Glossary

Standard level
The glossary contains key words, equations and terms from the IB Physics Diploma course. This section takes words from
Chapters 1–8.
A Ampere, A  Fundamental SI unit of electric current.
Absolute temperature scale See Kelvin scale of Commonly called an amp.
temperature. Amplitude, x0 or A  Defined as the maximum
Absolute zero  Temperature at which (almost) all displacement of a wave or oscillation.
molecular motion has stopped (0 K or −273 ˚C). The Analogue instrument  Measuring instrument which
fixed lower point of the Kelvin temperature scale has a pointer moving over a continuous scale.
(absolute temperature). Compare with digital instrument.
Absorption  Energy of particles or radiation is transferred Analogy  Applying knowledge of one subject to a
to other forms within a material, so that it is not different subject using their similarities.
transmitted. Angular momentum, L  The angular momentum of
Absorption spectrum  A series of dark lines across an electron in a hydrogen atom is equal to its linear
a continuous spectrum produced when light passes momentum multiplied by its orbital radius.
through a gas at low pressure. Annihilation (pair)  When a particle and its antiparticle
Acceleration, a  Rate of change of velocity with time, interact, they annihilate and their mass is converted
Δv to electromagnetic energy.
a = Δt (unit: m s−2). Acceleration is a vector quantity.
Anode  An electrode into which (conventional) current
Negative acceleration is commonly called deceleration. flows from the circuit.
Acceleration of free fall due to gravity Acceleration Antineutrino  Low mass and very weakly interacting
of a mass falling freely towards Earth. Numerically particle emitted during beta-negative decay.
equal to the gravitational field strength on or near the Antiparticle of a neutrino.
Earth’s surface, g = 9.8 ≈ 10 m s−2. Antinodes  The positions in a standing wave where the
Accuracy  A single measurement is described as amplitude is greatest. See also nodes.
accurate if it is close to the correct result. A series of Antimatter  Matter consisting of antiparticles.
measurements of the same quantity can be described Antiparticle  Every particle has an antiparticle which has
as accurate if their mean is close to the correct result. the same mass, but opposite charge and/or quantum
Accurate results have small systematic errors. numbers. (Some particles, for example photons, are
Activity of a radioactive source  The number of their own antiparticles.)
decays every second. Aperture  A hole or gap. Usually applied to the control
Aerial  A metallic conductor connected to an electronic of light entering an optical instrument.
circuit, which is designed to efficiently transmit or Atomic energy level  One of a series of possible discrete
receive electromagnetic waves (usually radio waves or energy levels of an electron within an atom.
microwaves). Audible range  Range of frequencies which can be
Aerodynamics  The study of how objects move through heard by humans.
air, or how air flow affects stationary objects. Avogadro’s constant, NA  The number of particles
Air resistance  Resistive force opposing the motion of an in one mole of a substance (equal to the number of
object through air. carbon atoms in 12 g of carbon-12).
Albedo  Defined as the total scattered or reflected
power/total incident power (on part of a planet’s
B
surface). Albedo depends on the nature of the Background radiation  Ionizing radiation from
surface, cloud cover and inclination of the radiation radioactive materials in rocks, soil building materials
to the surface. The Earth’s annual mean albedo is and the environment, as well as cosmic radiation from
approximately 30%. outer space.
Alpha particle  A fast-moving helium-4 nucleus emitted Banking  The use of sloping surfaces to enable faster
by a radioactive nucleus, consisting of two protons and motion around curves.
two neutrons tightly bound together. Barometer  An instrument for measuring atmospheric
Alternating current (ac)  A flow of electric charge pressure.
which changes direction periodically. Baryons  Particles made from the combination of three
Ammeter  An instrument which measures electric quarks. For example, protons and neutrons.
current. Battery  One or more electric cells.
Amount of a substance, n  The number of defining Beta particle  A high-speed electron which is released
particles in a substance. Usually measured in moles. from a nucleus during beta negative decay, or a high-
speed positron released during beta positive decay.

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Bias  A preference for one opinion, or one side of a a=

v2
r. The force producing this acceleration is called
discussion, often without fair consideration of others. mv2
Binding energy, nuclear  The energy released when a centripetal force, F = r .
a nucleus is formed from its constituent nucleons. Chain reaction (nuclear)  If, on average, one (or more)
Alternatively, it is equal to the work required to of the neutrons produced in a nuclear fission process
separate the nucleons completely. Binding energy is causes further fission, the process will not stop and
the energy equivalent of the mass defect. will become a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
Binding energy per nucleon (average)  The binding Charge  The fundamental property of some sub-atomic
energy of a nucleus divided by the number of nucleons particles which makes them experience electric forces
it contains. It is a measure of the stability of a nucleus. when they interact with other charges. Charges may
Black body  An idealized object which absorbs all the be positive or negative.
electromagnetic radiation that falls upon it. A perfect Charge a cell  Reverse chemical reactions in a cell with
black body also emits the maximum possible radiation. an electric current so that the cell can be used again.
Black-body radiation  Radiation emitted from a It can also be called recharging.
‘perfect’ emitter/black body. The characteristic ranges Charge an object  To add or remove electrons so that
of different radiations emitted (spectra) at different an object acquires an overall net charge.
temperatures are commonly shown in graphs of Charge density, n  The number of mobile charges in
intensity against wavelength (or frequency). unit volume of a material.
Boil  The change from a liquid to a gas at a well-defined Charging characteristic of a secondary cell P.d.–time
temperature. This occurs throughout the liquid. graph for the length of charging process.
Boltzmann’s constant, kB  Important constant which Chemical potential energy  The energy related to
links microscopic molecular energies to macroscopic the arrangement of electrons within the structure of
temperature measurements. Linked to the universal atoms and molecules.
gas constant, R, by the equation: kB = R . Circuit (electrical)  A complete conducting path
NA that enables an electric current to transfer energy
Bosons  A class of sub-atomic particle which includes continually from a source of potential difference
gauge bosons, the Higgs boson and mesons. (voltage) to various components.
Boundary (between media)  A surface where waves Circuit breaker  An electromagnetic device used to
may be reflected or transmitted (and maybe refracted). disconnect an electrical circuit in the event of a fault.
Boundary conditions  The conditions at the ends Classical physics  Physics theories that pre-dated the
of a standing wave system. These conditions affect paradigm shifts introduced by quantum physics and
whether there are nodes or antinodes at the ends. relativity.
C Climate models  Complex computerized modelling which
Calibrate  To put numbered divisions on a scale. attempts to predict the future climate of the planet,
Calorimeter  An apparatus designed for experiments especially how it will be affected by global warming.
investigating thermal energy transfers. Such Coefficients of friction, μ  Constants used to represent
experiments are described as calorimetric. the amount of friction between different two surfaces:
Carbon dating  A method of using the radioactive Ff ≤ μsR (for static friction), Ff = μdR (for dynamic
decay of carbon-14 to estimate the age of once-living friction).
biological material. Coherent waves  Waves that have the same frequency
Cathode  An electrode out of which (conventional) and a constant phase difference.
current flows around a circuit. Collision  Two (or more) objects coming together and
Cell (electric)  A device which transfers chemical energy exerting forces on each other for a short length of
to the energy carried by an electric current. It is also time. In an elastic collision, the total kinetic energy
called an electrochemical cell or a voltaic cell. See before and after the collision is the same. In an
also primary cell and secondary cell. inelastic collision, the total kinetic energy is reduced
Celsius  A temperature scale based on the melting point after the collision. If the objects stick together it is
(0 °C) and boiling point (100 °C) of water. described as a totally inelastic collision.
Centre of mass  The average position of all the mass of Compass  A device for determining the direction to
an object. The mass of an object is distributed evenly geographic north. A magnetic compass points to a
either side of any plane through its centre of mass. magnetic south pole. Small plotting compasses are
Centripetal acceleration and force  Any object used to investigate the shapes of magnetic fields in the
moving in a circular path has an acceleration laboratory.
towards the centre of the circle, called its centripetal Components of a vector  For convenience, a single
acceleration. It can be calculated from the expression vector quantity can be considered as having two parts

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(components), usually perpendicular to each other. Coulomb, C  The derived unit of measurement of electric
The combined effect of these components is exactly charge. One coulomb of charge passes a point in one
the same as the single vector. See also resolve. second if the current is one amp.
Composite particles  Particles that have internal Coulomb constant, k  The constant that occurs in the
structure because they contain other particles. 1
Coulomb’s law equation: k = (4πε0) , where ε0 is the
Compression (force)  A force that tries to squash an
object or material. electrical permittivity of free space.
Compressions (in a longitudinal wave)  Places where Coulomb’s law  There is an electric force between two
kq q
there are increases in the density and pressure of a point charges, q1 and q2, given by F = r12 2 , where r
medium as a wave passes through it. is the distance between them and k is the Coulomb
Condensation  The change from a gas (or vapour) to a
constant. The law may also be applied to charged
liquid.
spheres that are relatively far apart.
Conduction (thermal)  The passage of thermal energy
Count rate (radioactivity)  Nuclear radiation is usually
through substances as energy is transferred from
detected as a series of events which are ‘counted’. A
particle to particle.
radiation ‘counter’ may display the count in a given time
Conductor (electrical)  A material through which an
(per minute or per second). This is called the count rate.
electric current can flow because it contains significant
Crest  The highest part of a transverse mechanical wave.
numbers of mobile charges (usually free electrons).
Critical angle  When a light ray meets a boundary with
Confinement (quark)  The term used to describe the
another medium with a lower refractive index, it will
fact that free individual quarks are never observed.
be totally internally reflected if the angle of incidence
Conservation laws
is greater than the critical angle.
Charge  The total charge in any isolated system
Critical mass  The minimum mass needed for a self-
remains constant.
sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
Energy  The total energy in any isolated system
Current (electric), I  A flow of electric charge. Equal to
remains constant. Energy cannot be created or
the amount of charge passing a point in unit time:
destroyed. Δq
Momentum  The total momentum in any isolated I = Δt . 1 A = 1 C s−1. Measured in amperes.
system remains constant. The total (linear) Cycle (oscillation)  One complete oscillation.
momentum of a system is constant provided that no
external forces are acting on it. D
Quantum numbers  In an equation describing a nuclear Daughter product  The resulting nuclide when a
interaction, the total quantum numbers must be the radioisotope decays.
same on both sides. Decay series (chain)  A series of nuclides linked in a
Contact (normal) forces  Forces that occur between chain by radioactive decay. Each nuclide in the chain
surfaces which are touching each other. Contact decays to the next until a stable nuclide is reached.
forces are perpendicular (normal) to the surfaces. Deformation  A change of shape.
Control rods  These are used to adjust the rate of fission Degraded energy  Energy that has spread into the
reactions in nuclear reactors by absorbing more or surroundings and cannot be recovered to do useful
fewer neutrons. work.
Controlled and uncontrolled nuclear fission In Density, ρ  Mass/volume. SI unit: kg m−3.
a nuclear power station the number of neutrons in Deplete  To use up the supply of a resource.
the reactor core is carefully controlled in order to Derived units  Units of measurement that are defined in
maintain the rate of the nuclear reactions. In nuclear terms of other units.
weapons the number of neutrons is uncontrolled. Determinism  The belief that future events are completely
Convection  The passage of thermal energy through controlled by past events, so that full knowledge of the
liquids and gases due to the movement of the present can only lead to one outcome.
substance. This occurs because of differences in Diffraction  The spreading of waves as they pass around
density. obstacles or through apertures.
Conventional current  The direction of flow of a direct Diffusion  The random movement of particles from
current is always shown as being from the positive a place of high concentration to places of lower
terminal of the power source, around the circuit, to concentration.
the negative terminal. The conventional current is Digital communication  Data are transferred as a signal
opposite in direction to electron flow. containing only a very large number of digital pulses,
Correlation  There is a correlation between data if they each of which can only have one of two possible levels
are interconnected in some way. (0 or 1).

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Digital instrument  A measuring instrument that Electric field strength, E  Defined as the electric force
displays the measurement only as digits (numbers). per unit charge that would be experienced by a small
Compare with analogue instrument. F
test charge placed at that point: E = q (unit: N C−1).
Dipole  Two close electric charges (or magnetic poles) of
Electric forces  The fundamental forces that act across
equal magnitude but of opposite sign (or polarity).
space between all charges. The forces between opposite
Direct current (dc)  A flow of electric charge which is
charges are attractive. The forces between similar
always in the same direction.
charges are repulsive. Reduces with an inverse square
Discharge a battery/cell  Use a cell to drive a current
relationship with distance between point charges. See
through a circuit, reducing the energy available for
Coulomb’s law.
future use.
Electric potential energy  The energy stored due to the
Discharge an object  The flow of electrons to or from
forces between charges.
an object that reduces the overall (net) charge on it.
Electrode  A conductor used to make an electrical
Discharge characteristic (of a battery/cell) P.d.–
connection to a non-metallic part of a circuit.
time graph for the duration of the battery/cell’s use.
Electrolysis  The passage of an electric current through
Discrete  Individually separate.
a substance in a liquid or molten state which causes
Disperse (light)  Separate, usually into different
chemical changes.
wavelengths/colours (e.g. to form a spectrum).
Electrolyte  A solution that contains mobile ions.
Displacement, angular, θ  Defined as the angle
Electromagnetic induction  A process used by a
through which a rigid body has been rotated from a
generator to convert kinetic energy into electricity.
reference position.
Electromagnetic spectrum  Electromagnetic waves of
Displacement, linear, s  Defined as the distance from
all possible different frequencies, displayed in order. In
a reference point in a specified direction. A vector
order of increasing frequency: radio waves, microwaves,
quantity.
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays.
Dissipate  To spread out so that it cannot be recovered.
The visible spectrum in order of increasing frequency:
Distance, s  Length, a scalar quantity.
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
Drag  The force(s) opposing motion through a fluid,
Electromagnetic waves  Linked electric and magnetic
sometimes called fluid resistance.
oscillations that can travel across vacuum at a speed
Drift speed  The net speed of charges moving in an
of 3.0 × 108 m s−1. See electromagnetic spectrum.
electric current.
Electromotive force (emf), ε  Defined as the total
Drift speed equation  The equation relating drift speed
energy transferred in a source of electrical energy per
to current: I = nAvq.
unit charge passing through it.
Dynamo  A type of electric generator which produces
Electron  A sub-atomic particle with a negative charge
direct current.
(−1.6 × 10−19 C) and mass of 9.110 × 10−31 kg; present
E in all atoms and located outside the nucleus in
Earth (ground) connection  A good conductor discrete energy levels.
connected between a point on a piece of apparatus Electronvolt, eV  Defined as the amount of energy
and the ground. This may be part of a safety measure, transferred when an electron is accelerated by a p.d. of
or to ensure that the point is kept at 0 V. 1 V. 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J
Echo  A reflected sound which is heard distinctly from Elementary particles  Particles which have no internal
the original sound. structure. They are not composed of other particles.
Efficiency  Defined as the ratio of the useful energy (or For example, electrons. They are sometimes called
power) output from a device to the total energy (or fundamental particles.
power) input; often expressed as a percentage. Elliptical  In the shape of an ellipse (oval).
Elastic behaviour  A material shows elastic behaviour Emission spectrum  The line spectrum associated with
if it regains its original shape after a force causing the emission of electromagnetic radiation by atoms,
deformation has been removed. resulting from electron transitions from higher to
Elastic strain potential energy, EP  A form of energy lower energy levels.
that is stored in a material which has been deformed Emissivity, e  The power radiated by an object divided
elastically. The energy is transferred when the by the power radiated from a perfect black body of the
material returns to its original shape: EP = 12  k∆x2. same surface area and temperature.
Electric field  A region of space where any charge would Empirical  Based on observation and/or experiment.
experience an electric force. It is represented in Endoscope  A medical device which uses the total
drawings by field lines. internal reflection of light to obtain images from
inside the body.

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Energy density  The energy transferred from a unit of one or more other masses (charges or currents –
volume of a source (units: J m−3). Compare with moving charges).
specific energy. Field lines and patterns  Fields can be represented in
Equation of state for an ideal gas  pV = nRT Describes drawings by a pattern of lines. Each line shows the
the macroscopic physical behaviour of ideal gases. direction of force on a mass (in a gravitational field),
Equations of motion  Equations that can be used to or on a positive charge (in an electric field), or of the
make calculations about objects that are moving with north pole (in a magnetic field). A field is strongest
uniform linear acceleration. where the lines are closest together. See also uniform
Equilibrium position  The position in which there is no field and radial field.
resultant force acting on an object. Filament lamp  A lamp which emits light from a very
Equilibrium (translational)  An object is in hot metal wire. Also called an incandescent lamp.
translational equilibrium if there is no resultant force Finite Limited.
acting on it, so that it remains at rest or continues to Fissile  Able to undergo nuclear fission.
move with a constant velocity. Fission fragments  The nuclei produced in a nuclear
Equivalence of mass and energy  Any change of reaction.
energy is equivalent to a certain change of mass, Flavours (of quark)  There are six different kinds of
according to the equation ∆E = ∆mc2. quark, which are called ‘flavours’ of quarks: up, down,
Error  When a measurement is not exactly the same as strange, charm, bottom, top. The different types of
the correct value. lepton are also called flavours.
Error bars  Vertical and horizontal lines drawn Fluid  A liquid or gas.
through each data point on a graph to represent the Fluid resistance  Force(s) opposing motion through a
uncertainties in the two values. fluid, sometimes called drag.
Evaporation  The change from a liquid to a gas Fluorescent lamp  A lamp which produces light by
occurring on the surface at a temperature below the passing electricity through mercury vapour at low
boiling point. pressure.
Exchange particles  Also known as gauge bosons. Force constant, k  The ratio of force to extension for a
The exchange of these particles is used to explain ΔF
stretched material or spring: k = Δx (sometimes called
fundamental forces (interactions). Photons, gluons and the spring constant).
bosons. Force meter  An instrument used to measure forces. It is
Excitation  The addition of energy to a system, usually sometimes called a newton meter or a spring balance.
changing it from its ground state to an excited state. Fossil fuels  Naturally occurring fuels that have
Excitation of a nucleus, an atom or a molecule can been produced by the effects of high pressure and
result from absorption of photons or from inelastic temperature on dead organisms (in the absence of
collisions with other particles. oxygen) over a period of millions of years. Coal,
Expansion  Increasing in size. oil and natural gas are all fossil fuels used in power
Explosion  Sudden movement of masses from a central stations.
point in opposite directions (usually at high speeds). Frame of reference (for motion)  A location to
Exponential change  A change in which the rate of which observations and measurements of motion are
change of the quantity at any time is proportional to compared. For example, the speed of a car may be
the actual quantity at that instant. 10 m s−1 compared to the Earth’s surface.
Extension  Displacement of the end of an object which is Free-body diagram  A diagram showing all the forces
being stretched. acting on a single object, and no others.
Free electrons  Electrons (most commonly in metals)
F
that are not attached to individual atoms. They are
Feedback  When the past results of a continuing process also called delocalized electrons. They provide the
are used to change future events in the same process. mobile charges that are needed for an electric current
If results cause increased effects, it is described as to flow in solid conductors.
positive feedback. If results cause reduced effects, it is Free fall  The motion through the air under the effects of
called negative feedback. gravity but without air resistance. In common use free
Feynman diagrams  A graphical means of representing fall can also mean falling towards Earth without an
particle interactions by the use of one or more open parachute.
vertices. Free space  A place where there is no air or other matter.
Field (gravitational, electric or magnetic)  A field Also called a vacuum.
is a region of space in which a mass (or a charge or Freeze  The change from a liquid to a solid. Also called
a current) experiences a force due to the presence solidification.

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Frequency, f  Defined as the number of oscillations per human activities; believed by most scientists to be the
unit time, or the number of waves passing a point per cause of global warming.
unit time (usually per second): f = T1 . Greenhouse gases  Gases which absorb and emit
infrared radiation and thereby affect the temperature
Friction  Resistive forces opposing relative motion,
of the Earth. The principal greenhouse gases are water
particularly between solid surfaces (solid friction).
vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.
Static friction prevents movement, whereas dynamic
Atmospheric concentrations of the last three of these
friction occurs when there is already motion.
have been increasing significantly in recent years.
Fuel  A store of energy (chemical or nuclear) which can
Ground state  The lowest energy state of an
be transferred to do useful work (for example, generate
atom/electron.
electricity or power vehicles).
Fundamental  Having no simpler explanation. H
Fundamental forces (interactions)  Strong nuclear, Hadrons  Particles made from the combination of quarks.
weak nuclear, electromagnetic, gravitational. For example, baryons and mesons.
Fundamental units  Units of measurement that are not Half-life (radioactive)  The time taken for the activity
defined as combinations of other units. or count rate from a source, or the number of
Fusion (thermal)  Melting. radioactive atoms, to be reduced by half; the half-life
is constant for a particular radioisotope.
G Harmonics  Different frequencies (modes) of vibration of an
Gamma radiation, ray  Electromagnetic radiation oscillating given system. They are mathematically related
(photons) emitted during radioactive decay and and numbered as first harmonic, second, third etc.
having an extremely short wavelength. Heat engine  A device that uses the flow of thermal
Gas laws  Laws of physics relating the temperature, energy to do useful work.
pressure and volume of a fixed mass of an ideal gas: Heat exchanger  Equipment designed to transfer
Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and the pressure law. thermal energy efficiently from one place to another.
Gauge bosons See exchange particles. Hertz, Hz  The derived unit of measurement of
Geiger–Muller tube  An apparatus used to detect the frequency: 1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second.
radiation from a radioactive sample. Higgs boson  The exchange of Higgs bosons in the
Generator (electrical)  A device which converts kinetic Higgs field iggs field is responsible for giving particles
energy into electricity. the properties of mass.
Global warming  The increasing average temperatures Hooke’s law  The force needed to deform a spring is
of the Earth’s surface, atmosphere and oceans. proportional to the extension (or compression).
Gluon  The exchange particle for the strong nuclear force. Hydroelectric power (HEP)  The generation of
Gravitational field strength, g  Defined as the electrical power from falling water.
gravitational force per unit mass that would be
experienced by a small test mass placed at that point:
I
F Ideal gas  The kinetic model of an ideal gas makes the
g = m (unit: N kg−1).
following assumptions: i The molecules are identical.
Gravitational forces  Fundamental attractive forces that ii The molecules are point masses with negligible
act across space between all masses. They reduce with size and volume. iii The molecules are in completely
an inverse square law with distance between point random motion. iv There are negligible forces between
masses. the molecules, except when they collide. v All
Gravitational potential energy, EP  Energy that masses collisions are elastic, that is, the total kinetic energy
have because of the gravitational forces between them. of the molecules remains constant.
Changes in gravitational potential energy in a uniform Ideal meters  Meters that have no effect on the
field can be calculated from ΔEP = mgΔh. electrical circuits in which they are used. An ideal
Graviton  The exchange particle for gravitational forces ammeter has zero resistance and an ideal voltmeter has
(to be confirmed). infinite resistance.
Greenhouse effect  The natural effect that a planet’s Imagination  The formation of new ideas which is not
atmosphere has on reducing the amount of radiation related to direct sense perception or experimental
emitted into space, resulting in a warmer planet results.
(warmer than it would be without an atmosphere). Immersion heater  A heater placed inside a liquid or
Greenhouse effect (enhanced)  The reduction in object.
radiation emitted into space from Earth due to an Impact  A collision involving relatively large forces over
increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the a short time. The effect of such an impact may be
atmosphere (especially carbon dioxide) caused by

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different from the same impulse (Ft) delivered by a Ionizing radiation  Radiation with enough energy to
smaller force over a longer time. cause ionization in materials through which it passes.
Impulse  Defined as the product of force and the time Isochronous  Describing events that take equal times.
for which the force acts. It is equal to the change of Isotope  Two or more atoms of the same element with
momentum (unit: N s). different numbers of neutrons (and therefore different
Incidence, angle  The angle between an incident ray masses). A radioisotope is unstable and will emit
and the normal (or between the incident wave and ionizing radiation.
the boundary). J
Incident wave or ray  A wave (or ray) arriving at a
Jet engine  An engine which achieves propulsion by
boundary.
emitting a fast-moving stream of gas or liquid in the
Inclined plane  A flat surface at an angle to the
opposite direction to the intended motion.
horizontal (but not perpendicular). A simple device
Joule, J  Derived SI unit of work and energy: 1 J = 1 N m.
which can be used to reduce the force needed to raise
a load, sometimes called a ramp. K
Infinite  Without limits.
Kelvin scale of temperature  Also known as the
Inspiration  Stimulation (usually to be creative).
absolute temperature scale. A temperature scale based
Instantaneous value  The value of a quantity at one
on absolute zero (0 K) and the melting point of water
particular instant (not an average value).
(273 K). The kelvin, K, is the fundamental SI unit
Insulator (electrical)  A non-conductor. A material θ
through which a (significant) electric current cannot of temperature: T K = °C + 273. The kelvin (absolute)
flow, because it does not contain many mobile temperature is a measure of the mean random
charges. Compare with conductor. translation kinetic energy of one molecule of an ideal
–
Insulator (thermal)  A non-conductor. A material gas: EK = 32  kBT. The total translational kinetic energy
through which (significant) thermal energy cannot of one mole of an ideal gas = 32 RT.
flow.
P Kilogram, kg  SI unit of mass (fundamental).
Intensity, I  Defined as wave power/area: I = A . The
Kilowatt hour, kWh  The amount of electrical energy
intensity of a wave is proportional to its amplitude
transferred by a 1 kW device in one hour.
squared, I ∝ A2.
Kinematics  The study of moving objects.
Interaction  An event in which two or more objects
Kinetic energy, EK  Energy of moving masses;
exert forces on each other.
Interference  A superposition effect that may be translational KE is calculated from 12  mv2.
produced when similar waves meet. It is most Kinetic model of an ideal gas  The idealized
important for waves of the same frequency and motions of the molecules in a gas used to predict the
similar amplitude. Waves arriving in phase will macroscopic behaviour of gases. See also ideal gas.
interfere constructively because their path difference Kirchhoff’s first circuit law  Σ I = 0 (junction).
= nλ. Waves completely out of phase will interfere Kirchhoff’s second circuit law  Σ V = 0 (loop).
destructively because their path difference = (n + 12 )λ. L
Internal energy  The total potential energy and random
Lagging  Thermal insulation.
translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a
Latent heat  Thermal energy that is transferred at
substance.
constant temperature during any change of physical
Internal resistance, r  Sources of electrical energy, for
phase. See also specific latent heat.
example batteries, are not perfect conductors. The
Left-hand rule (Fleming’s)  A rule for predicting the
materials inside them have resistance in themselves,
direction of the magnetic force on moving charges or a
which we call internal resistance. This results in
current in a wire.
energy dissipation in the battery and a reduction in
Lens  Curved transparent surface(s) used to refract waves
the useful voltage supplied to the circuit. See also
to form a focus.
lost volts.
Leptons  Elementary particles of low mass (electrons, taus
Intuition  Immediate understanding, without reasoning.
and muons and their neutrinos).
Inverse square law  For waves/energy/particles/fields
Light dependent resistor (LDR)  A resistor that has
spreading equally in all directions from a point source
less resistance when placed in light of greater intensity.
without absorption or scattering: the intensity is
Light emitting diodes (LEDs)  Small semiconducting
inversely proportional to the distance squared: I ∝ x−2.
diodes that emit light of various colours at low voltage
Ionization  The process by which an atom gains or loses
and power.
one or more electrons, thereby becoming an ion. The
Linear relationship  A relationship that produces a
required energy is called the ionization energy.
straight line graph.
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Line of action (of a force)  A line through the point Mesons  Particles which contain a quark and an
of application of a force which shows the direction in antiquark.
which the force is applied. Methodology  An outline of the way in which a study,
Liquid crystal displays (LCD)  Displays that use liquid investigation or project is carried out.
crystal layers between polarizing filters. Voltages Metre, m  SI unit of length (fundamental).
applied to the liquid crystal change its plane of Metric multiplier  Prefix to a unit of measurement
polarization. to indicate multiples or fractions of that unit. For
Longitudinal wave  A wave in which the oscillations example, kilo- indicates a multiple of 1000.
are parallel to the direction of transfer of energy, Microscopic  This describes anything which is too small
for example sound waves. Sometimes called a to be seen with the unaided eye.
compression wave. Modelling  A central theme of science: representing
Lost volts  A term sometimes used to describe the reality with simplified theories, drawings, equations,
voltage drop that occurs when a source of electrical etc., in order to achieve a better understanding and
energy delivers a current to a circuit. make predictions.
M Moderator  A material used in a nuclear reactor to slow
down neutrons to low energies.
Macroscopic  This describes an object that can be
Modes of vibration  The different ways in which a
observed without the need for a microscope.
standing wave may be set up in a given system. See
Magnetic field strength, B  Defined as the force
also harmonics.
acting per unit length on unit current moving across
F Molar mass  Defined as the mass of a substance which
the field at an angle θ: B = (unit: tesla;
(IL sinθ ) contains one mole of its defining particles.
1 T = 1 N A  m ).
−1 −1
Mole, mol  SI unit of amount of substance
Magnetic forces  Fundamental forces that act across
(fundamental). Defined as the amount of a substance
space between moving charges, currents and/or
that contains as many of its defining particles as there
permanent magnets. The forces are perpendicular to
are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
the direction of the current.
Momentum (linear), p  Defined as mass times velocity:
Magnetic potential energy  Energy associated with
p = mv (unit: kg m s−1). A vector quantity.
arrangements of magnets and currents.
Monochromatic  Containing only one colour/frequency/
Magnitude Size.
wavelength (more realistically: a narrow range).
Mains electricity  Electrical energy supplied to many
Motor effect  The magnetic force on a current in a
different homes by cables from power stations.
magnetic field, as utilized in electric motors.
Malus’s law  Used for calculating the intensity of light
transmitted by a polarizing filter: I = I0 cos2 θ. I0 is N
incident intensity and θ is the angle between the Natural gas  A naturally occurring mixture of gases
polarizer axis and the plane of polarization of the (mainly methane) that can be used as a fuel. May
light. be either a fossil fuel or produced by more recent
Manometer  A liquid in a U-tube used for measuring biological processes.
differences in gas pressure. Natural philosophy  The name used to describe the
Mapping  Representing the inter-relationships between (philosophical) study of nature and the universe
ideas, knowledge or data by drawing (graphically). before modern science.
Mass  The property of matter which resists changes of Negligible  Too small to be significant.
motion. Neutral  Uncharged, or zero net charge.
Mass defect  The difference in mass between a nucleus Neutrino  A low mass and very weakly interacting
and the total masses of its constituent neutrons and particle emitted during beta-positive decay.
protons when separated. Antiparticle of antineutrino.
Mechanics  The study of motion and the effects of forces Neutron  A neutral sub-atomic particle with a mass of
on objects. 1.675 × 10−27 kg. The number of neutrons in a nucleus
Medical scanners/imagers  Equipment used in is called the neutron number (N).
hospitals for obtaining images of the internal structure Neutron capture  A nuclear reaction in which a neutron
of the body. interacts with a nucleus to form a heavier nucleus.
Medium (of a wave)  Material through which a wave is Newton, N  A derived SI unit of force: 1 N = 1 kg m s−2.
passing (plural: media). Newton’s laws of motion 
Meltdown (thermo-nuclear)  Common term for the First law  An object will remain at rest, or continue to
damage to the core and reactor vessel which results move in a straight line at a constant speed, unless a
from overheating following some kind of accident at a resultant force acts on it.
nuclear power station.
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Second law  Acceleration is proportional to resultant Observer effect  Occurs when the act of observation, or
Δp measurement, has an effect on the phenomenon being
force: F = ma or F = Δt .
Third law  Whenever one body exerts a force on observed.
another body, the second body exerts exactly the Ohm, Ω  The derived unit of measurement of electric
1 v
same force on the first body, but in the opposite resistance: 1 Ω = 1A . 1 V
direction. Ohmic behaviour  The electrical behaviour of an ohmic
Newton’s universal law of gravitation  There is component is described by Ohm’s law.
a gravitational force between two point masses, M Ohm’s law  The current in a conductor is proportional
GMm
and m, given by F = r2 , where r is the distance to the potential difference across it, provided that the
between them and G is the universal gravitation temperature is constant.
constant. The law may also be applied to spherical Optical fibre  A thin flexible fibre of high quality glass
masses which are relatively far apart. which uses total internal reflection to transmit light
Nodes  The positions in a standing wave where the along curved paths and/or over large distances.
amplitude is zero. See also antinodes. Optically active substances  Substances that rotate
Non-renewable energy sources  Energy sources that the plane of polarization of light which is passing
take a very long time to form and which are being through them.
rapidly ‘used-up’ (depleted). Orbit  The curved path (often assumed circular) of a mass,
Normal  Perpendicular to a surface. or charge, around a larger central mass or charge.
Nuclear equation  An equation representing a nuclear Order of magnitude  When a value for a quantity is not
reaction. The sum of nucleon numbers (A) on the known precisely, we can give an approximate value by
left-hand side of the nuclear decay equation must quoting an order of magnitude. This is the estimated
equal the sum of the nucleon numbers on the right- value rounded to the nearest power of ten. For example,
hand side of the equation. This also applies to proton 400 000 has an order of magnitude of 6 (106) because
numbers (Z). log10 400 000 = 5.602, which is nearer to 6 than 5.
Nuclear fission  A nuclear reaction in which a massive Oscillation  Repetitive motion about a fixed point.
nucleus splits into smaller nuclei whose total binding
energy is greater than the binding energy of the initial
P
nucleus, with the simultaneous release of energy. Pair production  Conversion of photon energy into
Nuclear fusion  Nuclear reaction in which two light a particle and its antiparticle. The opposite of
nuclei form a heavier nucleus whose binding energy annihilation.
is greater than the combined binding energies of the Parabolic  In the shape of a parabola. The trajectory of a
initial nuclei, thereby releasing energy. projectile if air resistance is negligible.
Nuclear potential energy  Energy associated with the Paradigm (physics)  A widely accepted model and way
arrangement of particles in the nucleus of an atom. of thinking about a particular aspect of the physical
Nuclear waste  Radioactive materials associated with world.
the production of nuclear power that are no longer Parallax error  An error of measurement that occurs
useful, and which must usually be stored safely for a when reading a scale from the wrong position.
long period of time. Parallel connection  Two or more components
Nucleon  A particle in a nucleus, either a neutron or connected between the same two points, so that they
proton. The nucleon number (A) is the total number of have the same p.d. across them.
protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Particle accelerator  An apparatus designed to produce
Nucleus  The central part of an atom containing protons particle beams of charged sub-atomic particles (or
and neutrons. A nucleus is described by its atomic ions).
number and nucleon number. See nuclide. Particle beams  Streams (flows) of very fast moving
Nuclide  Term used to identify one particular species particles, most commonly charged particles (electrons,
(type) of atom, as defined by the structure of its protons or ions), moving across a vacuum. Properties
nucleus. A radionuclide is an unstable nuclide that of the individual particles can be deduced by
will emit radiation. observing the behaviour of the beams in electric
and/or magnetic fields.
O
Pascal, Pa  The derived SI unit of pressure: 1 Pa = 1 N m−2.
Objective  Free from bias and emotion. Compare with Path difference  The difference in distance of two
subjective. sources of waves from a particular point. If the path
difference between coherent waves is a whole number
of wavelengths, constructive interference will occur.

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Peer review  The evaluation of scientific results and Plane waves  Waves with parallel wavefronts which can
reports by other scientists with expertise in the same be represented by parallel rays.
field of study, usually prior to publication. Plasma  A state of matter which is similar to a gas, but
Penetrating power  Radiation continues to penetrate which contains a significant proportion of charged
matter until it has lost nearly all of its energy. The particles (ions).
greater the ionization per cm, the less penetrating Point particle, mass or charge  A theoretical concept
power it will possess. used to simplify the discussion of forces acting on
Period (time period), T  The time taken for one objects (especially in gravitational and electric fields).
complete oscillation, or the time taken for one Polarity  The separation of opposite electric charges
complete wave to pass a point. or opposite magnetic poles which produces uneven
Permanent magnet  A magnetized material which effects in a system.
creates a significant and persistent magnetic field Polarization (plane)  A property of some transverse
around itself. Permanent magnets are made from electromagnetic waves in which the electric field (and
ferromagnetic materials, like certain kinds of steel. magnetic field) oscillations are all in the same plane.
Soft iron cannot be magnetized permanently. Polarizing filter  A filter which transmits light which is
Permeability of a medium, μ  A constant that polarized in one plane only. A filter used to produce
represents the ability of a particular medium to polarized light from unpolarized light is called a
transfer a magnetic force and field. polarizer. A polarizing filter which is rotated in order
Permeability of free space (vacuum), μ0 A to analyse polarized light is called an analyzer. Crossed
fundamental constant that represents the ability of a filters prevent all light from being transmitted.
vacuum to transfer a magnetic force and field. Positron  The antiparticle of the electron. It is released
Permittivity of a medium, ε  A constant that during beta positive decay.
represents the ability of a particular medium to Potential difference (electric), p.d.  The electrical
transfer an electric force and field. Often expressed potential energy transferred (work done) as a unit
ε w
as relative permittivity: εr = ε (no units), and also charge moves between two points: V = q . Commonly
0
sometimes called dielectric constant. referred to as voltage.
Permittivity of free space, ε0  A fundamental Potential divider  Two resistors used in series with a
constant that represents the ability of a vacuum to fixed potential difference across them. When one
transfer an electric force and field. resistance is changed, the p.d. across each resistor will
Phase (of matter)  A system (substance) in which all change, and this can be used for controlling another
the physical and chemical properties are uniform. part of the circuit.
Phase (oscillations)  Oscillations are in phase if they Potential energy  Energy which is stored. See chemical
have the same frequency and their maxima occur at potential energy, elastic strain potential energy,
the same times. gravitational potential energy, electric and magnetic
Phase difference  When oscillators which have the potential energies and nuclear potential energy.
same frequency are out of phase with each other, Potentiometer  Variable resistor (with three terminals)
the difference between them is defined by the angle used as a potential divider.
(usually in radians) between the oscillations. Phase Power, P  Defined as energy transferred/time taken
differences can be between 0 and 2π radians. ΔE
(P = Δt
) or, for mechanical energies: work done/time
Photon  A quantum (‘packet’) of electromagnetic ΔW
radiation, with an energy E = hf. Exchange particle for taken (P = Δt ) (unit: watt; 1 W = 1 J s−1).
the electromagnetic interaction. Power (electrical)  The rate of dissipation of energy in a
Photosynthesis  A chemical process that produces plant V2
resistance: P = VI = I2R = R
.
material (chemical energy) from carbon dioxide and
water using the radiant energy from the Sun. Precautionary principle  The idea that scientific research
Photovoltaic cell  Device which converts should not continue unless scientists are able to be
electromagnetic radiation (mainly light) into electrical absolutely sure that the research will not be harmful.
energy. Also called a solar cell. Precision  A measurement can be described as being
Planck relationship  The frequency of electromagnetic precise if a similar result would be obtained if the
radiation, f, emitted or absorbed when an electron measurement was repeated. Precise measurements
undergoes a transition between two energy states is have small random errors.
given by ΔE = hf, where h represents Planck’s constant Pressure, P  Defined as force acting normally per unit
force
and ΔE is the difference in energy levels. area: pressure = area . The unit is the pascal, Pa.
Plane of polarization  The plane in which all Atmospheric pressure is the pressure in the air due to
oscillations of a plane polarized wave are occurring. molecular motions.
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Pressure gauge  An instrument for measuring gas pressure. Radioactive decay (radioactivity)  The spontaneous
Primary cell  An electric cell which cannot be used transmutation of an unstable nucleus, accompanied by
again after the chemical reactions have finished. the emission of ionizing radiation in the form of alpha
Primary energy source  A natural source of energy particles, beta particles or gamma rays.
that has not been converted to or from another form Random  Without pattern or predictability.
(for example, solar radiation, but not electricity or Random errors  Measurements of any quantity may
hydrogen). be bigger or smaller than the correct value and are
Prism  A regularly shaped piece of transparent material scattered randomly around that value (for various
(such as glass) with flat surfaces which is used to reasons).
refract and disperse light. Range  (of a projectile) The distance travelled before
Projectile  An object that has been projected through impact with the ground.
the air and which then moves only under the action Rarefactions (in a longitudinal wave)  Places in a
of the forces of gravity and air resistance. medium where there are reductions in the density and
Propagation (of waves)  The transfer of energy by pressure of a gas as a wave passes through it.
waves. Raw data  Measurements made during an investigation.
Proton  A sub-atomic particle with a positive charge Ray  A line showing the direction in which a wave
(+1.6 × 10−19 C) and mass of 1.673 × 10−27 kg. The is transferring energy. Rays are perpendicular to
number of protons in a nucleus is called the –proton wavefronts.
number (Z). Ray diagrams  Drawings that represent the direction of
Pulse (wave)  A travelling wave of short duration. waves or particles as they pass through a system.
Pumped storage (HEP)  Large quantities of water are Reaction force  See also Newton’s third law. Forces
pumped up to a higher location using excess electrical always occur in pairs and these forces are sometimes
power. When needed, the water is allowed to fall described as action and reaction. For example, the
down again so that electricity can be regenerated. force of a bat hitting a ball can be described as an
Q action force; at the same time the ball exerts an equal
and opposite force on the bat, which can be described
Qualitative  A description involving qualities, rather
as a reaction force.
than quantities.
Reaction time  The time delay between an event
Quantitative  A description involving quantities,
occurring and a response. For example, the delay that
measurements.
occurs when using a stopwatch.
Quantized  This describes something that can only exist
Real gases  Modelling of gas behaviour is idealized. Real
in certain definite (discrete) numerical values.
gases will not behave exactly the same as the model of
Quantum  The minimum amount of a physical quantity
an ideal gas.
that is quantized.
Reflection (waves)  The change of direction that occurs
Quantum number  This is used to describe the
when waves meet a boundary between two media,
quantized properties of particles which are conserved
such that the waves return into the medium from
in interactions. (Charge, baryon number, lepton number,
which they came.
strangeness.)
Reflection, law of  The angle of incidence = angle of
Quantum physics (mechanics)  The study of matter
reflection (in the same plane).
and energy at the sub-atomic scale. On this scale
Refraction  The change of direction that can occur
quantities are quantized.
when a wave changes speed (most commonly when
Quarks  Elementary particles. There are six kinds
light passes through a boundary between two different
(flavours). They cannot exist as individual particles.
media).
They have a charge of ± 13  e or ± 23  e. Combinations of
Refractive index, n  Defined as the ratio of the speed of
quarks are called hadrons.
waves in vacuum (on air) to the speed of waves in a given
R v
air sine of angle in air
Radial field  A field that spreads out from a point equally medium. n = vmedium . Also n = .
sine of angle in medium
in all directions. Regenerative braking  Decelerating a vehicle by
Radian  A unit of measurement of angle. There are 2π transferring its kinetic energy into a form which can
radians in 360°. be of later use (rather than dissipating the energy
Radiation  Particles or energy that radiate away from a into the surroundings). For example, by generating an
source. Principally, various kinds of electromagnetic electric current that charges a battery.
radiation and nuclear (ionizing) radiation. Renewable energy sources  Sources that will
Radiation sickness  The condition associated with continue to be available for our use for a very long
intense exposure to ionizing radiation. time; they cannot be used up (depleted or ‘run out’),

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156 Glossary

except over billions of years, when the Sun reaches S

the end of its lifetime. Compare with non-renewable Sankey (energy flow) diagram  A diagram
energy sources, like oil. representing the flow of energy in a system. The
Resistance (electrical)  The ratio of p.d. across a widths of the arrows are proportional to the amounts
conductor to the current flowing through it: R = V . of energy (or power). Degraded energy is directed
I
Resistive force  Any force which opposes motion, for downwards in the diagram.
example, friction, air resistance, drag. Satellite  An object which orbits a much larger mass.
Resistivity, ρ  The resistance of a specimen of a material Satellites may be natural (like the Earth or the Moon)
which has length of 1 m and cross-sectional area of or artificial (as used for communication, for example).
ρL
1 m2: R = A . Scalar  A quantity which has only magnitude (no
Resistor  A resistance constructed to have a specific direction).
value or range of values. Scattering  The irregular reflections of waves from their
Resistors in parallel  Resistors connected between original path by interactions with matter.
the same two points so that they all have the same Scientific notation  Every number is expressed in the
potential difference across them: R 1 = R1 + R1 + … following form: a = 10b, where a is a decimal number
total 1 2
Resistors in series  Resistors connected one after between 1 and 10 and b is an exponent (integer).
another so that the same current passes through them Second, s  SI unit of time (fundamental).
all: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + … Secondary cell  An electric cell which can be recharged.
Resolve (a vector)  To express a single vector as Secondary energy source  A source which has been
components (usually two which are perpendicular to converted from a primary energy source; for example,
each other). electricity.
Rest mass  The mass of an isolated particle that is at rest Self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction  A reaction
relative to the observer. that occurs when enough of the neutrons created
Rest mass energy  The rest mass expressed in the during fissions then go on to cause further fissions.
equivalent terms of energy. Semiconductor  A material (such as silicon) with a
Restoring force  A force acting in the opposite direction resistivity between that of conductors and insulators.
to motion, returning an object to its equilibrium Such materials are essential to modern electronics.
position. Sense perception  The five human senses, most
Resultant  The single vector which would have the same commonly sight, are the most common way we have
effect as the combination of two or more separate of receiving (becoming aware of, perceiving) scientific
vectors. information.
Resultant force  The vector sum of the forces acting on Sensor  An electrical component which responds to a
an object, sometimes called the ‘unbalanced force’ or change in a physical property with a corresponding
‘net’ force. change in an electrical property (usually resistance).
Rheostat  A variable resistance used to control current. Also called a transducer.
Right-hand grip rule  A rule for determining the Serendipity  Unplanned and unexpected good luck.
direction of the magnetic field around a current. Series connection  Two or more components
Ripple tank  A tank of water used for investigating wave connected such that there is only one path for the
properties. electrical current, which is the same through all the
Rocket engine  Similar to a jet engine, but there is components.
no air intake; instead an oxidant is carried on the Short circuit  An unwanted (usually) electrical connection
vehicle, together with the fuel. which provides a low resistance path for an electric
Rotational kinetic energy  Kinetic energy because of current. It may result in damage to the circuit, unless
rotation (spin). the circuit is protected by a fuse or circuit breaker.
Rutherford–Geiger–Marsden experiment The Simulation  A simplified visualization (imitation) of a
scattering of alpha particles by a thin sheet of gold real physical system and how it changes with time.
foil which demonstrated that most particles passed Usually part of a computer modelling process.
through the foil completely undeflected, while a SI format for units  For example, the SI unit for
few were deflected at extremely large angles. This momentum is kilogram metre per second and should
showed that atoms consist of mostly empty space be written as kg m s−1 (not kg m/s).
with a very dense positively charged core (the SI system of units  International system of units
nucleus). of measurement (from the French ‘Système
International’) which is widely used around the

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world. It is based on seven fundamental units and the visible spectrum shows a smooth and uninterrupted
decimal system. change from one colour to another (plural: spectra).
Signal generator  A piece of electronic equipment used Spectrum, line  A spectrum of separate lines (rather
to supply low-power alternating currents of a wide than a continuous spectrum), each corresponding to a
range of different frequencies. discrete wavelength and energy.
Significant figures (digits)  All the digits used in data Speed, linear, v  Average speed is defined as distance
to carry meaning, whether they are before or after a travelled/time taken, v = ΔsΔt
. Instantaneous speed is
decimal point. determined over a very short time interval during
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)  Defined as which it is assumed that the speed does not change.
oscillations in which the acceleration, a, is It may also be determined from the gradient of a
proportional to the displacement, x, and in the distance–time graph. Linear speed is a scalar quantity.
opposite direction, back towards the equilibrium Compare with velocity, a vector quantity (unit: m s−1).
position: a ∝ –x. Standard (particle) model  A summary of the quarks,
Sinusoidal  In the shape of a sine wave (often equivalent leptons and bosons that are believed to be the
to a cosine wave). elementary particles of the universe.
Slow neutrons  Low energy neutrons (typically less than Standing wave  The kind of wave which may be formed
1 eV) that are needed to sustain a chain reaction. by two similar travelling waves moving in opposite
They are slowed down in a nuclear reactor by the use directions. The most important examples are formed
of a moderator. They are sometimes called thermal when waves are reflected back upon themselves. The
neutrons because they are in approximate thermal wave pattern does not move and the waves do not
equilibrium with their surroundings. transfer energy.
Snell’s law (of refraction)  This connects the sines of State of a gas  Specified by quoting the pressure, p,
the angles of incidence and refraction to the wave temperature, T, and volume, V, of a known amount, n,
speeds in the two media (or the refractive indices): of gas.
n1 sin θ 2 v2 Stefan–Boltzmann law  A equation that can be used
= = .
n2 sin θ 1 v1 to calculate the total power radiated from a surface,
Soft iron  A form of iron (pure or nearly pure) which is P = eσAT4. σ is known as the Stefan–Boltzmann
easily magnetized and demagnetized. Soft iron cores constant and e is the emissivity of the surface.
are used in a wide variety of electromagnetic devices. Stellar (hydrostatic) equilibrium  Main sequence
Solar constant  The intensity of the Sun’s radiation stars are in equilibrium under the effects of thermal
arriving perpendicularly to the Earth’s upper gas pressure and radiation pressure acting outwards
atmosphere. against gravitational pressure inwards.
Solar heating panel  Devices for transferring radiated Strain  If a material has a strain, it has been deformed.
thermal energy from the Sun to internal energy in Strangeness  A property of some quarks which was
water. introduced to explain their unexpectedly long
Solenoid  A long coil of wire with turns which do not lifetimes. The quantum number of strangeness is
overlap (helical). Solenoids are often used because of conserved in some particle interactions.
the strong uniform magnetic fields inside them. Streamlined  Describes a shape that reduces the resistive
Sound  Longitudinal waves in air, or other media, that forces acting on an object which is moving through a
are audible (can be heard). fluid (gas or liquid).
Specific energy  The amount of energy which can Stress  Tensile force/cross-sectional area.
be transferred from unit mass of an energy source Strong nuclear force  A fundamental force acting
(unit J kg−1). on quarks. It is the force responsible for attracting
Specific heat capacity, c  Defined as the amount of nucleons together. It is a short range attractive force
energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a (the range is about 10−15 m), but for smaller distances
substance by 1 K: c = Q . it is repulsive, and hence it prevents the nucleus from
mΔT
Specific latent heat, Lf or Lv  Defined as the amount collapsing. The exchange particle is the gluon.
of energy needed to melt (fusion) or vaporize Subjective  Based on human feelings and opinions.
(vaporization) 1 kg of a substance at constant Compare with objective.
Superconducting  Without significant electrical
temperature: L = Q m (unit: J kg ).
−1
resistance, which only occurs at very low
Spectroscopy  The analysis of spectra using instruments
temperatures.
called spectroscopes or spectrometers.
Superposition (principle of)  The resultant of two
Spectrum, continuous  A spectrum in which a range
or more waves arriving at the same point can be
of wavelengths are displayed in order. A continuous

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158 Glossary

determined by the vector addition of their individual Thermostat  A component that is used with a heater or
displacements. cooler to maintain a constant temperature.
Surroundings  Everything apart from the system that is Total internal reflection  This occurs when a wave
being considering; similar to the environment. meets a boundary with another medium which has a
System  The object(s) being considered. lower refractive index (in which it would travel faster).
Systematic errors  A reading with a systematic error is The angle of incidence must be greater than the
always either bigger or smaller than the correct value critical angle.
by the same amount, for example, a zero-offset error. Tracer (radioactive)  A radioisotope introduced into a
T system (for example, a human body) to track where it
goes by detecting the radiation that it emits.
Technology  The application and use of scientific
Trajectory  The path followed by a projectile.
knowledge for practical purposes.
Transition (between energy levels)  A photon is
Temperature  This determines the direction of thermal
emitted when an electron makes a transition to a
energy transfer. It is a measure of the average random
lower energy level. The energy of the photon is equal
translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a
to the difference in energy of levels involved.
substance.
Translational  This describes moving from place to
Tension (force)  A force which tries to stretch an object
place.
or material.
Translational equilibrium  A state in which an object
Terminal potential difference  The potential
is remaining at rest or continuing to move with
difference across the terminals of a battery (or other
constant velocity.
voltage supply) when it is supplying a current to a
Transmission  The passage through a medium without
circuit. Typically it decreases (because of internal
absorption or scattering.
resistance) when the current rises.
Transmit  To send out (usually a signal carrying
Terminal speed (velocity)  The greatest downwards
information).
speed of a falling object which is experiencing
Transmutation  When a nuclide changes to form a
resistive forces (for example, air resistance). It occurs
different element during radioactive decay.
when the object’s weight is equal in magnitude to the
Transparent  This describes a medium which transmits
sum of resistive forces.
light without scattering.
Tesla, T  The SI unit of magnetic field strength:
Transverse wave  A wave in which the oscillations are
1 T = 1 N A−1 m−1.
perpendicular to the direction of transfer of energy, for
Test charge (or mass)  An idealized model of a
example light waves.
small charge (or mass) placed in a field in order to
Trough  The lowest point of a transverse mechanical
determine the properties of that field, but without
wave.
affecting those properties.
Turbine  A device which transfers the energy from a
Theory  A term which can have many different
moving fluid (gas or liquid) to do mechanical work
interpretations. A scientific theory provides a
and cause (or maintain) rotation.
fully tested and checked explanation of particular
observations. U
Thermal capacity  Defined as the amount of energy Ultrasonic  Relating to frequencies of ‘sound’ above the
needed to raise the temperature of something by one range which can be heard by humans (approximately
kelvin. 20 kHz).
Thermal contact  Objects can be considered to be in Uncertainty (random)  The range, above and below
thermal contact if thermal energy (of any kind) can a stated value, within which we would expect any
be transferred between them. repeated measurements to fall. Uncertainty may be
Thermal energy (heat)  The (non-mechanical) transfer expressed in absolute, fractional or percentage terms.
of energy between two or more bodies at different Unified atomic mass unit, u  A unit of mass used to
temperatures (from hotter to colder). express the mass of atoms, sub-atomic particles and
Thermal equilibrium  A state in which all temperatures molecules. Equal to one-twelfth of the mass of the
within a system are constant. nucleus of a carbon-12 atom (at rest and in the ground
Thermistor (negative temperature coefficient) A state).
resistor that has less resistance when its temperature Uniform field  A field of constant strength, represented
increases. It is also called a temperature dependent by parallel field lines.
resistor. Universal gravitational constant, G 
Thermodynamics  A branch of physics involving The constant that occurs in Newton’s universal law of
transfers of thermal energy to do useful work. gravitation.

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Universal (molar) gas constant  The constant, R, that Visualization  Helping understanding by using images
appears in the equation of state for an ideal gas (mental or graphic).
(pV = nRT). Volt  Derived unit of potential difference: 1 V = 1 J C−1.
Upthrust  A force exerted vertically upwards on any Voltage See potential difference.
object that is in a fluid. Voltmeter  An instrument used to measure potential
Uranium enrichment  Increasing the percentage of 235U difference (voltage).
in uranium fuel in order to make it of use in a nuclear W
power station or for a nuclear weapon.
Watt, W  Derived SI unit of power: 1 W = 1 J s−1.
V Wave (mechanical)  A wave transferring energy
V–I characteristic  A graph of current–p.d. representing involving oscillating masses.
the basic behaviour of an electrical component. Wave (travelling)  A wave which transfers energy away
Vaporization  The change from a liquid to a vapour or from a source. Sometimes called a progressive wave.
gas by boiling or evaporation. Wavefront  A line connecting adjacent points moving
Vapour  Gas which can be condensed by pressure to in phase (for example, crests). Wavefronts are one
become a liquid. wavelength apart and perpendicular to the rays that
Variable  A quantity that may change during the represent them.
course of an investigation. It may be measurable Wavelength, λ  Defined as the shortest distance
(quantitative) or just observable (qualitative). A between two points moving in phase (for example, the
quantity being deliberately changed is called the distance between adjacent crests).
independent variable and the measured or observed Wave–particle duality  Some properties of light need
result of those changes occurs in a dependent variable. a wave theory to explain them, other properties can
Usually all other variables will be kept constant (as far only be explained in terms of particles (photons).
as possible); they are called the controlled variables. Wave speed, c  Defined as the speed at which energy is
Variable resistor  A resistor (usually with three transferred by a wave: c = f λ.
terminals) which can be used to control currents Weak nuclear force  Fundamental force acting between
and/or p.d.s in a circuit. quarks and between leptons. It is involved with
Vector  Quantity which has both magnitude and radioactive decay. Exchange particles are W or Z
direction. Compare with scalar. bosons.
Velocity, angular, ω  Defined as rate of change of Weigh  Determine the weight of an object. In everyday
angular displacement with time: ω = ΔΔtθ (unit: use the word ‘weighing’ usually means quoting the
2π result as the equivalent mass: ‘my weight is 60 kg’
rad s−1). For regular motion in a circle, ω = T = 2πf, actually means I have the weight of a 60 kg mass.
and linear velocity = angular velocity × radius, v = ωr. Weight, W  Gravitational force acting on a mass:
Velocity, linear, v  Defined as rate of change of linear
Δs
W = mg. Measured in newtons.
displacement with time, v = Δt . Velocity is a vector Wien’s displacement law  Relationship between
quantity and can be considered as speed in a specified absolute temperature and the wavelength emitted with
direction. If the velocity (speed) of an object changes maximum power by a black body at that temperature,
during a period of time t, the initial velocity (speed) 2.90 × 10−3
λmax = .
is given the symbol u and the final velocity (speed) T
is given the symbol v. Instantaneous velocity is Wind generator  Device for transferring the kinetic
determined over a very short time interval (unit: energy of wind into electrical energy.
m s−1) or from the gradient of a displacement-time Work, W  Work is the energy transfer that occurs when
graph. an object is moved with a force. More precisely, work
Verify  To show that something is true or accurate. done = force × displacement in the direction of the
Vibration  Mechanical oscillation. force: W = Fs cos θ, where θ is the angle between the
Vibrational kinetic energy  Kinetic energy due to direction of movement and the direction of the force.
vibration/oscillation. Z
Virtual particles  Particles which are exchanged during Zero offset error  A measuring instrument has a zero
fundamental interactions, but the speed of the offset error if it records a non-zero reading when it
exchange makes their lifetimes so short that they are should be zero.
impossible to observe.

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160 Glossary

Higher level
The glossary contains key words, equations and terms from the IB Physics Diploma course. This section takes words from
Chapters 9–12.

A Capacitor, energy storage  Capacitors can store only

Acoustic  Related to sound and hearing. relatively small amounts of energy, but they are able
Alternator  Ac generator. to transfer the energy quickly, and so they can deliver
Angular separation  The angle subtended at the eye (or high power for a short time: E = 12 CV2.
an optical device) by two points or distant objects. Capacitors in parallel  Two or more capacitors
Anti-reflection coating  A very thin layer of a connected so that they have the same potential
transparent material which is coated onto glass in difference: Cparallel = C1 + C2 + …
order to increase the amount of light transmitted. The Capacitors in series  Two or more capacitors connected
process involves destructive interference. so that the same charge flows onto each of them:
B 1
C series = C1 + 1 +…
1 C2
Beams of charged particles  These are created and
Combination of fields  This requires vector addition to
controlled by strong electric and magnetic fields. They
determine the resultant.
are used to investigate the atomic and sub-atomic
Combination of potentials  This requires scalar
structure of matter.
addition to determine the resultant.
Becquerel, Bq  SI unit of (radio) activity, equal to one
Conjugate quantities  A pair of physical variables
nuclear decay every second.
describing a quantum-mechanical system such that
Beta particle spectra  Beta particles emitted by nuclei
either of them, but not both, can be specified precisely
of the same radioisotope have a range of different
at any given time. Also called linked variables. See
energies. This is evidence that a third particle
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
(neutrino or antineutrino) is involved with the decays.
Bohr model  A theory of atomic structure that explains D
the spectrum from hydrogen atoms. It assumes that Davisson–Germer experiment  An experiment that
the electrons orbiting around the nucleus can exist verified the wave properties of matter by showing that
only in certain energy states at specific radii. In this a beam of electrons is diffracted by a crystal at an
model the electron could only have values of angular angle dependent upon the velocity of the electrons.
nh De Broglie’s hypothesis  All particles exhibit wave-like
momentum (mvr) which fitted the equation mvr = 2π ,
where n is an integer, known as the principal quantum properties, with a de Broglie wavelength, λ = hp , where
number. p is the momentum of the particle.
Breakdown (electrical)  The flow of current through Decay constant, λ  This is defined as the probability of
an insulator when a fault occurs or if the voltage rises ΔN
too high. Δt
radioactive decay of a nucleus per unit time: λ =− N
Bridge circuit  A circuit in which two pairs of (unit: s−1). The decay constant is linked to the
components are connected in parallel across a half-life of the nuclide by the equation: T½ = ln λ2 .
power source, with another component connected
between their mid-points. Diode bridges are used for Dielectric materials  Insulators used between the plates
rectification. (Wheatstone and Wien bridge circuits of capacitors in order to increase their capacitance.
are used for precise electrical measurements.) Diffraction grating  A large number of very narrow
C parallel slits very close together. Used to disperse and
analyse light. Angles for constructive interference are
Capacitance, C  The ratio of the charge on a component
q predicted by the equation: nλ = d sin θ.
(or other object) to the p.d. across it: C = V (unit:
Diode  A semiconducting component that allows the
farad, F).
passage of electric current only in one direction, when
Capacitor  An electric circuit component designed to
it is then described as forward biased.
store small amounts of energy temporarily, usually
Diode bridge  Four diodes connected in a bridge circuit
consisting of two parallel metallic plates separated by
to provide full-wave rectification of an alternating
a very thin insulator.
current.
Capacitor discharge  This occurs when the charge
on a capacitor is allowed to flow around a circuit.
t t t
Equations: I = I0e− τ , q = q0e− τ , V = V0e− τ .

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 Glossary 161

Dish aerial  An aerial placed at the focus of a parabolic Equipotential line (or surface)  Line (or surface)
reflector, typically for receiving or transmitting radio joining points of equal potential. Equipotential lines
waves. are always perpendicular to field lines.
Doppler effect  When there is relative motion between Escape speed  The minimum theoretical speed that an
a source of waves and an observer or detector, the object must be given in order to move to an infinite
emitted frequency and the received frequency are distance away from a planet (or moon or star):
not the same. Sometimes called a Doppler shift.  2GM 
The frequency received from a moving source can vescape =  R  . This assumes that air resistance is
vf
be determined from the equation f ′ = not significant.
(v ± us) ;
the
frequency received by a moving observer can be Expansion of universe  The redshift of light (similar
determined from the equation f ′ = (v ± uo)f . to the Doppler effect) from distant galaxies provides
Doppler effect with light and other
v evidence of an expanding universe.
electromagnetic waves  If the relative speed Exponential radioactive decay  This is represented
between the source and the observer, v, is significantly by the equation N = N0e−λt. N0 is the number of
less than the speed of the wave, c, we can use the undecayed nuclei at the start of time t; N is the
Δf Δλ v number remaining at the end of time t. Alternatively,
following approximation: f = λ ≈ c . equations of the same form can be used with activity,
E A, or the count rate. Activity is linked to the initial
Eddy currents  Circulating currents induced in solid number of atoms by the equation: A = λN0e−λt.
pieces of metal when changing magnetic fields pass F
through them, for example in the iron core of a Farad, F  The derived unit of capacitance in the SI
transformer. system. It is equal to the capacitance of a capacitor
Edge effects (uniform field)  The electric field that has an equal and opposite charge of one coulomb
between parallel plates is assumed to be uniform on each plate when there is a potential difference of
except at the edges; these effects are not considered in one volt between the plates. (μF and pF are also in
any detail in this course. common use.)
Electromagnetic induction  The production of an emf Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction The
across a conductor which is experiencing a changing magnitude of an induced emf is equal to the rate of
magnetic flux. This may be as a result of moving
a conductor through a magnetic field, moving a change of magnetic flux linkage: ε = –N ∆Φ . For an
∆τ
magnetic field through a stationary conductor, or a explanation of the negative sign, see Lenz’s law.
time-changing magnetic flux passing from one circuit Fermi radius, R0  A constant in the equation for nuclear
to another (without the need for any physical motion). 1
radius (R = R0A3 ). It is equal to the value of R for A = 1.
Electromagnetic induction in a straight Ferromagnetic materials  Materials containing iron
conductor  When a straight wire moves which have excellent magnetic properties (high
perpendicularly across a magnetic field, the induced permeability).
emf can be determined from the equation: ε = Bvl (or Forced oscillations / vibrations 
ε = BvlN if there are N turns). Oscillations of a system produced by an external
Electron scattering (by nuclei)  High-energy electrons periodic force.
have a wavelength comparable to nuclear diameters,
D, so that they will be diffracted in a similar way to
G
light by narrow slits. The first diffraction minimum Galvanometer  An ammeter that measures very small
λ currents.
will occur at angle θ such that sin θ ≈ D . This
Generator (ac)  A device containing coils that rotate in
equation can be used to determine nuclear diameters. a magnetic field (or a field which rotates within coils),
Electrostatic field  An electric field that is constant, transferring kinetic energy to the energy carried by an
not changing. alternating electric current.
Energy levels of hydrogen  Because hydrogen is the Geostationary orbit  A satellite is described as
atom with the simplest structure, scientists were very geostationary if it appears to remain above the same
interested in determining the energy levels of the location on the Earth’s surface. This can be very
electron within the atom by examining hydrogen’s useful for communications. Geostationary satellites
line spectrum. They were able to show that the energy are in a type of geosynchronous orbit which must be
levels could be predicted by the empirical equation: in the same plane as the equator and with exactly the
13.6(eV)
E = n2 . This equation was explained later by same period as the Earth’s rotation on its axis (one
using the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. day).

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Geosynchronous orbit  Any satellite orbit which has mathematically by the negative sign in the equation
the same period as the Earth spinning on its axis. The representing Faraday’s law.
orbit must have exactly the correct radius. Such orbits Lightning  Discharge to the ground (or another cloud) of the
may, or may not, be geostationary. net charge which has accumulated in a part of a cloud.
Global positioning system (GPS)  A navigation M
system which provides accurate information on the
Magnetic flux, Φ  Defined as the product of an area,
location of the GPS receiver by continually sending
A, and the component of the magnetic field strength
and receiving radio waves from several orbiting
perpendicular to that area, B cos θ: F = BA cos θ (unit:
satellites.
Weber, Wb).
H Magnetic flux density, B  The term commonly used at
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle  A fundamental Higher Level for magnetic field strength.
principle of quantum mechanics which states that Magnetic flux linkage, NΦ  Defined as the product
it is impossible to measure simultaneously the of magnetic flux and the number of turns in a circuit
momentum and the position of a particle with infinite (unit: Wb).
precision: ΔxΔp ≥
h
. The principle also applies to Mass on a spring oscillator  This can be used as
4π a simplified visualization of many mechanical
λ
measurements of energy and time: ΔEΔt ≥ D .
oscillators: T = 2π√ m ).
Hollow charged sphere  There is a constant potential k
within the sphere, which means that the electric field Mass spectrometer  A device which can measure the
is zero. Faraday cages are a (non-spherical) example. masses and relative abundance of ions in a gas.
Hysteresis (magnetic)  The changing magnetic Matter waves  Waves that represent the behaviour of an
properties of a ferromagnetic material depend on elementary particle, atom or molecule under certain
what has happened to it before and how quickly the conditions. See de Broglie’s hypothesis and equation.
changes take place. These effects are called hysteresis. Modulation  The act of changing the amplitude (or
I frequency) of a wave to represent variations in
another signal (of lower frequency).
Insight (scientific)  The ability to achieve a good Multiple slits  By increasing the number of parallel slits
understanding of a complex situation. (of the same width) on which a light beam is incident,
Iridescence  The property of certain surfaces to produce it is possible to improve the resolution of the fringes/
variable coloured effects because of interference, spectra formed.
depending on the angle at which they are viewed.
(The feathers of some birds and insect wings are N
common examples.) Neutron capture  The process in which a nucleus
Iteration  A repetitive mathematical procedure which absorbs one or more neutrons. This can result in the
calculates the changes which occur in small nucleosynthesis of heavier elements.
increments in order to determine an overall result. Neutron star  A small and extremely dense star formed
J after a supernova. They consist almost entirely of
closely packed neutrons.
Joule heating  The transfer of electrical energy to thermal Nuclear density  Assuming that the nucleus is spherical,
energy as a current passes through a resistance. nuclear density may be determined from nuclear mass
L (≈ Au) divided by the volume of a sphere having the
Laminations (iron core)  Alternate layers of iron and appropriate nuclear radius. All nuclear densities are
insulation in a core of an electromagnetic device similar in magnitude – which is extremely large.
which are designed to limit energy dissipation due to Nuclear energy levels  The emission of alpha particles
eddy currents. and gamma rays with discrete energies during
Law of radioactive decay  The number of nuclei radioactivity indicates that nuclei have discrete energy
ΔN levels.
that decay per second, Δt , (= the activity, A, of the
Nuclear medicine  The use of radioisotopes in the
source) is proportional to the number of radioactive diagnosis and treatment of disease.
atoms still present that have not yet decayed, Nuclear radius, R  R is proportional to the cube root of
N: = – ΔN λN, where λ represents a constant, known as
1

Δt the nucleon number: R = R0A 3 , where R0 is called the

the decay constant. Fermi radius.
Lenz’s law (of electromagnetic induction) The Nuclear transition  A change in nuclear energy level
direction of an induced emf is such that it will oppose which results in the emission of a high-energy photon.
the change that produced it. This is represented Nucleosynthesis  The creation of the nuclei of chemical
elements by fusion or neutron capture in stars. In
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 Glossary 163

general, the collapse of main sequence stars of greater Potential barrier  A graphical representation of the
mass will result in higher temperatures, which means potential that a bound particle needs to overcome in
that the nuclei then have higher kinetic energies, so order to escape from the forces which are confining it.
they can overcome the bigger electric repulsive forces Potential barriers may also be described as potential
involved in the fusion of heavier elements. hills or potential wells.
O Potential difference (gravitational and electric),
ΔV  The p.d. between two points is the work done
Orbital energy  An orbiting satellite has both when moving unit mass (or unit positive charge)
gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy: between those points. The units are the same as for
1 GMm
EP = − GMm
, EK = + 2
. Adding these together potential: Ve = Wq ; Vg = W
m.
R R
1 GMm Potential energy in fields (gravitational and
gives the total energy: ET = − 2
.
R electric), EP  Work has to be done to move masses
Orbital speed  For a satellite in a circular orbit, its speed in gravitational fields or charges in electric fields.
must have the correct value for the chosen radius: Potential energy is defined as the work done when
vorbit =  GM 
. bringing a mass (or charge) to its present position
 r GM 
from infinity. Potential energy equals the area under a
Oscilloscope  An instrument for displaying and force–distance graph between the point and infinity.
measuring voltages which change with time. ΔV
Potential gradient (gravitational and electric),  
P Δr
This equals the magnitude of the field strength:
Peak values (electrical)  The maximum values of
ΔV ΔVe
an alternating current, I0, voltage, V0, or power, P0 g = − Δrg and E = − Δr .
(compare with rms values). P0 = I0V0. Average power, Primary and secondary coils (transformers) The
P = 12 I0V0. coils to which the input and output of a transformer
Pendulum  A weight suspended from a point so that it are connected.
can oscillate freely. There are many designs. A simple Probability density, P(r)  The probability of finding a
pendulum consists of a small spherical mass on the end particle in unit volume at a distance r from a reference
point. Related to the wave function by the equation:
of a string (T = 2π gl ).
P(r)  = |ψ|2ΔV.
Phase change  Waves will undergo a phase change of
π when they reflect off a boundary with a medium Q
in which they would travel slower (greater refractive Quantum tunnelling  Because of uncertainty, there is a
index). possibility that a particle can pass through a potential
Photoelectric effect  The ejection of electrons from barrier and thereby create effects that would not be
a substance by incident electromagnetic radiation, considered possible using the principles of classical
especially by ultraviolet radiation. It is sometimes physics.
called photoemission. The ejected electrons are called R
photoelectrons.
Radar  The use of the reflection of microwaves to locate
Photoelectric equation  The maximum kinetic energy
the position and speed of planes and other vehicles.
of an emitted photoelectron is the difference between
Radial fields (electric equations) 
the photon’s energy and the work function:
kq1q2 kq1q2 kq
KEmax = 12 mvmax2 = hf – Φ. Fe = r2 ; Ep = r ; E= r2
; Ve = kq
r.
Polar orbit  A path of a low-orbit satellite which passes Radial fields (gravitational equations)  Fg =
GMm
r2 ;
over the poles of the Earth and completes many orbits GM
GMm GM
every day, passing over many different parts of the Ep = – r ; g= r2 ; Vg = – r .
planet. Radio astronomy  The study of space utilizing the
Polarized molecules  Molecules with an uneven detection of radio waves emitted by astronomical sources.
distribution of electrons. Rayleigh’s criterion  A guide to resolution: two point
Potential (gravitational and electric), V The sources can just be resolved if the first minimum of
potential at a point is equal to the work done per the diffraction pattern of one occurs at the same angle
unit mass (or unit positive charge) in bringing a small as the central maximum of the other. This means that
test mass (or charge) from infinity to that point: if the sources are observed through a narrow slit, they
Ep Ep
Vg = m and Ve = q (units: J kg−1 or J C−1, which is will just be resolved if they have an angular separation
more commonly called volts, V). of θ = λ . For a circular aperture, θ = 1.22 λ .
b b

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164 Glossary

Rectification Change alternating current (ac) into direct at time t = 0); v = −ωx0 sin ωt (for oscillations which
current (dc). Rectification may be full wave or half wave. start with displacement x0 at time t = 0). The velocity
Resistor–capacitor (RC) circuit  A circuit with a can also be determined from the displacement and
resistor and a capacitance with values selected so that amplitude: v = ±ω√(x02 – x2).
the capacitor charges or discharges at a required rate. Simple harmonic motion energy transfers  All
See time constant. mechanical oscillators continually interchange energy
Resolution  The ability of an instrument (or an eye) to between potential and kinetic forms:
detect (resolve) separate details. 1 1 1
Resolvance, R  A measure of the ability of a diffraction EK = 2 mω2(x02 – x2); EP = 2 mω2x2; ET = 2 mω2x02.
grating with N slits to resolve separate wavelengths: Single slit diffraction  The simplest diffraction pattern
R =
λ
= mN, where m is the diffraction order. is that produced by wavefronts interfering after
Δλ
they have passed through a narrow, rectangular slit.
Retina  The surface at the back of the eyeball where light nλ
Minima occur at angles such that θ = b .
is detected.
Slip rings and brushes  In an ac generator these are
Reverse voltage  A source of voltage connected in such
used for connecting the rotating coil to the external
a way as to oppose the usual direction of current flow.
circuit.
See stopping potential.
Smoothing (capacitor)  The use of a capacitor to
Root mean squared (rms) value  The effective value of
make the output of a diode rectifier ‘smoother’ (less
an alternating current (or voltage), also called its rating.
variable).
It is equal to the value of the direct current (or voltage)
Stopping potential  The minimum voltage required to
which would dissipate power in a resistor at the same
reduce a photoelectric current to zero.
I0 V0
rate: Irms = and Vrms = , where I0 and V0 are the Synthesize  To combine things together to make a useful
√2 √2
peak values. whole.
Rutherford scattering  Sometimes called Coulomb T
scattering. The scattering of alpha particles by nuclei Terminology  The words and phrases used with a
which can be explained by the action of (only) an particular area of study.
inverse square law of electric repulsion. For particles Thin film interference  The interference which occurs
which are scattered through 180 °, their initial kinetic after a wavefront is split by reflection off two surfaces
energy can be equated to the electric potential energy of a very thin transparent medium (film). Constructive
when closest to the nucleus. This provides an estimate 1
interference occurs if 2dn = (m + 2 )λ. Destructive
for the radius of the nucleus. When high-energy
interference occurs if 2dn = mλ.
particles are used, they may enter the nucleus, so that
Threshold frequency, f 0  The minimum frequency of a
strong nuclear forces may also be involved and then
photon that can eject an electron from the surface of
the scattering will no longer follow the same pattern.
a metal.
S Time constant, τ  The value that characterizes the rate
Schrödinger wave equation  An equation which at which an RC circuit discharges (or charges):
represents the Schrödinger model of the hydrogen τ = RC (unit: s−1). It is the time taken for the current
atom mathematically by describing electrons using 1
(or charge, or p.d.) to fall to e  , or 37% of the previous
wave functions. The square of the amplitude of the value.
wave function indicates the probability of finding the Transducer  A device which converts one form of energy to
electron at a particular point and time. another. The word is most commonly used with devices
Secondary waves  The propagation of waves in two that convert to or from changing electrical signals.
or three dimensions can be explained by considering Transformer  A device that transfers electrical energy
that each point on a wavefront is a source of from one circuit to another using electromagnetic
secondary waves. induction between coils wound on an iron core.
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)  Defined by the Transformers are used widely to transform one
equation: a = −ω2x. Equations for displacement: alternating voltage to another of different magnitude.
x = x0 sin ωt (for oscillations which start with Step-up transformers increase voltages; step-down
zero displacement at time t = 0); x = x0 cos ωt (for transformers decrease voltages.
oscillations which start with displacement x0 at time Transformer (ideal)  An ideal transformer has no
t = 0). energy dissipation and is 100% efficient, so that
Simple harmonic motion (SHM), EpIp = EsIs.
velocities  Equations for velocity: v = ωx0 cos ωt
(for oscillations which start with zero displacement

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 Glossary 165

Transmission of electrical power  Electrical power Weber, Wb  Unit of magnetic flux: 1 Wb = 1 T m2.
is sent (transmitted) from power stations to different Work function, Φ  The minimum amount of energy
places around a country along wires (cables) which are required to free an electron from the attraction of
commonly called transmission (or power) lines. These the atoms in a metal’s surface. Since the energy of
lines are linked together in an overall system called the incident photons is equal to hf, hf0 = Φ, where f0
the transmission grid. represents the threshold frequency.
Tuning fork  Vibrating instrument of a simple shape used X
to produce a sound of a single precise frequency.
X-ray diffraction (crystallography)  The investigation
Tunnelling electron microscope  Microscope which
of the atomic and molecular structure of matter by
uses quantum tunnelling of electrons between a
detecting how X-rays are diffracted by crystalline
pointed electrode and the surface being scanned.
materials. X-ray wavelengths are comparable to atomic
Tunnelling probability  Probability that a particle can
dimensions.
tunnel through a potential barrier.
Turns ratio (transformer)  The ratio of turns in the Y
primary and secondary coils of a transformer controls Young’s double slits experiment  A classic physics
the output voltage. For an ideal transformer: experiment which demonstrated the wave properties
NP/NS = EP/ES. of light by producing an interference pattern.
U Z
Uniform electric field  Created between parallel Zero of gravitational potential and potential
V
charged plates: E = d (unit: V m−1). energy This is chosen to be at an infinite distance
W away, where the gravitational forces are zero.
Wave function, Ψ(x,t)  Mathematical function of space
and time which describes the quantum state of a
subatomic particle, such as an electron. It is a solution
to the Schrödinger wave equation.

Physics for the IB Diploma Study and Revision Guide © John Allum 2017