terms of volts andtoamperes,
where the student, or at least some students, would do well become
adapted to per-unit notation in which Cd = 2/3, with the effect
that at full load all per-unit quantities except power and torque come
io = (ia + ib + ic)/3 (19)
out equal to 1, whereas the latter come out equal to rated power
and similarly for phases I and c, except with substitution of 0 - factor.
27r/3 and 0 + 27r/3, respectively. Apparently, difficulty has at times been experienced in explaining
Voltage e and linkages 4, can be similarly dealt with, while in- to students why Cq would be chosen negative.
stantaneous generator power output P has the value As previously noted, an approach via unit vectors and the Argand
diagram can lead to an understanding. Also, althoughwill the writer is
P = etia + ebib + ecic, watts (20) not prepared to take the position that this approach appeal to
all teachers or students, he can at least say that in his own case it
= (2/3)[(edid/Cd2) + (e,iq/Cq2)] + 3eoio, watts. (21) would seem to represent a very natural approach.
In general, if diagrams are to be used (instead of merely equations),

the writer's preference is for a space diagram in that a space diagram I
I
[12, Fig. 3, e.g.] has the advantage of holding good at all speeds,
including zero, and whether or not i,e, and t! are in process of
changing relative length and position, as even for the case of a single-
E
phase line fault.
In this connection, readers interested in space vectors as opposed Fig. 17. Consistenlt terminal marking.
to phasor concepts may find it worthwhile to refer to the writer's
1932 presentation of a treatment of synchronous machine theory
developed by I. H. Summers which, however, unfortunately will be
found to exhibit a number of typographical errors [20, p. 328].
In general, in the matter of conventions and concepts, it appears
to be desirable to recognize 1) need for some agreed-on reference
standards; 2) the fact that there can be an advantage in optional
use of modified forms of whatever conventions are set up as a
standard, to allow meeting needs of special situations, as, for ex-
ample, the situation of the generator designer as opposed to that of
the motor designer, or the special needs of the system load flow
or stability analyst, or the teacher.
Under "Conclusions," the paper states that "it is highly desirable
that a phasor diagram be adopted as a standard true to the physical
laws governing synchronous machines in the most natural sense." Fig. 18. Circle diagram (phasor diagram with circular current
A point here is that what is "natural" often represents merely locus) of induction machine. If machine acts as generator, 0 will
what has become customary, and the writer's position here would be be between -90 and -180 degrees. Current lags voltage under
that what would be unnatural to a student when he has been taught all conditions (varmeter connected into circuit always deflects
in one direction only).
one way could be natural when he is taught in another way.
Although the writer has a preference for space diagrams, pre-
sumably phasor diagrams are also useful. However, in the process of
setting them up, it would be helpful to furnish full particulars of which corresponds to the terminal markings in Fig. 17; i.e., positive
just what is intended. current will flow into the device at the terminal marked with +
Is a phasor representation intended to apply only to steady-state potential reference.
conditions in which pfl terms are absent? Are phasors thought of as Such notation is commonly used also by the power engineer. The
time vectors that turn at constant speed? If these conventions pre- circle diagram of an induction machine (Fig. 18) is always plotted
vail, a phasor diagram should be well understood to represent using the terminal markings of Fig. 17, and is valid for both motoring
something that fails to display the whole picture. or generating. Current diagrams of deep-bar, double or triple squirrel-
There may be no single best approach to methods of representa- cage rotor induction machines, Schrage machines, Scherbius ma-
tion. Again, if there is, it may be that it does not in all respects chines, etc., all follow the same pattern, and so do circle diagrams of
conform to the recommendations of the paper. transmission lines.
The position taken regarding the sign of induced voltage is not By now there is probably only one area left where this consistency
clear. Whereas either a plus or a minus sign can be used, preference is not universal, namely, the phasor diagram of synchronous ma-
should relate to the consequences of a choice in respect to conve- chines. The word universal has special significance here because an
nience, taking into account the area of use, as say whether a motor investigation of the (not only English-speaking) literature and
or generator happens to represent the principal item of interest. standards will reveal that only very few remain who do not now use
To particularize, it would be inconvenient and indeed annoying the convention of Fig. 17. Differentiation between "generator or
in analysis solely of either a generator or a motor to feel impelled to source"y convention and "motor or load or passive element" con-
say that power at full load was negative. On the other hand, in vention vanished from network theory quite some time ago.
analysis of a system of motors plus generators, the situation would What matters here is whether or not the terminal marking, hence
be different, and a choice would need to be made based on the the mathematical descriptions, phasor diagrams, etc., are consistent
circumstances. with Ohm's law, Faraday's law, Maxwell's equations, Ampere's
law, Kirchoff's law, etc., in their conventional form. Unfortunately
REFERENCES the "nonconsistent" markings are the first choice here (Figs. l-5,
[18] W. A. Lewis, "A basic analysis of synchronous machines-pt. 8-11, 13, and 14; particularly Fig. 9).
I," AIEE Trans. (Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 77, Because of the limitation in length of discussions, an additional
pp. 436-456, August 1958. paper was prepared on the subject [24] and another entitled "Con-
119] R. H. Park, Discussion of S. B. Crary, L. A. March, and L. P. sistency in power engineering" is under preparation. Both give
Shildneck, "Equivalent reactance of synchronous machines," detailed theoretical and practical arguments in favor of the "con-
AIEE Trans., vol. 53, p. 604, April 1934. sistent reference markings" which system now is almost universally
120] I. H. Summers, "Vector theory of circuits involving synchro- accepted.
nous machines," AIEE Trans., vol. 51, pp. 318-328, June 1932. The many advantages of the consistent reference markings system
justifies that it be adopted for the proposed standard entitled
"Recommended phasor diagram for synchronous machines."
Details regarding this motion can be found in [24]; specifics are as
follows:
John F. Szablya (Washington State University, Pullman, Wash.): 1) The Recommendation has to start with a circuit diagram using
When reading the electrical engineering literature one cannot but consistent reference markings (or "positive reference markings for a
recognize a certain uniformity attained in recent years. Areas such as sink") like the one of Fig. 19, because for any phasor diagram
network theory [21], system theory [22], and electromagnetic theory to be meaningful, a circuit diagram, with proper reference markings,
[23], all accepted Ohm's law in the form of must be established.
2) The Recommendation shouild then present the corresponding
e= Ri (34) phasor diagram of the synchronous machine as shown in Fig. 20.
Indication of physically existing voltages should be given in the
and the general impedance equation as figure and explained in text. It should be noted that certain voltages
shown in the phasor diagram, specifically Eaf, are physically not
e= Ri +Ldid idt (35) existent.
Only flux linkages that physically exist should be shown in the
phasor diagram (Fig. 20), namely pan and #ag; all other "flux link-
ages" shown by the Recommendations are "mathematical" (or
Manuscript received February 24, 1969. "fictitious").
*'.Th) J
I.
x
(X D[e
i /
i a
*+
a
it ea
Fig. 22. Physical interpretations in space can be directly accom-
C, plished from phasor diagram when consistent reference system is
used.
(a) (b) I I
All four operational modes (motor-generator, overexcited-
Fig. 19. Circuit diagrams and reference markings. UnLder balanced underexcited) should be outlined (Fig. 21).
steady-state operation (a) is equivalent to (b). 3) Using the nonsalient type of machine the physical-mathe-
matical relations could be explained in reference to the equivalent
circuit and phasor diagram.
4) Relations between space vector quantities and phasor quan-
tities (Fig. 7), also those between the current phasors and spatial
distribution of the MMF components could be included (Fig. 22).
5) Using the outlined principles, a phasor diagram showing the
voltage(s) behind the "transient voltage drop" (Fig. 14), and
even with the "subtransients," could be shown. This would be very
desirable.
6) Finally, but only as a "not preferred alternative," the phasor
diagram using the "positive markings for a source" (Fig. 1) should
be presented.
Furthermore, I suggest the following:
a) I strongly recommend that the symbol A be used for flux linkage
instead of The symbol A has been almost universally accepted in
t.
recent years in all fields of electrical engineering.

b) The standard should at least mention the concept of the
synchronous impedance Zd = jXd + Ra and -- jX0 + Ra.
/ c) For the armature leakage reactance and flux linkage the sub-
script 1 should be changed to al; this would have the advantage that
subscript fl could be used for the leakage terms of the field winding,
which plays an important role in transient studies.
d) The paper used Xad, Xa0 calling them "armature magnetizing
reactanccs." It would be far more appropriate to use X.gd and X.,,
instead, and call them "air-gap reactances." All mathematical
Fig. 20. Suggested phasor diagram using consistoent terminal derivations [24] and physical explanations of a "magnetizing
markings, plotted to show synchronous machine actinfg as generator reactance" place the latter finally into the air gap anyway.
and being overexcited. Flux-linkage phasors plottEed separately e) It should be stated that Ra includes such factors besides the dc
to avoid crowding. resistance as skin effect, etc.
f) Angles 0 and should be displayed in all phasor diagrams,
because of their great importance.
E g) All circle segments indicating angles shall have one arrow point
.( only to indicate clearly which way the angle should be taken (con-
trary to, e.g., Figs. 10, 11, and 13, but in accordance with Figs. 12
la o2 tkv
and 14).
h) In order to be able to split the armature-current phasor into
G~er,f cC
components Id and I, the angle has to be known in advance as
well as the angle 0; hence the voltage jXjIla is very important indeed
(
and should be shown. As a matter of fact, Fig. 13 shows this voltage.
Using the consistent reference markings can be computed as the
angle between E. and Ea R.I. jXgIa. (However, the voltage
- -
jXdI0 shown in Fig. 13 serves no useful purpose.)

I E E E E i) In all its circuit diagrams the paper uses arrow points on both
ends when dealing with voltage references. I suggest that either one
arrow point be used shown in Fig. 17; i.e., the arrow point is at
as
the terminal reference or no arrow is used at all, only the + and -
signs. No confusion will occur in the latter case.

03 j) In Fig. 12 0 should be replaced by another Greek letter in
Motor Generator Generator Motor order to avoid confusion. 0 is also used as the power factor angle and
Overexci ted Overexcited Underexcited Underexcited
the latter is generally accepted.
Fig. 21. Four regions of operational modes using consistent The acceptance of the "consistent polarity markings" as outlined
terminal markings. in this discussion and in [24] would mean that the standard syn-
chronous machine phasor diagram would not disagree with the prac-
tices of such other areas of electrical (and electronic) engineering as
network theory, system theory, and electromagnetic theory.
The first most important advantage of using the consistent refer- [27] A. von Brunn, "The meaning of references for phasor dia-
grams" (in German), Bull. SEV, pp. 385 ff., 1922.
ence markings stems from the fact that this way a synchronous
machine can be handled as any other network element. A few years [28] DIN 1323 (German Standard), ETZ, vol. 48, p. 552, 1927.
ago this would be of little interest. Not so any more. With the [29] T. Bodefeld, "The rules of referencing alternating current
general use of matrix programs in digital computer techniques, it has systems" (in German), E.u.M., pp. 381 ff., 1938.
T. Bodefeld and H. Sequenz, Electric Machinery (in German).
[30] Berlin:
become very important that all network elements be treated iden- Springer, 1st ed., 1942; 6th rev. ed., 1962.
tically. We cannot list all the advantages here; let us consider only
the costs of programming and trouble shooting resulting from the
use of inconsistent impedance elements and reference currents.
The second very important advantage would come from the better
understanding of physical phenomena associated with synchronous
machines. To any of us who know the physics of the machines, who
are "soaked" in electric machines all our lives, whether in designing, W. A. Lewis (Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Ill.): I am
testing, operating or teaching, any method is as good as another. delighted to see this paper, which makes positive recommendations
But when it comes to exploring new, unknown areas, our intuition that should be helpful in obtaining standardization in an area where
may break down and misguide us. In order to be able to tackle differences of opinion have long existed. I am particularly pleased
complicated phenomena the simple fundamentals must be brought with the recommended orientation of the quadrature axis in relation
to a common basis in a consistent manner. Our intuition may help to the direct axis as shown in Fig. 11, and discussed under "Orienta-
us in qualitative analysis. But the final question in life is "how tion of Direct and Quadrature Axes." I endorse the resulting rela-
much?" And in order to get a reliable quantitative answer for a tions discussed under "Direct Axis" and "Quadrature Axis" with
complex problem, consistent mathematical treatment becomes a the exception of 4) under "Quadrature Axis," which will be discussed
must. Thuts, the designer, the operator, the researcher, the teacher later.
and the student, all benefit from consistency. As the paper brings out, I have long advocated some of the changes
Historically the power engineers were the avant garde of network recommended or considered in these paragraphs. The reasons for
theory. To them negative resistance values were known (induction the position I have taken are quite definite, and I feel they are rather
machine's apparent secondary resistance R2/s for s < 0) decades compelling. A phasor diagram has several purposes, among them
before the electronic engineers encouintered it (transistor's resistance being: 1) to facilitate understanding of the phenomena and relation-
characteristics). ships among quantities, 2) to facilitate the solution of problems, and
When one realizes 1) that in case of a synchronous machine 3) to provide a basis for relating the machine to the system of
acting alternately as motor or generator (reversible pump-turbine, which it is a part. The phasor diagram for the machine that is most
elevator Ward-Leonard, etc., drives) the voltage remains the same helpful in meeting these and possibly other purposes is the best to
and 2) that it is the current that will vary depending upon the mode adopt as a Standard.
of operation (on an oscillogram the voltage wave will remain steady In solving system problems, such as load flow, stability, short
but the current's trace will vary, both in magnitude and in phase circuits, circuit-breaker application, relaying, economy loading, and
angle; the wattmeters, varmeters, and ammeters will deflect differ- others, the system analyst is concerned primarily with system
ently, the voltmeter's needle will not move), one has to wonder voltages and currents and their interrelations. The first step in such
how the idea originated that the voltage is different for a motor and studies, either explicit or tacit, is to establish reference directions
for a generator? for all currents and reference polarities for all voltages. In doing so
The first treatises on the subject of phasor diagrams [25]-[28] one has two choices in every case, since there are two possible direc-
were not at all consistent and it took many years of research and tions for current in every circuit and two possible polarities for every
discussion before a system, correct both mathematically and phys- voltage. Until these reference quantities have been established,
ically, was worked out [291. The book of Bodefeld and Sequenz either by implicit assumption or explicit statement, it is not possible
[301, published first in 1942 and now in its sixth revised edition, to be precise in writing Kirchhoff's current and voltage equations.
and by far the most powerful and influential textbook on electric It is one of the facts of life that the current reference direction, in
machinery outside the English-speaking engineering community, particular, is more convenient with one direction in some problems
uses the consistent reference markings. Its simplicity and rigor, its and with the other direction in other problems, and this freedom of
parallel treatment of physical phenomena and mathematical tech- choice should not be abridged arbitrarily.
niques form convincing evidence of the features of the consistent My objection to the past practice, introduced by Park, of choosing
terminal markings and explain the general acceptance of the latter. the positive quadrature axis as leading the positive direct axis for a
The long-range objective of the Recommendation is to help to synchronous machine is that such a choice leads to a situation in
work out an international standard, through IEC. It is my opinion which a quantity that is treated as positive in the machine repre-
that unless the standard uses the consistent reference markings the sentation must be thought of as negative when that same quantity
IEC standard may be, "accepted" buLt will not be used. And isn't enters the system analysis. Depending on the choice of reference
the latter the goal? directions or polarities, the quantity affected may be a current or a
The nomenclature of this discussion follows in general that of the voltage; but it is more likely that the difficulty will occur in con-
paper, with the following exceptions: nection with the direct-axis component of current.
When dealing with the system problems mentioned above, the
Xagd air-gap reactance along d-axis most logical reference quantity is the voltage at some location in
Xagq air-gap reactance along q-axis the system, and other phasor voltages and currents are expressed
Xal armature leakage reactance with relation to that reference. With the terminal voltage of a
Xd Xagd + X.1 synchronous reactance along d-axis generator as reference, the quadrature-axis component of current
Xq Sagq + Xal synchronous reactance along q-axis leads this reference, but the direct-axis component of current that is
*f al flux linkage due to armature leakage flux positive in the machine diagram as drawn in the past, lags the
if Id field current referred to armature. reference and has a negative component along the j-axis. If the no-
load terminal voltage having the same phase position as the internal
voltage produced by the field current alone were the reference, a
REFERENCES positive direct-axis component of current in the machine diagram
121] W. H. Chen, The Analysis of Linear Systems. New York: would have a -j position on the system phasor diagram. Further-
McGraw-Hill, 1963, p. 19. more, assuming adoption of the recommendation that positive flux
[22] S. Seely, Dynamic Systems Analysis. New York: Reinhold, linkages of a circuit be produced by positive current in that circuit,
1964, p. 304. then the flux linkages produced in a direct-axis circuit by the field
123] R. M. Fano, L. J. Chu, and R. B. Adler, Electromagnetic Fields, current are negative. Since these flux linkages are the source of the
Energy, and Forces. New York: Wiley, 1960, p. 260.
124] J. F. Szablya, "On phasor diagrams of synchronous machines," generated voltage, it is awkward for them to be negative. If the
Res. Div., Washington State University College of Engineering, flux-linkage convention is reversed, in order that these flux linkages
Pullman, Wash., Circ. 32, 1969. of the field shall be positive, then it becomes necessary to assume
125] W. S. Franklin, The Elements of Electrical Engineering, vols. 1
and 2. New York: Macmillan, 1906.
¶26] R. Bloch, Loci in Power Engineering (in German). Zurich, 1917. Manuscript received February 14, 1969.
that the self-inductance of a direct-axis circuit is negative. Any of axis or the direct axis, and since the internal voltage is along the
these choices leads to awkward and "unnatural" relations, which are quadrature axis, it would generally be preferable to choose the
the basis of my objection to the former general practice regarding quadrature axis.
the relation between the two axes. None of these sign difficulties Second, when two or more machines are interconnected in a power
arises if the positive-quadrature axis is chosen to lag the positive- system, and phasor diagrams are desired for both, at the same instant,
direct axis. Thus the proposal with regard to the relation between only the orientation of one diagram is arbitrary; the orientation of
direct-axis and quadrature-axis directions is most beneficial in the other will be fixed by the phase relations between the terminal
relating the machine to the system of which it is a part. voltages of the two machines. With impedance connected between
I have some concern that the paper gives an appearance of too the two machines, and current in the circuit, it is extremely unlikely
much standardization. In Figs. 5 and 6, recommendations are given that the phasor diagrams for the two machines can be given the same
for the reference polarity of positive voltage and direction of positive orientation, unless they are shown for different times.
current for a generator and for a motor. A choice must be made These two examples indicate why any implication that the phasor
when a phasor diagram is drawn for a particular application, and diagram has a standard preferred reference is troublesome. It is of
certainly a choice is appropriate when presenting a proposed stan- course necessary to make a choice, for the purpose of showing the
dard phasor diagram, as is the purpose of this paper. However, it standard phasor diagram, but it should be made clear that the
should not be implied that the user still does not have complete choice was only a matter of convenience, and does not imply any
liberty to select the positive reference polarity and the positive standardization regarding the chosen reference. As a matter of
current direction to suiit his purposes, provided he makes the ap- personal preference, I would prefer that the armature terminal
propriate changes when he does so. Otherwise, the user is faced with voltage be used as reference, in Fig. 13, but I would certainly not
the possibility of awkward difficulties. object to the use of any other reference in presenting the standard
An example of the difficulty occurs if the generator of Fig. 5 is diagram for relationships, so long as the arbitrary nature of the
connected to supply the motor of Fig. 6. The recommended current choice is made clear.
reference direction for the generator is opposite to that for the motor, The proposed diagram of Fig. 1 uses only leakage reactance and the
yet, if these were the only two machines concerned, the current of reactances of armature reaction. This is in contrast with the present
the generator would be physically the same as that of the motor. If standard diagram of Fig. 13, and the IEC diagram of Fig. 14, in
the recommendations of the paper are followed in this case, it is which leakage reactance is not used, and the reactances that are
necessary to define two currents-one for the generator and the regularly specified and determined by test, such as transient re-
other for the motor-which are equal and opposite. Such a situation actance, subtransient reactance, and the synchronous reactances in
is awkward, and is unnecessary if it is made clear that the freedom of the two axes, are used. I believe there is merit in using the leakage
choice of the reference quantities of current and voltage is still main- reactance and the reactance of armature reaction to bring out the
tained. physical relations in the machine, but the use of these quantities
It would not really help if the recommendations of one of the alone in Fig. 1 seems to suggest that they are necessary in the
figures were reversed, so that the current in the generator and the standard diagram, and that the other reactances should niot be used.
current in the motor, if they were connected together, would be the It is well recognized that if all the possible reactances and their
same. Depending upon the machine of greatest interest, it will be voltage drops were shown on the same diagram, the diagram would
preferable to follow the recommendation of Fig. 5 if the generator is be cluttered and difficult to interpret. At the same time, a standard
the area of greatest interest; but it will be more convenient to use diagram for a synchronous machine under present conditions would
the recommendation of Fig. 6 if the motor is the object of greatest certainly not be complete without showing the relations of the
study. Any user of the proposed standard phasor diagram should various subtransient, transient, and synchronous reactances.
have no real difficulty in selecting either current direction, for his There does not appear to be any compelling reason for showing
own use, if it is made clear that the choice of the paper is for illus- everything on one diagram, and it would be perfectly proper to have
trative purposes only, and the other choice is equally suitable if the a series of diagrams in which different aspects are introduced in
user makes the appropriate changes in the diagram as required. progressing from one to the next, and perhaps some of the quantities
If there is any doubt about the ability of the user to adapt, it introduced at the beginning omitted from the later diagrams. It is
might be helpful in developing the proposed Standard to show the my belief that such a series of diagrams would be very helpful in a
resulting diagram for both reference directions for either a motor or a proposed IEEE Standard, which would appear to be the first step,
generator. If this were done for the motor, one phasor diagram would whether or not all the diagrams included in the IEEE Standard
be drawn for the reference choice of Fig. 6, and another diagram are adopted in the ultimate IEC Standard.
would be drawn for the same conditions except that the reference It is implied, but not clearly pointed out, that the diagram of
direction of positive current would be reversed. It is my feeling that, Fig. 1 is obviouLsly drawn for a balanced three-phase load on the
if two diagrams are to be shown for one machine or the other, it machine, and presumably for one of the three phases. However, it
would be preferable to do this for the motor, rather than the gen- should be recognized that much of the work that has been done in
erator, but I- would raise no objection if the two diagrams were developing the theory of synchronous machines has made use of the
shown for the generator instead of the motor. transformation from phase quantities to direct-axis and quadrature-
It is possible to interpret the paper to imply that the choice of the axis quantities, as introduced by R. H. Park. This transformation
reference quantity used in drawing the phasor diagram is a part of has the property that phasor quantities that rotate in the individual
what is being standardized. Such an implication results from the phases are transformed to quantities that are stationary with re-
fact that in Fig. 1 the armature current has been selected as the spect to the rotor, and therefore become stationary phasors instead
reference quantity, in contrast with the present Standard, shown in of rotating phasors. Nevertheless, phase-angle relations between the
Fig. 13, in which the armature terminal voltage is used as the various quantities still remain valid. If the nutmerical values of
reference quantity. Careful reading of the paper makes it clear that
the kind of phasor diagram shown in Fig. 1 may be rotated to Cd and Cq have the value V/2/3, the phasor diagram of Fig. 1 and
any convenient position, but at the same time it is readily possible to other similar phasor diagrams will be valid to the same scale if the
infer that the reference chosen in Fig. 1 is part of the standard voltages and currents are interpreted as direct- and quadrature-
recommendations. To avoid any difficulty from this inference, I axis components and their phasor combination, instead of being
believe the final proposal for standardization should state explicitly interpreted as phase quantities. If any other numerical value is
that the position of the phasor diagram, with regard to rotation, is given to Cd and Cq, the scale of representation will be different, but
arbitrary, and that the position shown is simply a matter of con- the relative relations will remain the same. It is only necessary to
venience. drop the a from the subscripts to have the same diagram apply. If
The difficulty with any standard reference position is apparent if the proposed Standard, as an IEEE publication, is to be useful as a
the diagram is used in trying to solve problems. In the solution of a guide to the application of standard arrangemeents, it would be
particular problem, one must start with what is known. If the current useful to include an appropriate diagram in d and q coordinate
in the armature is unknown, it cannot be made the reference phasor representation.
of the diagram, drawn to accurate scale, until after the problem is I would like to comment on a feature of Fig. 7 that can lead to
solved. In such a problem, perhaps the terminal voltage is also confusion and error. In this figure use is made of the fact that pro-
unknown, as for example when a specified impedance is connected jection of rotating phasors on three axes oriented 120 degrees apart
to a generator having specified excitation. For such a problem, will show the instantaneous values in all three phases simultaneously
the only reasonable and logical reference is either the quadrature on the same diagram. A minus sign precedes the symbol 4,p0,c and
v'ag,B to indicate that these quantities are negative with regard to the 1) Symbols 4d and 4'q in [17] are used to indicate full flux linkages
axis upon which they are projected. However, the inclusion of the (the angle between phasors 4' and U is r/2 if r is neglected). In the
minus sign in front of the quantity is misleading, because it suggests paper it is erroneously stated that phasor 4' and its components
that the quantity itself is the reverse. If the signs are omitted represent "net air-gap linkage."
from these two quantities, the diagram will be correct mathematically 2) Fig. 1 contains phasors of flux linkages, which is appropriate to
and the fact that these two quantities have a negative value for the deal with unsaturated machines. We think that in the IEC recom-
case shown is actually completely taken care of by the position of the mendation it is better to use MMFs as more general permitting
quantities in relation to the axis. If it is desired to indicate that operations with saturated machines.
the quantities are negative, it would appear to be appropriate to put 3) It is desirable to indicate angle values in the phasor diagram,
the minus sign after the symbol, enclosed in parentheses. In that loca- especially internal angle 8, power factor angle 6, and angle relation
tion it has no operatinig significance, but does call attention to the between stationary and rotatlng axes. This may be done on a
negative character of the resulting number. separate diagram as in Fig. 12, but using counterclockwise direction
It should also be pointed out, since instantaneous values are being of rotor rotation similarly to Fig. 7.
developed, that the rotating phasor is generally drawn to have a 4) At the stage of accepting a phasor diagram for a USA Standard,
magnitude proportional to the rms value, and if the quantity is it is desirable to consider the use of proper symbols. According to
sinusoidal, the instantaneous value is equal to the projection on the [31, item (79)], the IEC symbol for leakage coefficients is a-. It
appropriate axis, multiplied by '\/2. Such technicalities may be is preferable, therefore, to use Xa instead of Xi. Similarly, use
considered trivial, but it is highly important that the diagrams in a of U to represent voltage [31, item (57)] is preferred to Ea, leaving
proposed Standard document be rigorously correct. E to represent electromotive force (EMF).
It is also appropriate to comment on the symbol for flux linkages, From our point of view, use of Eq instead of Eaf is preferred
as used in the various diagrams. In all cases the symbol 41 has been because it simplifies writing of equations.
used, in accordance with the rather widespread practice in the
literature of rotating machines, particularly synchronous machines. REFERENCES
In most other areas, if not all, the symbol A has been used in prefer- [31] "Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology," IEC
ence, and A has now been adopted as a Symbol by USASI. In seeking Publ. 27, 1966.
to develop standardization, every effort should be made to follow
standard symbols, or to use those that have the greatest chance of
being adopted as standard. It does not appear probable that the
numerous other areas employing a symbol for magnetic flux linkage
can be induced to adopt 4', and in view of the recent adoption of a Howard B. Hamilton (University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.):
USA Standard symbol, it would appear to be preferable to make the The committee has worked very hard on this paper and are to be
change at this time. Therefore, it is my recommendation that A commended for their efforts. Certainly it is desirable to have an
be used in place of 4' throughout this proposal. accepted, commonly used phasor diagram in common usage both
Finally, with regard to 4) under "Quadrature Axis," resulting here and abroad. However, I would prefer to see Ea taken as the
from the adoption of the proposed convention regarding the relation reference in orientation of the phasor diagrams because a) they are
between the direct and quadrature axes, I believe that the statement primarily voltage phasor diagrams, and b) most analyses are pri-
should be omitted altogether. The validity of the proposal in this marily concerned with relatively constant terminal voltage situations
paragraph depends upon the choice of the quadrature axis as the (with Eag, being varied).
reference or real axis, andIh,Id, Eq, and Ed must all be interpreted Also, I submit that Figs. 5 and 6 are identical insofar as polarity
as scalars. Otherwise, there will be a conflict between the use of the and information about power flow are concerned. One is opposite
symbols for direct-axis quantities, because Id and Ed are regularly hand to the other but this orientation does not alter the intelligence
used as phasors, which, with this proposal, would have the values to be conveyed. Further, the uise of directed line segments with an
JId andjEd, respectively. If the diagram using such representation arrow at each end intended to illustrate voltage change in potential
is rotated, the representation is no longer valid. It is possible to as used in Figs. 5, 6, 8, and 9 is needlessly confusing.
definefl andjId as phasor quantities, which are the two components
of the total current, but in this case the phasor quantity is always
Id and notI'd Such a representation has certain merits, but to Manuscript received February 5, 1969.
obtain any advantage, such representation must be used throughout.
Since the corresponding relation has not been adopted in any of the
preceding discussion, the introduction of such a concept at this
point is very likely to bring more confusion than help. It is my
feeling that a proposed Standard should not open the way for Charles Concordia (General Electric Company, Schenectady,
possible serious confusion, and the only way the confusion can be N. Y.): This paper proposes a phasor diagram different from that in
completely avoided is not to introduce the concept at all. The [14]. Aside from the reasons given in the paper, my own reason for
paragraph referred to is independent of everything else in the preferring it is that it seems to permit a more appropriate linking
document, and therefore can be omitted without any harm. of the machine equations to the equations of the network to which
It is stated in the Introduction that the equations are in Standard it may be connected. My personal viewpoint is that the equations,
International units. It would be useful to add, in the Standard, that rather than the diagram, constitute the most significant factor, and
the same equations are also valid in any completely consistent that the major emphasis should be on making them as rational,
system of units, including a consisteint per-unit system, as would be consistent, and convenient as possible. Then the phasor diagram
very likely for many calculatiorns. becomes merely a picture of the equations.
From this point of view, we have noted that the proposed diagram
corresponds to the equations (in the notation of Park [12] or of
[2]):
eq = -P4'q + -dW -r (36)
ed = -p4d - 4'qCr - rid (37)
L. Lindorf (USSR Committee for Participation in International
Power Conferences, Secretariat for International Electrotechnical 4'd = Xafdifd + Xdid (38)
Commission Subcommittee2G, Moscow, USSR): This paper is a fq = +XqiA. (39)
very good rapprochement of opinions and a good sign that inter-
national agreement on phasor diagrams may be reached after all. If these are compared, e.g., with Park's original equations or with
The paper requires further study,bu t at this stage we may make the ofed,
[2, (32), (37), and (38)], we note that only the signs id, and 4',
following comments: have been changed.
Manuscript received February 7, 1969. Manuscript received February 14, 1969.

In the case of Park's equations in the steady state, complex That the diagram shown in Fig. 1 is not self-consistent becomes
numbers were often formed, as e = ed + jeq, etc., taking the d-axis painfully apparent when we compare the phasor summation of
as the reference axis. When the complex equations thus formed were EMFs with the phasor summation of corresponding flttx linkages:
compared to the equations of the network to which the synchronous Eaf = Eag + jIadXad + jlaqXaq and - saf = -#ag + fad + 4'aq.
machine was connected, it then appeared that it would have been The field EMF Eaf is obtained properly by summing the terminal
more convenient and natural to have chosen the axis of the internal EMF and the leakage-impedance EMF to determine that EMF
voltage, i.e., the q-axis, as the reference. which must be generated by the air-gap flux Eag. Continuing, we
On the other hand, in the case of the proposed (36)-(39), it add the reactance EMFs that are related to componetnts of air-gap
appears natural to take the q-axis as the reference, forming the flux linkage caused by direct- and quadrature-axis armature current
quantities components. Quiite properly the phasors #lad and #,agq being collinear
with 'ad and Iaq, tell us that the respective instantaneous flux linkages
e = eq + jed and currents reach maximum positive amplitudes simultaneouLsly.
= iq + jid This conventional representation of phasor EMFs, currents, and
flux linkages is common to every phasor diagram in which inductive
* g+J#d (40) current lags its associated EMF. Either we must admit that 4. = Li
whence (36) and (37) become or we must redraw this portion of the phasor diagram.
If we accept the fact that the ad and aq inductive EMFs must lead
e = p*-j*-ri (41) their respective current and flux-linkage phasors by 90 degrees in
time phase, we should also in the interest of consistency choose
and (38) and (39) become #af and #ag phasors so that corresponding EMFs Eaf and Eag will
lead these linkage phasors by 90 degrees in time phase and that
* jXafjdif d + Xqi + j(Xd Xq7)id- (42)
IPaf = fag + tad + #aq (revised+ equLation). Then and only then
Substituting (42) in (41), we have in the steady state can we interpret the 4baf field linkage contribution to air-gap flux as
that necessary to supply the required Wag plus an additional com-
e + (r + jwX,,)i =COXafdfd + (Xd -Xq)id (43) ponent to overcome V'ad and 'laqy just as we interpret the field EMF Eaf
which can be shown to be the equation of the proposed diagram. In as that EMF necessary to supply the required 'ag pluts an additional
this equation the reference axis is that of the machine internal voltage component to overcome jladXad and jIaqXag EMFs caused by
cWXaf difd. Appropriate angles between it and other voltages applied armature reaction.
to the network may be calculated directly. Moreover, the component For consistency the phasor diagram of Fig. 1 should be revised by
of current determining the active power lies on the "real" axis, reversing the arrowheads on thePag, 4'agd,,6agq, andk,6f phasors.
which seems to fit our habitual concepts better. Note that (43) is
equivalent to 111, (8)-(35)J.
This discussion has also brought out the fact that the phasor
diagram can be regarded from two points of view. Thename phasor
diagram implies that the quantities represented are in fact phasors, Advisory Working Group on IEC Matters of the Synchronous
which are usually understood to be the coefficients of e3Wt in the Machinery Subcommittee of the IEEE Rotating Machinery Com-
completed complex representation of ac quantities in which the mittee: The Working Group isnmost appreciative of the thoughtful
real part is the actual real sinLsoidally varying quantity. It further discussions and the efforts which the discussers made to prepare
implies that angles shown on the diagram are phase relations and them. Each of them has been sensitive to the principle followed by
correspond to differences in time phase among the various quan- the Working Group of selecting the system of conventions that has
tities. Indeed it can be shown that the phasor diagram satisfies these the best basis for the widest acceptance in the engineering com-
conditions. munity.
However, it has also just now been demonstrated that the diagram It is clear that no unanimity of approach has been achieved
can be constructed in terms of the quantities ed, eq, iq,+t I'd, of
id, through this forum. The points of basic disagreement are the sign
the Park two-reaction theory. These quantities are (in the steady of armature linkages in (1) and (2), the use of the generator (source)
state) all simply constants, and the combinations eq + jed, etc., are versus the motor (load) convention for current, the reference positive
thus also simply constants. There are no time differences among direction of flux due to field current, and the direction of the
any of them. Instead the angles represent their directions in space, quadrature axis.
referred to the rotor. From this point of view, it is also possible to The Working Group has been encouraged by Mr. Lewis's discus-
call the diagram a vector diagram in the old-fashioned way, or sion and by informally presented comments to apply the recom-
simply a complex-plane diagram. mendations of the paper, with several notable modifications, build-
ing where possible on the comments of all the discussers.
It is hoped that what is developed as a Standard will be used by
all parties, regardless of their preferences for certain variants.
Uniformity in practice will help greatly in communicating ideas,
and in teaching' students and new engineers. The inmportance of
N. L. Schmitz (University of Wisconsin Electrical Engineering these transcends that of individual preferences, which we all have.
Department, Madison, Wis.): The working group merits com- We will present first a discussion of the areas where agreement has
mendation not only for recommending a phasor diagram that the not been achieved. This will be followed by a presentation of the
engineering community can accept, but also for its lucid and logical statement that the Working Group will propose as the IEEE
presentation of background material. Standards recommendation.
As suggested in the Introduction, practicing engineers and de- Direction of Q-Axis: Mr. Park and Dr. Szablya have indicated a
signers of synchronous machines will have no serious difficulty in preference for locating the quadrature axis to lead the direct Axis by
using either "natural" or "nonnatural" sign conventions. These 90 degrees, whereas while Mr. Lewis and the Working Group prefer
comments are therefore addressed primarily to the problems of having the q-axis lag thed-axis. Appealing argumentshave been
students and new engineers, and secondarily to the problems of presented for both approaches and certainly there will be practi-
communication among various interest groups such as systems tioners and educators supporting both choices. The Working Group is
analysts who are not concerned exclusively with the synchronous proposing that the latter of these choices be used in the IEEE
generator. Recommendation for the reasons listed in the paper.
For widespread use, internationally, and among diverse groups of Sign of Armature Flux Linkages: Mr. Park prefers the conventions
engineers including those not primarily concerned with design of that lead to the USASI diagram (Fig. 13) and a reversal of the
synchronous machines, the diagram should be self-consistent signs of the terms in (1) and (2) relating to armature current. His
and should use sign conventions that can be correlated to those argument for not changing from the conventions on which much
commonly employed in circuit analysis. literature is based carries considerable weight. Onthe otherhand,
Manuscript received February 17, 1969. Manuscript received May 21, 1969; revised July 29, 1969.
Eaf
v
)
tCiJIaqXq
IadXd
11-
Aagd
/ \
/\
Fig. 23. Phasor diagram of overexcited generator (generator convention).
EXTERNAL
ELECTR ICAL
CIRCUIT
Fig. 24. Steady-state equivalent circuit for nonsalient-pole synchronous

machine (generator convention).
E
a~ TERMINAL VOLTAGE
An; _^IaXaR AXIS
Aaq
--.
j IaqXaq
.-
Fig. 25. Phasor diagram of motor operating at underexcited power factor

(motor convention).
phasor diagram of the basic quantities for an underexcited motor,

using the "motor convention" of Fig. 26. Following is a list of the
terms identified in the phasor diagram.
Armature Voltages (volts)
Ea terminal voltage
Ead direct-axis component of terminal voltage
Eaq quadrature-axis component of terminal voltage
Fig. 26. Steady-state equivalent circuit for nonsalient-pole Eag voltage due to net air-gap flux; also called virtual
synchronous machine (motor convention). voltage and voltage behind leakage reactance
Eaf voltage due to flux produced only by the field-winding
current
we have received support for the approach of consistent signs
laRa voltage across armature resistance
jIaXal voltage across armature leakage reactance
from several sources informally. As was indicated in the paper, IaIdXad voltage across direct-axis armature magnetizing reac-
choosing positive armature current as demagnetizing is a source of tance
difficulty to those learning the subject. It can also be a source of jIagXaq voltage across quadrature-axis armature magnetizing
error even to those who are experienced. The Working Group is reactance
therefore proposing the approach of (1) and (2) as the IEEE Recom- jlaXg fictitious voltage based on quadrature-axis synchronous
mendation. reactance, frequently used to locate quadrature axis
Symbols: Mr. Lindorf has proposed certain changes in symbology JIadXd' voltage across direct-axis transient reactance
to agree with [311. The symbol U for voltage and subscript a- for jIlaqX' voltage across quadrature-axis transient reactance
leakage are not in common use in the United States and would lead Ei transient internal voltage, also called the voltage behind
to confusion here. Also, there is no distinction here between voltage transient reactance
and EMF. In fact, the latter is deprecated in [32]. For use by IEC, JIadXq" voltage across direct-axis subtransient reactance
we will propose a recommended diagram, and will use accepted IEC jIaqXq" voltage across quadrature-axis subtransient reactance
notation. For USA Standards, we would use notation understood in Ei," subtransient internal voltage, also called voltage
the United States. behind subtransient reactance
We would prefer Eaf to Eg, since the former is more descriptive of direct-axis component of subtransient internal voltage
which quadrature-axis voltage is being considered. Eiqffl quadrature-axis component of subtransient internal
Recommendations: The Working Group is submitting the following voltage.
proposal for an IEEE Standard Recommended Phasor Diagram.
(This is written in the form of a definition to be included in a revision Armature Current (amperes)
of the forthcoming IEEE Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic la armature current
Terms, which will probably supersede [14].) It will be noted that lad direct-axis component of armature current; sense of
we have accepted Mr. Lewis's recommendation of accepting either phaspor lad in Fig. 17, indicates that flux produced by
a generator or a motor convention. This will also satisfy a comment armature current is opposed to that produiced by
of Dr. Szablya. field current
The diagram uLsing the motor convention (Fig. 25) shouild be laq quadrature-axis component of armature current.
studied carefully since the positions of the direct and quadrature
axes are quite different from those for the generator convention Flux Linkages with the Armature lfinding
(Fig. 23). The senses of phasors for all flux linkages are determined Aag flux linkage due to net air-gap flux
by the reference positive direction of armature cutrrent, since positive Aa,,gd direct-axis component of flux linkage due to net air-gap
current produces positive armature linkages. The sense of the phasor fltLx
for field-produced linkages determines the sense of the direct axis. Aagq quadrature-axis component of flux linkage dute to net
The quadrature axis is located so as to lag the direct axis by 90 air-gap flux.
degrees. Fig. 25 is based on all the above observations. It also agrees Aad flux linkage due to direct-axis component of armature
with the "load" or "motor" convention in that every voltage leads current; sense of Aad in Fig. 1 indicates that flux
by 90 degrees the flux linkage associated with it. produced is in opposition to that produced by field
Synchronous Machine Phasor Diagram: Such a diagram would winding
show the relations of as many of the following phasor quantities as Aaq flux linkage due to quadrature-axis component of
are necessary: armature current, armature voltages, the direct and armature current
quadrature axes, armatuire flux linkages due to armature and field- Aaf flux linkages due to field-winding current.
winding currents, magnetomotive forces due to armature and
field-winding currents, and the various components of air-gap flux. REFERENCES
Fig. 23 shows a "complete" phasor diagram for an overexcited [32] "Proposed standard definitions of general (fundamental and
generator, using the "generator convention" of current and voltages, derived) electrical and electronic terms," IEEE Publ. 270,
shown for a nonsalient-pole machine in Fig. 24. Fig. 25 shows a September 1966.

Recommended Phasor Diagram For Synchronous Machines

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88, NO.

11, NOVEMBER 1969 159a

Recommended Phasor Diagram for

Abstract-A phasor diagram for excited-field synchronous ma- INTRODUCTION

Fig. 2. Phasor diagram of generator operating at

Armature Current (Amperes)

armature current is opposed to that produced by field

the direction of positive current, maintaining the direction of

phasors of the various components of armature-winding flux 'Paf

sense 90 degrees before the voltage (eaf, A) produced by that

3) For a generator, the quadrature-axis component of armature

[4] d Electrical Circuits Incluing Machines, 2nd ed. Lon-

In general, if diagrams are to be used (instead of merely equations),

recent years in all fields of electrical engineering.

jXdI0 shown in Fig. 13 serves no useful purpose.)

signs. No confusion will occur in the latter case.

Manuscript received February 7, 1969. Manuscript received February 14, 1969.

Fig. 24. Steady-state equivalent circuit for nonsalient-pole synchronous

Fig. 25. Phasor diagram of motor operating at underexcited power factor

phasor diagram of the basic quantities for an underexcited motor,

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