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© 2019 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

PDU3701/1/2020–2023

70732701

InDesign

MNB_Style
CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION v
LEARNING UNIT 1: AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY, INDIGENOUS AFRICAN KNOWLEDGE
SYSTEMS, AND EDUCATION 1
1.1 introduction 2
1.2 African philosophy 2
1.3 African philosophy and education 4
1.4 Indigenous African knowledge systems and education systems in African 7
1.5 Conclusion 9

LEARNING UNIT 2: EMPIRICISM AND EDUCATION 11

2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Overview of empiricism 13
2.3 Empiricism and education 15
2.4 Conclusion 16
LEARNING UNIT 3: SCIENTIFIC RATIONALISM AND EDUCATION 17
3.1 Introduction 18
3.2 Overview of scientific rationalism 19
3.3 Scientific rationalism and education 20
3.4 Conclusion 22
LEARNING UNIT 4: PHENOMENOLOGY AND EDUCATION 23
4.1 Introduction 24
4.2 Conclusion 31
LEARNING UNIT 5: HERMENEUTICS AND EDUCATION 33
5.1 Introduction 34
5.2 Conclusion 40
LEARNING UNIT 6: SYSTEMS THEORY AND EDUCATION 41
6.1 Introduction 42
6.2 Conclusion 47
LEARNING UNIT 7: CRITICAL THEORY AND EDUCATION 49
7.1 Introduction 50
7.2 Conclusion 56

(iii) PDU3701/1/2020–2023
LEARNING UNIT 8: FEMINISM AND EDUCATION 58
8.1 Introduction 59
8.2 Feminism 59
8.3 Conclusion 64
LEARNING UNIT 9: POSTMODERNISM AND EDUCATION 65
9.1 Introduction 66
9.2 Conclusion 71

(iv)
INTRODUCTION

Read the Introduction to part 1 of your prescribed textbook.

This section explores what Philosophy of Education is all about.

1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Having read this section, you will be able to understand:

• the concept “education”

• the concept “philosophy”
• the concept “philosophy of education”
• the philosophies which view the nature of education, teaching and learning differently

The key concepts to note are:

• education
• philosophy
• philosophy of education

2 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION?

Before one can understand the meaning of the concept “philosophy of education”, the
origins of the following two concepts must be clarified:

EDUCATION
The concept “education” originated form the Latin word educare which means to train
or to mould; and educere which means to lead. Both these two words are represented in the
concept “education”. Education can also be regarded as an enlightening experience. One
can say that education is important for any society in bringing about prosperity and the
development of everyone to reach his/her full potential.

For more information on the concept “education” read the section on EDUCATION TODAY
in your prescribed textbook.

PHILOSOPHY
Originally the concept “philosophy” comes from the Greek words philo and sophos. Philo
means love and sophos means wisdom. Thus, the concept “philosophy” refers to our love
for wisdom. All human beings are guided by one or more philosophies which undergird
their view of reality/the world.

(v) PDU3701/1
For more information on the concept “philosophy”, read the section on WHAT IS
PHILOSOPHY in the Introduction to part 1 of your prescribed textbook.

Activity
Think about the concepts “philosophy” and “education” and write down below what
their meaning is.

...........................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The concept “philosophy of education” answers questions concerning the nature of

education, teaching and learning.

In this module you will be exposed to different philosophies with different views on the
nature of education, teaching and learning.

We have listed the following philosophies in your prescribed textbook that have different
views on the nature of education, teaching and learning:

• African philosophy and indigenous African knowledge systems

• Empiricism
• Scientific rationalism
• Phenomenology
• Hermeneutics
• Systems theory
• Critical theory
• Feminism
• Postmodernism

We will discuss all these philosophies in detail in the units which follow on the
INTRODUCTION TO PART 1.

Read the following sections in your prescribed textbook.

The origins of humankind and learning

The Taung child
The Nariokotome boy

(vi)
Activity
Why do you think these sections were included in the prescribed text? What is your
opinion on education?

...........................................................................................................................................................................

3 CONCLUSION
This section has introduced you to the module in Philosophy of Education. We will now
discuss all the philosophies and their impact on education and educational practices.

4 USE OF ICONS
The icons and the meaning of each are explained below:

Icon Description

Learning outcomes. This icon indicates which aspects of the particular

topic or learning unit you have to master. You will need to demonstrate
that you have mastered these aspects.

Key concepts. This icon draws your attention to certain keywords or

concepts in the topic or learning unit.

Activity. This icon refers to activities that you must complete in order
to develop a deeper understanding of the study material.

Feedback. This icon indicates that you will receive feedback on your
answers to the activities.

(vii) PDU3701/1
Icon Description

Reflection. This icon requires you to reflect on the important issues or

problems dealt with in the learning unit.

YouTube video link. This icon indicates a link to a YouTube video

that you can access for more information on the topic currently being
discussed.

Read. This icon will direct you to read certain sections of the prescribed
book for background information.

(viii)
Learning unit 1
African philosophy, indigenous African knowledge
systems, and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY

Four Distinctive discourses in African Philosophy:
• Political philosophy
• Sage philosophy
• Ethnic philosophy
• Pure philosophy
Colonial occupation of Africa:
• African Philosophy and an African identity
• African Philosophy and the African Renaissance
AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION
• Ubuntu and education
• Communality and education
INDIGENOUS AFRICAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN
AFRICA
• Indigenous African knowledge systems
• Domination of Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems
• Exclusion of indigenous African knowledge systems in the curricula of the African
continent
• Indigenous African knowledge systems and the school curriculum in South Africa

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Having studied this unit, you will be able to:

• Understand the nature of African Philosophy.
• Explain what African Philosophy means for education on the African continent.
• Explain why indigenous African knowledge systems are important for, and should
be included in, education systems in Africa.

1 PDU3701/1
KEY CONCEPTS

• African Philosophy
• Education
• Indigenous African knowledge systems

1.1 INTRODUCTION
We start this unit by asking what African Philosophy is all about. Next, we will look at the
nature of African Philosophy and determine what it means for education on the African
continent; and, finally, we will explain why Indigenous African knowledge systems are
important for education systems on the African continent and why it should be included.

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE LINKS ON AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY,

INDIGENOUS AFRICAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND EDUCATION FOR
NOTING

Mbeki, T. 1999. Address at Regional conference on Education for All. A Framework for action in
Sub-Saharan Africa; Education for African Renaissance in the 21st Century. Johannesburg:
South Africa.
Ramose, M.B. 2004. In search of an African Philosophy of Education. South African Journal
of Higher Education, 18(3):138–160.
Higgs, P. 2012. The decolonization of African Philosophy and education in Africa: Some
critical reflections. Education Philosophy and Theory, 44(2):37–55.
• African Philosophy: Dr Reginald Oduor, Part 1 (https://youtu.be/YQQPurqxAlc).
• African Philosophy: Dr Reginald Oduor, Part 2 (https://youtu.be/Xaep1a5iYys).
• Molefi Kete Asante – Afrocentric Education (https://youtu.be/YVtR71DMpk0).
• I am because we are: Dozie Okeleke (https://youtu.be/vBUy7XmbB7M).

1.2 AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY

Read the section on what African Philosophy is all about in your prescribed
textbook which includes the sections on:

• What is African Philosophy?

• African Philosophy and the history of Africa

2
ACTIVITY 1a

Do you consider yourself as an African? Why or why not?

1 FEEDBACK

This question is asked because the issue of identity has largely been westernised on the
African continent because of the colonial occupation of Africa.

ACTIVITY 1b

What do you think it means when someone says: I am an African? Does this claim
merely refer to the fact that this person lives in Africa; or does it say something more?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

2 FEEDBACK

When responding to this question, bear in mind that there is an African diaspora outside
Africa. In light of this, does it mean that an African immigrant in America is no longer an
African? Also, is an African identity linked to race and colour?

ACTIVITY 1c

What was the significance of the call for an African Renaissance?

3 PDU3701/1
3 FEEDBACK

The call for an African Renaissance represented a reaction to the colonialism and
subjugation of Africa; and attempted to distinctively reassert African ways of thinking
and relating to the world. Read the address by former president Thabo Mbeki,
Mbeki, T. 1999. Address at Regional conference on Education for All. A Framework for
action in Sub-Saharan Africa; Education for African Renaissance in the 21st Century.
Johannesburg: South Africa.

1.3 AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

Next, we will look at the nature of African Philosophy and determine what it means for
education on the African continent; in this instance, you should refer to the following
sections in your prescribed textbook:

• African Philosophy and Education

• African Philosophy and Education: FAQs
• An African Philosophy of Education

ACTIVITY 1d

African Philosophy provides the necessary context for the resurrection of African
values in education systems on the African continent. Which two African values do
African Philosophy emphasise in this regard?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

4 FEEDBACK

These two African values are extremely important for education.

ACTIVITY 1e

Do you think that Ubuntu, in recognising that we only exist and develop in relation
to other people, has any significant thing to say to educators? If so, what significance
does it have?

4
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

5 FEEDBACK

The establishment of relationships between people is important if education is to take place

effectively; in other words, the establishment of a relationship is important for education.

ACTIVITY 1f

How can the notion of Ubuntu be incorporated in classroom practice and the life
of the school?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

6 FEEDBACK

The notion of Ubuntu speaks of caring, sharing, compassion, generosity, kindness,

benevolence, courtesy and respect. These human(e) ways of acting should, therefore, be
enacted in classroom practice and the life of the school in general.

ACTIVITY 1g

Is the value of communality important for education? If so, why?

7 FEEDBACK

The value of communality is important for education, because it is rooted in a welfare

concern where the basis of communality gives priority to the community and shows

5 PDU3701/1
respect for the person. It also involves sharing with others and helping them in a spirit
of cooperation.

ACTIVITY 1h

How can educators realise the values of Ubuntu and communality in their classroom
teaching?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

8 FEEDBACK

If educators take up the notions of Ubuntu and communality in their classroom teaching,
then education will be directed at fostering humane people endowed with virtues such
as kindness, generosity, compassion, benevolence, courtesy and a respect and concern
for the welfare of others.

ACTIVITY 1i

Has African Philosophy influenced education?

9 FEEDBACK

Modern education systems are largely based on Western education systems that value
science and fact-finding rather than the African values of compassion and communality.
However, science and the Western traditions of, for example, mathematics, cannot be
ignored in education in the contemporary world. Scientific and mathematical proofs
remain just as valid in Africa as they do in the west.

6
ACTIVITY 1j

What would a relevant African Philosophy of Education be directed at?

10 FEEDBACK

When responding to this question, bear in mind the following:

• The question of an African identity.
• Challenging the domination of Western/Eurocentric ways of thinking in education.
• Emphasising the values of Ubuntu and communality.

1.4 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND

EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN AFRICA
And now we finally shift our attention to a set of questions dealing with why indigenous
African knowledge systems are important for education systems on the African continent
and why they should be included.

In order to respond to these questions, refer to the following headings in your prescribed
text, chapter 1:

• What are indigenous African knowledge systems?

• Domination experienced by indigenous African knowledge systems and education
in Africa
• African knowledge systems and African education systems

ACTIVITY 1k

What are the characteristics of indigenous African knowledge systems?

7 PDU3701/1
11 FEEDBACK

When responding to this question, keep the following in mind:

• their situatedness in a specific context
• their emphasis on holistic knowledge
• multiple sources of indigenous knowledge

ACTIVITY 1l

Why have indigenous African knowledge systems not been included in any significant
way in the curricula of education systems on the African continent?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

12 FEEDBACK

When responding, take note of the following:

• Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems and the question of authentic knowledge.
• Unequal relationships between developed and undeveloped countries.
• Progress and the advancement of Western/Eurocentric science.

ACTIVITY 1m

What does Odora Hoppers mean when she argues for the protection of the cultural
and intellectual property rights of indigenous African knowledge systems and
technology when it comes to education.
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

8
13 FEEDBACK

In this instance, reflect on the responsibility that education authorities have in

acknowledging and recognising the cultural diversity of African societies, specifically in
matters pertaining to curriculum issues in education on the African continent.

ACTIVITY 1n

What impact will the integration of an indigenous African knowledge systems

programme have on the school curriculum in South Africa?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

14 FEEDBACK

Issues that will be important in this regard will centre around the following:
• acknowledging indigenous African knowledge systems
• asking critical questions about the knowledge content included in the school curriculum
• dealing with issues of alienation and domination
• viewing the development of knowledge as a holistic journey

1.5 CONCLUSION
We started unit 1 with the following learning outcomes:

• Understand the nature of African Philosophy.

• Explain what African Philosophy means for education on the African continent.
• Explain why indigenous African knowledge systems are important and should be
included in, education systems in Africa.
Can you still recall what you discussed in these sections?

9 PDU3701/1
REFLECTION

Before you go to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:

1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills that you learned in
this chapter in your professional life?
2. What did you find difficult? Why do you think you found it difficult? Do
you understand it now or do you need more help? What are you going
to do about it?
3. What did you find interesting in this chapter? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this chapter? Are you still on
schedule; or do you need to adjust your study programme?
5. How do you feel now?

10
Learning unit 2
Empiricism and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF EMPIRICISM

• Means experience-ism.
• Experience through five senses.
• Practical philosophy.
• Facts proven through sense experience.
• Facts must be precisely defined and measured.
EMPIRICISM AND EDUCATION
• children are blank slates
• teachers inform children of facts of the world
• focus on science and mathematics
• critical thinking
MAIN IDEAS
verification objectivity
experience logical truth
analysis factual truth
measurement experiments
precise definition scientific/mathematical statements
MAIN PROPONENTS
• John Locke (1632–1704)
• Richard Peters (1919–2011)
• Yusef Waghid
• Harvey Siegel

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit, you will be able to

• explain empiricism and what it focuses on
• apply empiricism in an education environment
• give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking

11 PDU3701/1
KEY CONCEPTS

Keep the following key concepts in mind when reading your prescribed book. We
will explain the meaning of the concepts as we work through the prescribed book.
• empiricism
• verification
• objectivity
• experience
• analysis
• factual truth

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will ask what empiricism is all about. We will look at how teachers can apply
the philosophy in education. Finally, we will discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of applying empiricism.

Read the following sections in chapter 2 of the prescribed textbook:

• Structure of the chapter
• What is empiricism?
• Concluding remarks

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE LINKS ON EMPIRICISM AND

EDUCATION FOR NOTING

Alger, C.L. 2009. Secondary teachers’ conceptual metaphors of teaching and learning:
Changes over the career span. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25:743–751.
Sabol, T.J. 2012. Recent trend in research on teacher-child relationships. Journal of
Attachment and Human Development, 14(3):213–231.
• Positivism and Philosophy of Education (https://youty.be/Lvl4eCnWA1o).
• What is epistemology? (https://youtu.be/ll9-YgSzsEQ).
• What is Empiricism? (https://youtu.be/FWiqrZhoZkQ).
• What is Positivism (https://youtu.be/dsM5j-uPUhU).

12
ACTIVITY 2a

How will you explain the meaning of ‘empiricism’ to fellow students?

15 FEEDBACK

Empiricism claims that a statement is empirically true if the truth can be determined
through sense experience. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary defines empiricism as ‘‘the
theory that regards experience as the only source of knowledge’’. In other words, empiricism
refers to the belief that the only real knowledge one has, comes from experience – either
one’s own or those of others. Empiricists propose that knowledge gained from our senses
(seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting) is the most reliable kind of knowledge.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF EMPIRICISM

Read the sections in chapter 2 of the prescribed textbook:

• Structure of the chapter
• What is Empiricism?
• Empiricism in a nutshell
• Advantages and disadvantages under FAQs
• Concluding remarks

Empiricism thrived during the early part of the 20th century, especially in Britain and the
USA. The main objective in this philosophy is to practice science as objectively as possible
and to try to verify all statements. The point of departure was that personal values, which
are subjective and cannot be verified, are not important enough to include in research
projects. It is proposed that if the research object cannot be proved right or wrong, it is
not researchable. Emotions like hope, fear, love, religious beliefs and political commitment
are not regarded as important, because they cannot be measured and checked in the
same way as scientific statements.

In the section on the structure of the chapter in chapter 2 of the textbook, we see that
empiricism focuses on two things, namely:
– Facts that can be proven by experience.
– Facts that can be precisely defined and measured.

13 PDU3701/1
ACTIVITY 2b

An example of a statement that would be usable in empiricism could be ‘‘Metal

expands when heated’’.
Give an exact definition of each of the words in the above statement. You might be
able to do this by using a dictionary:
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

16 FEEDBACK

You can give a very clear and precise definition of all the words in the statement because
you know the meaning of ‘‘metal’’, ‘‘expand’’ and ‘‘heat’’.

ACTIVITY 2c

An example of a statement that is not so easily explained could be ‘‘I love my friend
with my whole heart’’.
Try to define the words in the above statement as precisely as possible. The dictionary
definition will probably not give you a satisfactory explanation, because our personal
values are involved in a statement like this.
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

17 FEEDBACK

What is your scientific clarification of the concept of love? We as humans cannot give a
clear and precise definition of such a word. This kind of statement would be meaningless
in empiricism, because it involves a subjective value.
Factual statements are important in empiricism.
A factual statement would be something like ‘‘It is raining outside’’. This statement can
be proved right or wrong.

14
Factual statements are different from value statements in the sense that value statements
cannot be proven right or wrong. Values are something important to you personally.
However, values do not fit into the thinking paradigm of empiricism, because there is no
scientific clarification for values. Objective truth is important in this frame of reference
and subjective truth is regarded as less significant.

2.3 EMPIRICISM AND EDUCATION

Read these sections in chapter 2 of the prescribed textbook:

• Education and Empiricism
• Educators, Empiricism and analysis
• Empiricism and education: beware

In the introduction to empiricism it is stated that human beings are born as clean
slates. Parents and teachers have the task of putting content into the minds of children
– in empiricism that would mostly imply scientific (biology, physics, chemistry) and
mathematical or applied science (engineering) content. Empiricists do not see subjects
like art, music and poetry as ‘real knowledge’.

Activity 2d

Examination marks are very important in empiricism, because teachers can measure
the ability of their learners. What other ways of assessment do you think can be of
use in schools for empiricists?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

18 FEEDBACK

If you think about the meaning of empiricism, experiments and practical work where the
senses could be used can also be used with great success.

15 PDU3701/1
Activity 2e

Why do you think the emphasis on IQ tests could be dangerous in education?

19 FEEDBACK

Learners are being assessed only as rational human beings. Their values and emotions
are often negated. This way of thinking often reduces human beings to purely physical
organisms (a bit like plants and rats in a laboratory). Researchers who study human beings
through empiricism are convinced that they can find out why people behave in a certain
manner. These scientists believe that they can control human behaviour.

2.4 CONCLUSION
We emphasised the fact that empiricism is all about factual, objective truths that can be
verified. Subjects in school that get recognition are mathematics and science or applied
sciences. Art, poetry and music are unimportant, because of their subjective value. Culture,
emotions, values and religious beliefs are of lesser value than measurable results.

REFLECTION

Before you go to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:

1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you learned in this
chapter in your professional life?
2. What did you find difficult? Why do you think you found it difficult? Do
you understand it now or do you need more help? What are you going
to do about it?
3. What did you find interesting in this chapter? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this chapter? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
5. How do you feel now?

16
Learning unit 3
Scientific Rationalism and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC RATIONALISM

• Sometimes called critical rationalism
• Theory of constant questioning
• Critical, questioning approach to truth
• Look for falsity through trial and error
• Partner for empiricism – quest for objective truth
SCIENTIFIC RATIONALISM AND EDUCATION
• development of questioning attitude
• debate/dialogue
• rational problem-solving
MAIN IDEAS
debate criticism
freedom of expression explanation
falsifiability democracy
questioning anti-authoritarian
open society non-dogmatic
open-mindedness
MAIN PROPONENTS
• John Locke
• Karl Popper
• Carl Sagan

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit, you will be able to

• explain what scientific rationalism entails
• apply this theory in an education environment
• give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking

17 PDU3701/1
KEY CONCEPTS

Keep the following key concepts in mind when reading your prescribed book. We
will explain the meaning of the concepts as we work through the prescribed book.
• falsification
• trial and error
• open-mindedness
• anti-dogmatic
• anti-authoritarian
• democracy

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will ask what scientific rationalism is all about. We will look at how teachers
can apply the philosophy in education. Finally, we will discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of the application of scientific rationalism.

Read the following sections in chapter 3 in the prescribed textbook:

• Structure of the chapter
• What is scientific rationalism?
• Concluding remarks

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE-LINKS ON EMPIRICISM AND

EDUCATION FOR NOTING

Stables, A. 2014. Peirce and rationalism: is Peirce a fully semiotic philosopher? Journal of
Philosophy of Education, 48(4):591–603.
• An Introduction to Rationalism (https://youtu.be/Mjih_t9s4iY).
• Karl Popper’s Falsification (https://youtu.be/wf-sGqBsWv4).
• Empiricism vs Rationalism (https://youtu.be/Q-5HH4qermY).

ACTIVITY 3a

Try to explain the words ‘‘scientific’’ and ‘‘ratio’’ without a dictionary.

18
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 3b

Use the dictionary and see whether you can find and write down the meaning of
the words mentioned above.
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

20 FEEDBACK

Scientific rationalism emphasises the importance of clear thinking and asking questions
with a critical attitude. The driving force behind critical thinking is rationality – the readiness
to learn from mistakes and false theories by using your brain/ratio.

3.2 OVERVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC RATIONALISM

Read the following sections in chapter 3 in the prescribed textbook:

• Structure of the chapter
• What is Scientific Rationalism?
• Scientific Rationalism in a nutshell
• Advantages and disadvantages under FAQs
• Concluding remarks
Like empiricists, scientific rationalists emphasise that scientists must be objective. Scientists
espousing this philosophy are prepared to have their views criticised and challenged
by other scientists. Nevertheless, unlike empiricists, scientific rationalists say that values
should not be ignored, because values and meaning are important. However, values
should be debated in a rational and objective way.

Socrates was one of the first philosophers who challenged ideas and beliefs and he
encouraged his students to do the same. However, scientific rationalism is a 20th-century
philosophy.

19 PDU3701/1
Karl Popper is one of the most important supporters of scientific rationalism. Scientific
rationalists believe that nobody starts scientific research with a blank mind. One always
starts with theories or ideas in mind that must be tested for falsity. According to Popper,
one can find that a statement is definitely false, but not that it is definitely true. This is
known as the ‘‘principle of falsification’’. We usually try to prove something wrong in
scientific rationalism by using the trial and error method.

ACTIVITY 3c

Questioning is important in scientific rationalism. Many people do not question

things. People generally accept what religious ministers tell them; what the papers
say and what advertisements tell them to believe. Even consumers do not like to
complain; they accept poorly manufactured goods and poor service. Do you agree
or not? Sketch a scenario from your own life depicting how you allowed yourself to
be brainwashed, accepting something uncritically.
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

21 FEEDBACK

The whole aim of scientific rationalism is to make sure we do not come to believe in a
false idea. According to scientific rationalists, it is only by testing our ideas that we can
begin to progress in our knowledge.
The principle of asking questions and of falsification makes scientific rationalism a very
open-minded, anti-dogmatic and anti-authoritarian philosophy. It is only in open societies
that problems are discussed and solved through the free exchange of ideas.
Scientific rationalists claim that values must be open to debate. We must be prepared to
have our values challenged. If we are not prepared to respond to these kinds of challenges,
we do not support the principle of an open society and democracy. Scientific rationalists
are bitterly opposed to regimes that silence and intimidate people.

3.3 SCIENTIFIC RATIONALISM AND EDUCATION

Read the following sections in chapter 3 in the prescribed textbook:

• Scientific Rationalism and education
• Educators and Scientific Rationalism
Education in scientific rationalism aims to develop children with a questioning attitude.
This kind of attitude is important in open and democratic societies. It is, however, very

20
difficult to instil such an attitude in children when the formal schooling system tends to
be prescriptive and conformist. The people in authority in schools (teachers, principals)
also do not like being questioned most of the time. However, teachers can play a big
role in encouraging a problem-solving approach to learning and teaching in all subjects.

We all grow up believing certain things (usually what our parents, teachers or religious
leaders have told us). The experiences we have in life then tell us whether these beliefs
and traditions are true or false. Most people modify their beliefs as they grow older. Most
of us find things out by trial and error.

If people start asking ‘‘why?’’ then they start searching for the answer to their question.
These ‘‘why’’ questions need some explaining. According to scientific rationalism, the aim
of science is to find satisfactory explanations – we do this by trying to reject that which is
false and then find a more acceptable explanation. People often do not argue in a rational
way; therefore, their explanations will be unacceptable/unsatisfactory.

ACTIVITY 3d

The classification of various types of false arguments is discussed under the subheading
Scientific Rationalism and falsity in chapter 3 of the prescribed textbook. Read
this section and try to think of your own examples of the different types of false
argumentation.
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22 FEEDBACK

In responding to this activity, you need first to identify the various types of false arguments
and then come up with your own examples of these arguments.

ACTIVITY 3e

In the classroom the principles of open-mindedness, debate and dialogue could be

practised with great success.
Take a theme that is important in your field of interest and explain how you would
apply the above principles in practice.

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23 FEEDBACK

In considering this activity, first reflect on how open-mindedness, debate and dialogue
can be practised in the classroom. And then, consider how these principles can be applied
to a theme that is important in your field of interest.

3.4 CONCLUSION
In a country like South Africa that claims to be a democratic society, people must be able
to speak their minds freely and they must discuss issues openly. If that is not the case,
the country will be seen as oppressive and unjust. Children in schools must learn to be
critical and to say how they perceive problems around them. They must learn through
falsification as well as trial and error what the best way may be to conduct themselves
in an open society.

REFLECTION

Before you go to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:

22
Learning unit 4
Phenomenology and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF PHENOMENOLOGY

• The empiricist approach to life and human beings ignore the essential uniqueness
of individuals and their experiences, especially their innermost experiences and
feelings.
• Phenomenology wants us to try to recover a sense of wonder and awe at the real
world of human beings; the world we live in as unique beings.
• Inner being is more important than the outside world. The essence of a phenomenon
is being researched.
MAIN PROPONENTS OF PHENOMENOLOGY
• Edmund Husserl
• Martin Heidegger
• Maurice Merleau-Ponty
• Jean-Paul Sartre
• Jacques Derrida
PHENOMENOLOGY AND EDUCATION
The notion “phenomenology” plays a key role in education. It is a broad discipline
and method of inquiry in philosophy developed largely by the German philosophers,
Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, which is based on the premise that reality
consists of objects and events (phenomena) as they are perceived or understood in
the human consciousness and not of anything independent of human consciousness.
Phenomenology is the study of experience and how we experience. Phenomenology
studies structures of conscious experience as experienced from a subjective or first-
person point of view along with its ‘intentionality’ (the way an experience is directed
towards a certain object in the world). It then leads to analyses of conditions of the
possibility of intentionality, conditions involving motor skills and habits, background
social practices and often language.
EDUCATORS AND PHENOMENOLOGY
• Maurice Merleau-Ponty
• Max van Manen
• Shaun Gallagher

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit, you will be able to

• explain what phenomenology entails
• discuss the kinds of problems to be solved by phenomenologists
• apply these theories in a teaching/training environment
• give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking

KEY CONCEPTS

• phenomenon
• lived world
• real self/world
• essence/essentials
• inner world/being
• consciousness

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will explore the notion of phenomenology. Phenomenology is a broad
discipline and method of inquiry in philosophy, developed largely by the German
philosophers, Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, which is based on the premise that
reality consists of objects and events (“phenomena”) as they are perceived or understood
in the human consciousness and not on anything independent of human consciousness.
Phenomenology is the study of experience and how we experience it. It studies structures
of conscious experience as experienced from a subjective or first-person point of view
along with its “intentionality” (the way an experience is directed towards a certain object
in the world). It then leads to analyses of conditions of the possibility of intentionality;
conditions involving motor skills and habits, background social practices; and often
language.

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE LINKS ON PHENOMENOLOGY

AND EDUCATION FOR NOTING

Hultgren, F.E. 1995. The phenomenology of doing “phenomenology”: the experience of

teaching and learning together. Human Studies, 18:372–388.
Roth, W-M., Masciotra, D. & Boyd, N. 1999. Becoming-in-the-classroom: a case study of teaching
development through co-teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(7):777–784.

24
Berndtsson, I., Claesson, S., Friberg, F. & Ohlen, J. 2007. Issues about thinking phenomenologically
while doing phenomenology. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 38(2):256–277.
• Understanding Phenomenology (http://youtu.be/d5geMLe5tbM).
• What is Phenomenology (http://youtu.be/tLYXvgu-TLl).
• Phenomenology and learning (https://youtu.be/6uvTEYIDN5g).
• The phenomenology of teaching (https://youtu.be/mnHdsUPqWlo).

Read the section What is Phenomenology? (Prescribed textbook, p. 54)

and then answer the following questions:

ACTIVITY 4a

In the space below, brainstorm possible concepts (Prescribed textbook, pp. 53 to 62)
that you would expect to be associated with the notion of phenomenon. This will
prepare you to engage interactively with the ideas we will be exploring.
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What are the basic assumptions of phenomenology?
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24 FEEDBACK

The phenomenological inquiry is specifically appropriate to deal with meanings and

perspectives. The main concepts and assumptions are discussed in the prescribed textbook.

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ACTIVITY 4b

You are a unique human being. Think about the characteristics/traits that make you
a human being in the first place; also mention that your thoughts make you a unique
being among other beings.
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If you are a phenomenologist and must get to know the individual learners in your
class, what would you concentrate on?
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25 FEEDBACK

The basic philosophical assumption underlying this inquiry has most often been illustrated
by Husserl’s (1962) statement: “we can only know what we experience.”

ACTIVITY 4c

If somebody asked you to describe a typical day in your life, what would you tell
this person?
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26 FEEDBACK

Phenomenological study lies in the descriptions of what people experience and how they
experience it. The goal is to identify the essence of the shared experience that underlies
all the variations in this specific learning experience.

ACTIVITY 4d

Read the section History of Phenomenology and then answer the following
questions:

What are the basic assumptions of phenomenology of the following: Edmund Husserl,
Martin Heidegger and Carl Jung.
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27 FEEDBACK

Phenomenology, as a discipline, is distinct from but related to other key disciplines in

philosophy such as ontology, epistemology, logic and ethics. Phenomenology has been
practiced in various guises for centuries, but came into its own in the early 20th century
in the works of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty and others.

27 PDU3701/1
ACTIVITY 4e

Read the section Phenomenology and education and Educators and

phenomenology (Prescribed textbook, pp. 57–59) in your text book. Phenomenologists
stress the importance of human consciousness in education. To be conscious means
to be awake and cognisant of who you are, as an educator; and who the learner really
is. As conscious human beings we actively participate in things. We are not merely
passive spectators. Teachers should assist learners in getting to know their real selves
and in becoming that which they could become.

Suppose we asked you to change the public education in your country. Write down
four things that you would change in the education system.
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Phenomenology asks learners to explore the world and teachers to assist learners in
exploring and in developing conscious experience. Do you think teachers can do this
in The National Curriculum Statement and Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
(CAPS)? Give examples of how teachers could do this.
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28 FEEDBACK

Phenomenology as a discipline has been central to the tradition of continental European

philosophy throughout the 20th century, while philosophy of mind has evolved in the
Austro-Anglo-American tradition of analytic philosophy that developed throughout
the 20th century. Yet the fundamental character of our mental activity is pursued in
overlapping ways in these two traditions. Basically, phenomenology studies the structure
of various types of experience ranging from perception, thought, memory, imagination,
emotion, desire and volition to bodily awareness, embodied action and social activity,
including linguistic activity.

ACTIVITY 4f

Write down a problem in education that currently interests you. The problem should
show an awareness of the human being in the lived world of education as you
experience it.
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29 FEEDBACK

Remember that education is a human problem and so to understand a problem in

education, you need to understand what it means to be a human being.

ACTIVITY 4g

What are the basic views of phenomenology from the following philosophers: Maurice
Merleau-Ponty, Max van Manen and Shaun Gallagher?
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30 FEEDBACK

Phenomenology can be clearly differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis which
sees the world as objects, sets of objects and objects acting and reacting on one another.
There are several assumptions behind phenomenology that help explain its foundations:
(1) Phenomenologists reject the concept of objective research. They prefer grouping
assumptions through a process called phenomenological epoch.
(2) They believe that analysing daily human behaviour can provide one with a greater
understanding of nature.
(3) They assert that persons should be explored. This is because persons can be understood
through the unique ways they reflect the society they live in.
(4) Phenomenologists prefer to gather ‘capta’, or conscious experience, rather than
traditional data.
(5) They consider phenomenology to be oriented towards discovery; therefore, they do
research, using methods that are far less restrictive than in other sciences.

30
ACTIVITY 4h

Discuss how phenomenology was distorted to serve as an educational ideology in

the apartheid era.
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31 FEEDBACK

Phenomenology has strengths and limitations. It seeks to find the universal nature
of an experience and can provide a deeper understanding; and it requires researcher
interpretation, making phenomenological reduction an important component to reduce
biases, assumptions and pre-conceived ideas about an experience or phenomenon.

4.2 CONCLUSION
Literally, phenomenology is the study of ‘phenomena’: appearances of things or things as
they appear in our experience; or the ways we experience things; thus, the meanings things
have in our experience. Phenomenology studies conscious experience as experienced
from the subjective or first-person point of view.

31 PDU3701/1
REFLECTION

Before you go to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:

32
Learning unit 5
Hermeneutics and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF HERMENEUTICS

• interpretation of symbols
• the need to create meaning in our lives
• open communication
• scientific truth alone is not worthwhile
PROPONENTS OF HERMENEUTICS
• Hans-Georg Gadamer
• Rudolf Steiner
• Jean Baudrillard
• Ken Wilber
HERMENEUTICS AND EDUCATION
As a philosophy, hermeneutics is concerned with interpreting human experiences and
creating our own meanings of lived experiences in the world. Studies that serve this
purpose well include the humanities, social sciences and cultural studies.
HERMENEUTICS AND EDUCATORS
• Hans-Georg Gadamer
• Rudolf Steiner
• Shaun Gallagher
CONSTRUCTIVISM
There is a link between constructivism and hermeneutics. Both philosophies are based
on the interpretation of the human experience. In the activities section we will explore
the similarities and differences between the two in more detail.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit you will be able to:

• explain the central assumptions of hermeneutics
• compare hermeneutics with other theories
• draw on your hermeneutical understanding to apply in your teaching practice

33 PDU3701/1
KEY CONCEPTS

• interpretation
• symbols
• life experience
• openness
• communication

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will explore the nature of hermeneutics. Next, we will look at how
hermeneutics relates to the other philosophies we have already looked at. Then, we will
explore the works of modern hermeneuticists, Ken Wilber (American) and Jean Baudrillard
(French). We will then examine why hermeneutics is crucial for education and why it
might not be so good after all. We will do this by looking at the works of educators such
as Hans-Georg Gadamer, Rudolf Steiner and Shaun Gallagher. Finally, we will look at
constructivism and how it is similar to and different from hermeneutics in the way they
influence education.

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE LINKS ON HERMENEUTICS AND

EDUCATION FOR NOTING

Brauer, D. 2009. Alternate readings: Student Hermeneutics an academic discourse. Rhetoric

Review, 29(1):69–87.
Higgins, C. 2010. Teaching experience: toward a hermeneutic of teaching and teacher.
Journal of Philosophy of Education, 44(2/3):435–478.
Maggioni, L. & Parkinson, M.H. 2008. The role of teachers’ epistemic cognition, epistemic
beliefs, and calibration of success. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4):445–461.
• What is Hermeneutics? (https://youtu.be/R4XWlgX7HLE).
• Hermeneutics: A Very Short Understanding (https://youtu.be/6wPTV5hyBOY).
• Reimagining Classrooms: Teachers as Learners and Students as Leaders (https://youtu.
be/w6vVXmwYvgs).

34
ACTIVITY 5a

Read the section, What is hermeneutics? in chapter 5 of the prescribed textbook.

How is hermeneutics defined? What is the link between hermeneutics and symbols?
According to hermeneutics, what is it that humans really need and why? Why does
art occupy such an important place in the philosophy of hermeneutics?

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32 FEEDBACK

At many places where people converge, such as railway or bus stations, there are graffiti
which is a form of art with symbolic meanings. Can you think of graffiti you have recently
seen or regularly see? Reflect on a critical social issue you think it engages or raises.

ACTIVITY 5b

In his book, The Reader and the Detective Story, George Dove (1997), writes that
hermeneutics is “an activity of the mind in which subject, object and mental process
meet and act upon one another, with the result that the interpreting subject is affected
by the object of interpretation, which is itself never the same for two interpreters”.
How does this definition of hermeneutics link with, or conflict with, Higgs and Smith’s
definition of hermeneutics above?
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33 FEEDBACK

Questions regarding good behaviour, and/or good human conduct are hermeneutical;
in this they involve interpretation. Can you reflect on how you can assist learners in your
care in ways of interpreting acts that might be regarded as forms of good behaviour and/
or good human conduct?

ACTIVITY 5c

The South African Constitution prohibits discrimination by the state or anybody on

the grounds of race, class, religion, gender, disability, sex, sexual orientation and
nationality. Drawing on your understanding of hermeneutics above, describe how
you would get students from different socio-cultural backgrounds to communicate,
understand and appreciate their differences.
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34 FEEDBACK

As a teacher, your everyday experience in class will entail dealing with children from
different family backgrounds; different cultural backgrounds and different socio-economic
statuses. Think about how you would try to get different children to see one another and
relate to one another in humane and sensitive ways.

ACTIVITY 5d

Hermeneutics claims that ‘arts and crafts’ are more important in human life than
science. What is your opinion on the matter? In what way might arts and crafts be
said to be more important in human life than science?
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35 FEEDBACK

The issue whether the hard sciences are more important than humanities is an old and
on-going debate. The hard scientists argue that science is important for purposes of
innovation; while humanities experts argue that knowledge of the human sciences
equips people with skills for making informed choices and decisions about their lives.
Think about how you would get your students to adopt a balanced view between these
schools of thought.

ACTIVITY 5e

In his book, I Write what I like, Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) leader, Steve
Biko, rejects ‘‘the power-based society of the Westerner that seems to be ever
concerned with perfecting their technological know-how while losing out on their
spiritual dimension’’. He goes on to say: “We believe that in the long run the special
contribution to the world by Africa will be in the field of human relationship”. In
what ways can Biko’s views above be said to resonate with the central assumptions
of hermeneutics?
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36 FEEDBACK

In responding to this question, you need to identify the central assumptions of hermeneutics
and then show how these assumptions feature in the enactment of human relationships.

ACTIVITY 5f

Generally, hermeneutics is about creating meaning. What, in your opinion does it

mean to be a South African?
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37 PDU3701/1
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37 FEEDBACK

Ivor Chipkin, former senior researcher at the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) of
South Africa has published a book titled Do South Africans Exist? Find out if Chipkin’s
theory can help to decipher what it means to be a South African.

ACTIVITY 5g

While on the subject of creating meaning, read the section Hermeneutics

‘little brother’: Constructivism in chapter 5 of the prescribed textbook. Why is
constructionism referred to as hermeneutics’ “little brother”? What are the main
claims of constructivism? What is the view of constructivism on the aim of education?
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38 FEEDBACK

Consider the subject(s) you teach and how they fit in the way constructivism interprets
education.

ACTIVITY 5h

Read the section titled Hermeneutics and education: Beware in chapter 5 of

the prescribed textbook. This section draws our attention to some weaknesses
of hermeneutics. In what way can hermeneutics serve destructive purposes in
society? That is, in what way can hermeneutics promote notions of meaning that are
inconsistent with principles of civility? How did hermeneutics serve the purposes of
apartheid? And how could this have been avoided?
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39 FEEDBACK

There are two monuments in Tshwane, namely Freedom Park and the Voortrekker
Monument that portray the South African history before and after 1994. You are a tour
guide and you have to show a group of tourists these monuments. How would you use
hermeneutics to explain the significance of these monuments to the history of South
Africa to the tourists? Would your race influence the way you understand the significance
of the monuments?

ACTIVITY 5i

Read the section titled Hermeneutics in a nutshell in chapter 5 of the prescribed

textbook and discuss the following claims made in hermeneutics:

(a) “Any human undertaking is based on interpretation”. How would you guide your
class to agree with the views expressed in the classroom if each child believed
that his or her interpretation of the specific view is valid?
(b) “Our interpretation depends on the community in which we were born”. Does
this mean interpretation will be different because communities are different?
(c) “To be human is to search for meaning”. Does it necessarily follow that people
who are not interested in meaning are not human?
(d) “Our search for meaning and understanding must be guided by our community’s
tradition and symbolism”.
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40 FEEDBACK

In (a) you should emphasise that in expressing your view one must remember to respect
and listen to the views of others in order to understand their views. In doing so you will
evaluate your own views and theirs in seeking for a better understanding. In (b) you must
discuss whether views are community specific, for example, does your view on education
differ from the view of education held by your Chinese neighbour? In (c) would you say
that animals or plants also seek for meaning, or does a robot seeking for meaning? And
finally, in (d), where do you find your meaning and understanding in life? Is it not true to say
that you primarily encounter meaning and understanding in the home and community
into which you are born?

5.2 CONCLUSION
Hermeneutics means the “science of interpretation”. Today hermeneutics can assist us
in understanding subjects such as art, music, history and even science. Hermeneutics
developed in Western Europe as a response to empiricism. Unlike empiricism, hermeneutics
states that values and culture should be understood and not ignored. Like scientific
rationalism, hermeneutics is anti-dogmatic and anti-authoritarian.

REFLECTION

Before you go to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:

40
Learning unit 6
Systems theory and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF SYSTEMS THEORY

• systems theory focuses on complexity and interdependence
• systems theory focuses on the arrangement of the parts which connect them into
a whole and relations between such parts (holism).
• real systems are open to their environments and interact with them
• systems can acquire qualitatively new properties through emergence, resulting in
continual evolution.
• productive dynamic systems are self-organising.
PROPONENTS OF SYSTEMS THEORY
• Ludwig von Bertalanffy
• Béla H Bánáthy
• Talcott Parsons
• Howard T Odum
• Eugene Odum
• Fritjof Capra
SYSTEMS THEORY AND EDUCATORS
• John Dewey
• Norbert Weiner
• Mitchel Foucault
• Peter Senge
SYSTEMS THEORY AND EDUCATION
Educational systems play a fundamental role in behavioural control and occupational
control. It is important to mention that there are interrelationships and interdependencies
among the parts of the educational systems. Most importantly, the subsystems in any
educational enterprise mitigate the gulf between individuals and the society; and
induces the learners to the required talent, skills and enterprise that fit into the future
job market. When viewed from a systems theory lens, educational enterprises train
individuals to fit into their occupations without developing antagonism and suspicion
towards other persons holding other occupations in the social life of the community.

41 PDU3701/1
LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit, you will be able to:

• explain what systems theory entails
• discuss the kinds of problems to be solved by critical theorists and systems theorists
• apply these theories in a teaching/training environment
• give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking

KEY CONCEPTS

• systems theory
• wholeness
• functionality
• social control
• complexity

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The school and the society have a symbiotic relationship; and are, therefore, subsystems
of the whole. The school should not be considered an institution persistent outside
the cultural life of the society. The training at school is greatly defined by the cultural
conditions of social life. In this section we shall explore the notion of systems theory and
how it influences our lives. We will explore the symbiotic relationship which operates
between education and the environment. We will then look at how systems theory can
be used as a form of social control in educational enterprise. Lastly, we will explore the
implications of the systems theory for educational change.

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE LINKS ON SYSTEMS THEORY

AND EDUCATION FOR NOTING

Neal, J.W. & Neal, Z.P. 2014. Nested or network? Future directions for Ecological Systems
Theory. Social Development, 22(4):722–737.
• Systems Thinking (https://youtu.be/i6cQT5t84Pl).
• What is Systems Thinking? (https://youtu.be/V38HrPnYkHl).
• Peter Senge on Teaching Systems Thinking in Schools (https://youtu.be/rMkktp8uj9s).
As you work through the Prescribed textbook, pp. 76 to 85, try to find brief answers to
the following questions:

42
ACTIVITY 6a

Read the sections Systems theory and Education and Systems Theory (Prescribed
textbook, pp. 77 to 81) and then answer the following questions:

(1) Comment on the systems in which we live and how these systems influence our
lives.
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(2) How has the system (community/society) you live in influenced your life?
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41 FEEDBACK

Each person is born into a social and cultural setting (family, community, social class,
language, religion); eventually many social connections develop. The characteristics of
a person’s social setting affect how he or she learns to think and behave, by means of
instruction, rewards and punishment and example. This setting includes home, school,
neighbourhood and perhaps also local religious and law enforcement agencies.

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ACTIVITY 6b

(1) What is the relationship between education and the environment in which it
operates?
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(2) What are the main disadvantages of systems theory in education system?
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42 FEEDBACK

No system of education can function in isolation from the social surroundings in which
it exists. The character of society and social changes taking place must also influence the
system of education. The systems approach identifies the inter-dependencies and inter-
relations between the various parts of the organisation; and helps to get a holistic view
while dealing with education issues.

ACTIVITY 6c

People are also systems. Explain how a person can be a subsystem.

44
43 FEEDBACK

A system is a collection of elements or components that are organised for a common

purpose. The word sometimes describes the organisation or plan itself (and is similar in
meaning to method, as in “I have my own little system”); and sometimes describes the
parts in the system (as in computer system). Learners, teachers, departmental officials,
churches and business are the jigsaw puzzles (subsystems) of education systems.

ACTIVITY 6d

Read the section on Systems Theory and education: beware; and Systems
Theory’s ‘little brother’: Complexity Theory (Prescribed textbook, pp. 81 to 88)
From a Foucauldian perspective, systems theory can be used as a form of social
control in educational enterprise. Education, as a mechanism of social control, carries
the commands of the society and enforces these commands on teachers and the
students to offer adequate enterprise and knowledge into the minds of the students
to fit into the demands of the society.

Which specific systems in society influence education and training? In which manner
does this influence take place?
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44 FEEDBACK

Education maintains social control through various mechanisms such as indoctrination,

informal sanctions and formal sanctions – it is considered as a machinery of social control.
Durkheim believes that education carries the commands of the society and enforces these
commands on teachers and the students to offer adequate enterprise and knowledge
into the minds of the students to fit into the demands of the society.

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ACTIVITY 6e

What is the difference between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ systems?

45 FEEDBACK

Karl Popper describes the differences between open and closed societies. Freedom and
individuality are paramount in an open society. In a closed society, by contrast, collectivism
and oppression are common. In other words, in an open society people get to make choices;
and in a closed-society choices are made for them. The basic difference between a closed
system and an open system is how it reacts to change. A closed system tries to remain
static. it is rigid and follows the same rules, even though they are no longer appropriate.
There is no flow of information; so, people do not share thoughts, interests or dreams.

ACTIVITY 6f

Complexity is of course inherently systemic by nature. As Morrison (2002:6) puts it,

complexity theory is “a theory of survival, evolution, development and adaptation.
It concerns itself with environments, organisations, or systems that are complex in
the sense that very large numbers of constituent elements or agents are connected
to and interacting with each other in many different ways”.
What are the implications of systems theory for educational change?
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46 FEEDBACK

Systemic change recognises the interrelationships and interdependencies among the

parts of the educational system, with the consequence that desired changes in one part
of the system are accompanied by changes in other parts necessary for supporting those
desired changes; and recognises the interrelationships and interdependencies between
the educational systems and its community including parents, employers, social service
agencies, religious organisations and much more with the consequence that all those
stakeholders are given active ownership over the change effort.

ACTIVITY 6g

To what extent can systems theory inform our research in education and help us
solve problems?
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47 FEEDBACK

Systems theory is a significant framework capable of supporting current efforts of

curriculum reform and solving multiple problems in education. Hence, change is regarded
as a transformation of the system in time, which nevertheless conserves its identity.

6.2 CONCLUSION
Systems theory is capable of dealing with complex systems in the domains of natural,
social, and engineering sciences and can be traced to the early 1920s. It advocates “seeing
things whole” and seeing the world as an interconnected, interdependent field continuous
with itself. As a basis for education, systems theory provides basic interdisciplinary
principles that could structure an integrated curriculum and help move away from the
compartmentalised study of for instance physics, biology and chemistry.

47 PDU3701/1
REFLECTION

Before you go to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:

REFERENCES
Morrison, K. 2002. School Leadership and Complexity Theory. London: Routledge.

48
Learning unit 7
Critical theory and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF CRITICAL THEORY

• As humans we live in societies that are generally irrational and unreasonable.
• Our perceptions of what constitutes scientific truth are not always worthwhile.
• To fully understand societal irrationality and unreasonableness we first need to
understand society’s politics, ideologies and religions.
• In order to create our own meanings in life, we must challenge existing or taken-
for-granted assumptions of social order.
• Critical theory seeks radical emancipatory solutions to oppressive societal practices.
PROPONENTS OF CRITICAL THEORY
• Karl Marx
• The Frankfurt School
• Max Horkheimer
• Jurgen Habermas
CRITICAL THEORY AND EDUCATION
Generally, critical theory is suspicious of education systems. It tends to regard them
as ideologically manipulative and reproductive of the (in particular) capitalist social
relations order. In their book, Schooling in Capitalist America, Samuel Bowels & Herbert
Gintis (2011:49) view education as “an aspect of the reproduction of the capitalist
division of labor”. While in his book on Critical Pedagogy, Henry Giroux (2011:12) argues
that education has crucial political, social, ethical and spiritual consequences; and that
its task should be to foster “critical inquiry, public debate, acts of human justice, and
common deliberation”.
CRITICAL THEORY AND EDUCATORS
• Paolo Freire
• Michael Apple
• Peter McLaren
• Thomas Popekewitz
CRITICAL THEORY’S POSITION ABOUT OTHER THEORIES
• African Philosophy
• Empiricism
• Hermeneutics
• Phenomenology
• Scientific Rationalism

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
After working through this unit, you will be able to
• Explain the central assumptions of critical theory.
• Compare critical theory with other theories such as empiricism, scientific
rationalism, hermeneutics, phenomenology and African philosophy.
• Draw on your understanding of critical theory to resolve practical challenges
encountered in teaching and learning.

KEY CONCEPTS
• radical approach
• empowerment
• emancipation
• liberation

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Critical theory encourages a critical approach to the way in which social structures, be
they ideological, religious, economic, cultural or, linguistic influence our very thought
processes and actions. According to critical theory, schools are simply institutions in
which teachers compel children and young people to reproduce existing and oppressive
social structures.
In this unit we will explore the notion of critical theory. We will tease out the central
assumptions of critical theory and the issues that concern critical theorists. We will then
look at how critical theory relates to other philosophies such as empiricism, scientific
rationalism, hermeneutics, phenomenology and African philosophy. And finally, we will
explore the ideas of contemporary educators who have been influenced by critical theory
educators such as the Brazilian Paolo Freire; Americans such as, Michael Apple, Peter
McLaren and Thomas Popekewitz; and African Critical theorists such as Nelson Mandela,
Steve Biko; and Algerian, Frantz Fanon.
In this instance refer to the following YouTube link: What is Critical Pedagogy (https://
youtu.be/ZljTKhd6hsA).

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE LINKS ON CRITICAL THEORY

AND EDUCATION FOR NOTING

Steyn, D.M. You had me Foucault: living pedagogically in the digital age. Journal of Text
and Performance Quarterly, 31(3):249–266.

50
• What is Critical Pedagogy (https://youtu.be/ZljTKhd6hsA).
• Critical Theory and Education Policy (https://youtu.be/g75cfVWfv4A).
• Critical Pedagogy: Learning from Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed (http://youtu.
be/JRiL7YSzMjg).
• Henry Giroux on Education (https//youtu.be/RL5Wkx98zEE).
• Decolonising the Curriculum; Melz Owusu (https://youtu.be/zeKHOTDwZxU).

ACTIVITY 7a

Read the section in your prescribed book on page 87 What is Critical Theory? and
then try to answer the following questions: (a) Why do you think ‘critical theory’ is
described as “essentially a philosophy of cynicism and disillusionment?”. (b) what is
the meaning of the words, ‘cynicism’ and ‘disillusionment’ (consult any authoritative
dictionary, such as The Oxford English Dictionary. (c) Would you say that the education
system in your country leaves you ‘cynical’ and ‘disillusioned’? (d) If so, why?
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48 FEEDBACK

(a) The description of critical theory as “essentially a philosophy of cynicism and disil-
lusionment” arises from the following claims that critical theory makes regarding
the nature of human society:
• Human society is pathological, because of society’s ideology, religion, economics,
culture and language which have an oppressive impact on the lives of the less
privileged in society.
• In human society rules are made that favour the elite and powerful groups in
society which, in turn, influence our beliefs and the way we think.
(b) Cynicism conveys a sense of distrust, scepticism, doubt, suspicion, disbelief and
incredulity.
Disillusionment conveys a feeling of disappointment, resulting from the discovery
that something is not as good as one believed it to be.
(c) Critically reflect on the education system in your country; and in responding to this
question, decide on whether it improves the quality of all people in your society by
providing a quality education for all.
(d) If you are cynical and disillusioned about the education system in your country, state
why you feel this way. It might be that quality education is not available to everyone
in your society; or the education system in your country might be more concerned
with serving the interests of the elite and powerful in your country rather than the
interests of the general populace.
In this regard refer to the following YouTube link: Critical Theory and Education Policy
(https://youtu.be/g75cfVWfv4A).

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ACTIVITY 7b

Read the section on page 87 of your prescribed textbook, What is Critical Theory?
The authors of your prescribed text, Philip Higgs and Jane Smith, provide the history
and origin of ‘critical theory’, which they link to Germany in the 1930s during the
emergence and growth of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. The Nazis in Germany were
notorious for persecuting the Jews and leading the world into the Second World
War. (a) In this violent and hostile environment what key word describes the focus
of the work of the ‘critical theorists’ at the Frankfurt School? (b) South Africa during
apartheid can also be said to have been a ‘violent and hostile environment’. Think
about three anti-apartheid activists who were either jailed or died in jail for their
opposition to apartheid. What were the main ideas that drove these anti-apartheid
activists? (c) In what ways can those ‘main ideas’ be said to resonate with the central
assumptions of critical theory?”
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49 FEEDBACK

(a) The key word is “society”

(b) The main ideas that drove anti-apartheid activists were –
• emancipation from an oppressive society
• the freedom of the individual
(c) These ideas resonate with the central assumptions of critical theory in that they
emulate critical theory in its attempts to make people conscious of what is being
done to them by society in its oppression of their freedom as individuals and resulting
negation of their human dignity.

52
ACTIVITY 7c

Read the section on page 88 of your prescribed text Critical Theory and Empiricism
(a) What are the reasons that are given to why “critical theory” rejects the claims of
“empiricism”? (b) What are the main concerns of critical theory’s in taken-for-granted
‘truths’ about modern medicine and the medical practice? (c) In what ways do you
think critical theory can help to educate South Africans about such practices?
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50 FEEDBACK

(a) Critical theory rejects the claims of empiricism, because, unlike empiricism, it rejects
any claim to objective scientific truth by arguing that all scientific knowledge is
constructed by human beings in society.
(b) Critical theory’s main concern with taken-for-granted truths about modern medicine
and the medical practice is that these truths are based on the falsity and secrecy that,
at times, pervades modern medicine and medical practice. This falsity and secrecy are
revealed in the fact that modern medicine and medical practice are subject to large
pharmaceutical companies owned by giant corporations that are primarily concerned
with maximising their profits and not with the health and welfare of individuals.
(c) Critical theory can help to educate South Africans by making them aware of the
fact that modern medicine and medical practice in South Africa are subject to large
pharmaceutical companies owned by giant corporations that are primarily concerned
with maximising their profits and not with the health and welfare of individuals.

ACTIVITY 7d

Read the section on page 88 of your prescribed text Critical Theory and Scientific
Rationalism. (a) In what ways can the two theories be said to be similar? (b) How
do the views advanced by critical theory against democracy fit in with the nature of
South Africa’s contemporary/post-apartheid democracy?
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53 PDU3701/1
51 FEEDBACK

(a) Critical theory and scientific rationalism both encourage us to question what we are
told and both are sceptical in their methods of enquiry.
(b) In the first instance, it must be noted that critical theory claims that democracy is an
illusion, because when it comes to the real decisions that propel society, these deci-
sions are made by select and powerful groups of people who work in secret. In light
of this claim, the views advanced by critical theory against democracy are apt when
it comes to the nature of South Africa’s contemporary/post-apartheid democracy,
because powerful and select groups of people, be they politicians or decision makers
in the corporate world, have been seen to secretly conspire to act undemocratically
in enriching themselves and advancing their own positions by embarking on corrupt
and fraudulent activities. This has come to the fore in the notion of ‘state capture’ as
it played out in the Gupta saga in South Africa.

ACTIVITY 7e

Read the section on page 89 in your prescribed text Critical Theory and Hermeneutics.
Hermeneutics is a theory about creating our own meanings of complex issues such
as sexuality, democracy, the purpose of life or issues about identity – who we are and
what makes us who we are. And yet ‘critical theory’ rejects the central assumptions
of hermeneutics. Why is that the case?
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52 FEEDBACK

The reason for critical theory’s rejection of the central assumptions of hermeneutics is spelt
out on page 89 of your prescribed text in the section Critical Theory and Hermeneutic
and also, on page 70 of your prescribed text in the section Hermeneutics and education:
Beware.

54
ACTIVITY 7f
Read the section on page 89 in your prescribed text Critical Theory and
Phenomenology. It seems that there is a ‘love-hate’ relationship between critical
theory and phenomenology. Describe areas where critical theory and phenomenology
agree; and areas where they disagree. What is critical theory’s main criticism of
phenomenology?
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53 FEEDBACK
Critical theory’s main criticism of phenomenology has to do with the nature of truth.
What does critical theory say about the nature of truth? What does phenomenology say
about the nature of truth?
Freedom is a common theme in both critical theory and phenomenology, but what is
this freedom from? Are you in need of such freedom and if so, why?

ACTIVITY 7g
Read the section on page 89–90 in your prescribed text Critical Theory and African
Philosophy. It seems that African philosophy is the only philosophy with which critical
theory agrees, because both speak out against powerful and oppressive influences
and structures in society and the world in general. Mention can here be made of the
following African critical theorists: Nelson Mandela, Steve Biko and Frantz Fanon. List
the things these thinkers are known for; and say in what ways these qualify them as
critical theorists. As a guide, read Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth and Black Skins,
White Masks; Mandela’s The Long Road to Freedom, and Biko’s I Write what I like, and
“The Definition of Black Consciousness”. In “The Definition of Black Consciousness”,
Biko writes as follows: “Briefly defined, therefore, Black Consciousness is in essence
the realization by the black man of the need to rally together with his brothers around
the cause of their operation – the blackness of their skin – and to operate as a group
in order to rid themselves of the shackles that bind them to perpetual servitude”.
Look back at the section on page 91 of your prescribed text Critical Theory in a
Nutshell. How does Biko’s definition of Black Consciousness link with the main
concepts in critical theory?
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54 FEEDBACK

Remember that African critical theorists, like critical theory wish to raise the consciousness
of the oppressed to what forces in society are responsible for their oppression. Reflect on
the significance of this statement as it applies to you, and then – do African critical theorists
and critical theory advocate what measures should be employed by the oppressed to free
themselves and what are these measures?

ACTIVITY 7h

For the section on page 90 of prescribed text Educators and Critical Theory, do
a simple internet search of Brazilian Philosopher of Education, Paulo Freire’s book,
Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Read chapter 2 on The Banking Concept of Education
as an Instrument of Oppression. And answer the following question: What does
Freire mean by ‘Banking Concept of Education’? Consult the Oxford English Dictionary
for the meaning of the word ‘rote’ as an adjective of ‘learning’ as in ‘rote learning’.
Why is Freire so vehemently opposed to ‘rote learning’? Do you think ‘critical theory’
will support rote learning? If not, why?
Also, read chapter 3 of Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which is titled “Dialogics”.
Describe in detail why this chapter proposes a radical and even emancipatory
alternative to rote learning? As a hint, Freire writes as follows with respect to Dialogics:
“Dialogics is the essence of education as the practice of freedom … as the awakening
of critical consciousness through the investigation of ‘generative themes’.” In what
ways are Freire’s views in agreement with Giroux’s views above on critical pedagogy?
In what way is Freire’s view on education in agreement with that of Theodor Adorno?
– see page 91 on Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) in your prescribed text.
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55 FEEDBACK

Before attempting to respond to the questions above, refer to the following YouTube-links:
• Critical pedagogy: learning from Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed (http://youtu.
be/JRiL7YSzMjg).
• Henry Giroux on Education(https//youtu.be/RL5Wkx98zEE).
• Decolonising the Curriculum; Melz Owusu: (https://youtu.be/zeKHOTDwZxU).

56
In considering the above questions, remember that critical theory seeks to encourage
critical thinking to free the individual from an education that is merely concerned with
the transfer of knowledge which is deemed to be ideologically important and necessary.

7.2 CONCLUSION
The most valuable contribution that critical theory can make and has made to education is
that critical theorists have forced us to re-examine what we mean by the term “knowledge”.
The various ideas critical theorists have had about knowledge have caused educationists
to re-think school curriculums and what should and should not be taught in the classroom.

REFLECTION

Before you go to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:

57 PDU3701/1
Learning unit 8
Feminism and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF FEMINISM

Four Schools of thought:
• Liberal feminism
• Phenomenological feminism
• Radical feminism
• African feminism
Feminism and other philosophies:
• feminism and scientific rationalism
• feminism and critical theory
• feminism and empiricism
• feminism and hermeneutics
• feminism and phenomenology
FEMINISM AND EDUCATION
• Liberal feminism and the fight for women’s education
• Inclusion and cooperation
FEMINISM AND EDUCATORS
• Charlotte Perkins Gilman
• Nel Noddings
• Jane Rowlands Martin
• Maxine Greene
• Ileana Jimenez
• Oyeronke Oyewumi
• Catherine Odora-Hoppers

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• explain the central assumptions of feminism
• differentiate between the different schools of thought of feminism
• relate the different schools of thought to education
• apply feminism in your teaching practice

58
KEY CONCEPTS

• feminism
• male domination
• patriarchy
• education

8.1 INTRODUCTION
We will start this unit by asking what feminism is. We will then explore the different forms
of feminism and how they are linked to the philosophies we have already looked at. Next,
we will look at how feminism responds to the perceptions of formal male-dominated
education. Then we will look at the works of several feminist educators across the world.
Finally, we will also look at queer theory and the ways in which it influences modern
education.

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE LINKS ON FEMINISM AND QUEER

THEORY, AND EDUCATION FOR NOTING

Thomas, P. & Rothing, A. 2017. Exploring feminism in a multicultural classroom. Journal of

Inter-Cultural Education, 28(3):250–268.
• What is Feminist Pedagogy? (https://youtu.be/gKKX5ntsqAo).
• What saying, ‘I’m Not a Feminism’ Really Means (https://youtu.be/ygsVEouHU68).
• Why Should All Be Feminists? Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (https://youtu.be/
hg3umXU_qWc).

Before embarking on the activities below, refer to the following YouTube-links above to
provide you with an informed context for responding to these activities:

8.2 FEMINISM

Read the section on what feminism is all about in your prescribed textbook,
which includes the sections on:
• Liberal feminism
• Phenomenological feminism
• Radical feminism
• African feminism

59 PDU3701/1
ACTIVITY 8a

What does the word feminism mean to you? And what are the distinctive differences
in the different feminisms referred to in the prescribed book?
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56 FEEDBACK

Recall the first time you encountered feminism. Where was it? What impact did it have
on you?

ACTIVITY 8b

How many people in your work place who are in positions of responsibility are males
and how many are females? Which group do you think is favoured men or women?
Give reasons why you think the specific group is favoured?
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57 FEEDBACK

In many societies most decisions about life and the way people ought to live their lives
continue to be made by men (patriarchy); and in most instances, old men (gerontocracy).
Reflect on examples, either in your community or your work place where patriarchy and/
or gerontocracy continues to exist.

ACTIVITY 8c

In your work place, which tasks and duties are performed by men, and which ones
are performed by women? In your opinion, are there compelling reasons why certain
tasks should be performed by men? Which tasks should be performed by women?
This is referred to as ‘genderising roles’.
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58 FEEDBACK

Read chapter 8 in your prescribed textbook to find out why feminism came into being
and how it proposes to eradicate the issues dealt with in the activities above.

ACTIVITY 8d

What is your response to the claim that the universe was created and is ruled by a male
god who created men in his image? You might also think about Africa currently has
only one female president, Ameenah Gurib-Fakim of Mauritius after former Liberian
president, Ellen Sirleaf, stepped down after two terms in office.
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59 FEEDBACK

In view of the fact Africa’s leaders are predominantly male and old, it is fair to argue that
Africa is patriarchal and gerontocratic.

ACTIVITY 8e

In your opinion should God be addressed as a male, as in ‘‘God-the-Father’’, or as a

female ‘‘God-the-Mother’’? or simply as “God”?
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60 FEEDBACK

One of the most contested issues about Christianity is the fact that out of 66 books the
Bible only has two books that are named after females – Ruth and Esther. Debate whether
the Bible is patriarchal and gerontocratic.

ACTIVITY 8f

Explain how feminism could influence the decision of a highly successful career
woman who wants to get married, but whose husband-to-be believes that a woman
does not need to have a career because it is his responsibility to take care of her.
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61 FEEDBACK

The two sections on liberal feminism and radical feminism in chapter 8 of your prescribed
book could be very helpful with navigating the question in activity 8f.

ACTIVITY 8g

In her book, The Invention of Women: Making an African Sense of Western Gender
Discourses, Nigerian feminist scholar and professor of sociology at Stony Brook
University, in the USA, Oyeronke Oyewumi (1997) writes as follows:
Many Western theorists of gender seem to be impervious to the existence of other
cultures … they make their case for gender from the narrow confines of the West
… the treatment of Western culture as Culture (with a capital C), suggests that it
is the only one. This in turn leads many Western theorists to universalize Western
biologism as if all societies engage in such thinking.
Oyewumi is cautioning against using and depending on Western narratives to make
sense of our experiences, especially the African experiences of the relations between
men and women. To what extent do you think Oyewumi’s argument could be right
in respect of the way African feminist issues are raised? How distinct are African
feminist issues from European or American feminist issues?
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62 FEEDBACK

This can be any issue from the history of how African women resist the way feminist
issues in Africa are determined by ideas of European or American feminists. Encourage
your learners to share their own thoughts about the position and problems of women in
Africa and in South Africa today.

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8.3 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we looked at how feminism came into being. We explored the different forms
of feminism and looked at how they can influence women’s lives today. As we observed,
feminism is a very complex philosophy. It is a philosophy that focuses on women as human
beings in their own right rather than the assistants of males and bearers of children. It is
a philosophy meant to respond to cruelty, domination and exploitation of women.

REFLECTION

Before you go to the next chapter, reflect on the following questions:

64
Learning unit 9
Postmodernism and education

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

THE NATURE OF POSTMODERNISM

• Postmodernism rejects Western modernism.
• Postmodernism is disillusioned with commonly known grand metanarratives
such as Christianity, Capitalism and Marxism. As Lyotard puts it: “There is no genre
whose hegemony over others would be just”.
• In his book, The Postmodern Condition, French philosopher Jean-Francois Lyotard
defines postmodern as “incredulity towards metanarratives”.
• Postmodernism subscribes to the view that all forms of human knowledge are
incomplete and in a constant state of flux. As Lyotard puts it: “There is no one
reason, only reasons, where no one form of reason takes precedence over others”.
PROPONENTS OF POSTMODERNISM
• Ludwig Wittgenstein
• Jean-Francois Lyotard
• Nicholas Burbules
• Jacques Derrida
POSTMODERNISM AND EDUCATION
Postmodernism is suspicious of claims about absolute ‘facts’, absolute ‘knowledge’,
absolute ‘truths’ and absolute ‘certainty’. The key question Postmodernism asks is:
“How do we know that we are right about anything?” This general scepticism is based
on the observation that the universe is chaotic and dynamic at the same time.
POSTMODERNISM AND EDUCATORS
• Michael Peters
• Judith Butler
• Peter McLaren
• Thomas Popekewitz
POSTMODERNISM’S POSITION ABOUT OTHER THEORIES
• African Philosophy
• Empiricism
• Hermeneutics
• Phenomenology
• Rationalism

65 PDU3701/1
LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit, you will be able to

• Explain the central assumptions of postmodernism.
• Compare postmodernism with other theories such as, empiricism, scientific ra-
tionalism, hermeneutics, phenomenology and African philosophy.
• Draw on your understanding of postmodernism to respond to and resolve practi-
cal challenges encountered in teaching and learning.

KEY CONCEPTS

• Scepticism of the grand narratives.

• Dismissive of absolute and universal notions.
• Dismissive of fixed notions of ‘truth’.
• Argues that truths of today might not be ‘truths’ of tomorrow.
• Sees knowledge as being in a constant state of ‘flux’.
• Shares deconstruction’s notion of ‘viewing things differently’.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will explore postmodernism as a philosophy that rejects modernism and its
attempts to control the world through universal and absolute forms of thought and modes
of understanding. We will then also tease out the central assumptions of postmodernism
and the issues which concern postmodernists. Then we will look at how postmodernism
relates to the other philosophies such as empiricism, scientific rationalism, hermeneutics
phenomenology and African philosophy. And finally, we will then explore the ideas of
contemporary postmodern theorists such as the Austrian, Ludwig Wittgenstein; the
Frenchman, Jean-Francois Lyotard; and the American, Nicholas Burbules.

INTERESTING ARTICLES and YOUTUBE LINKS ON POSTMODERNISM

AND EDUCATION FOR NOTING

Burbules, N.C. 2009. Postmodernism and education. The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy
of Education. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rata, E. 2012. The politics of knowledge in education. British Educational Research Journal,
38(1):103–124.
Marzagora, S. 2016. The humanism of reconstruction: African intellectual decolonial
critical theory and the opposition to the ‘posts’ (postmodernism, post-structuralism,
postcolonial). African Cultural Studies, 28(2):161–178.

66
Niesche, R. & Gowlett, C. 2015. Advocating a post-structuralist politics for educational
leadership. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47(4):372–386.
Trifonas, P. 2012. Critical pedagogy in the new dark ages: challenges and possibilities.
Counterpoint, 422, 213–229.
Cooper, S. 2016. Language cannot encompass being: post-structuralism and postmodernism.
Arena Journal, 45/46, 28–50.
• Postmodernism (https://youtu.be/DO_gaxFIRXw).
• Postmodern View of Education (https://youtu.be/GU2S2SHjs20).
• Bringing Cultural Context and Self-Identity into Education (https://youtu.be/
bX9vgD7iTqw).
• The Process of Deconstruction and Being Human (https//youtu.be/gfasO9sSdFI).

ACTIVITY 9a

Read the section on pages 108–110 of your prescribed text What is Postmodernism?
and then answer the following questions: (a) What is the reason for the use of the
prefix “post’ in the term “postmodernism”? (b) Why is ‘postmodernism’ described as
“disillusioned”, “sceptical, and “pessimistic”? (c) Consult The Oxford English Dictionary
for example and find the meanings of the words “disillusioned”, “sceptical” and
“pessimistic”. (d) List the things about which postmodernism is “disillusioned”,
“sceptical” and “pessimistic”. (e) And explain why.

63 FEEDBACK

Before attempting to answer the questions above, refer to the following YouTube-link:
Postmodernism (https://youtu.be/DO_gaxFIRXw).
The prefix “post” means “after”. When referring to postmodernism we mean what comes
after modernism. Postmodernism can be seen as disillusioned, sceptical and pessimistic
about modernism.
Identify what it is about modernism that postmodernism is disillusioned, sceptical and
pessimistic about; and for what reason.

67 PDU3701/1
ACTIVITY 9b

In The Postmodern Condition, Lyotard grapples with the different ways in which we
define ‘knowledge’ in a post-industrial society that is equipped with new media
and fast changing technologies that make information readily available to users.
The questions he ponders on are: who controls scientific knowledge in the digital
era? How can such knowledge be legitimated? Who controls its transmission? Can
you, as a school teacher, pause for a moment and reflect on these questions in your
context. Who legitimises the syllabus you are required to teach and complete in an
academic year? How do we know that what we teach in the syllabus is legitimate
knowledge that will be useful for the learners in their lives?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

64 FEEDBACK

When reflecting on these questions, go back to the chapter on Critical Theory and
education in your prescribed text, specifically the section on What is Critical Theory on
pages 87–88. Here you will be reminded of how society and by implication the education
system in society, influences the way people think.

ACTIVITY 9c

In the same section, Postmodernism and education. The opening paragraph of

this section states that postmodernism is critical of “the validity of our knowledge”. It
wants us to reflect in a serious way on “the basis of our claims about what we think we
know”. In a sense, postmodernism queries claim about ‘real’ knowledge. (a) How does
postmodernism describe knowledge? (b) What is your view about postmodernism’s
claim that “our knowledge is a little more than constructions imposed on us by the
powerful”? Feminist postmodernist, Judith Butler, claims that “schooling does little
more than imposing a fabricated view of reality on learners”. She further argues that
schooling “alienates the learner and disables the learner’s natural ability to question
and explore”. (c) Think about some institutionalised practices in your school. Which
of those can be said to alienate and disable the learner, intellectually?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

68
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

65 FEEDBACK

Before trying to answer the questions above, refer to the following YouTube-link:
Postmodern View of Education (https://youtu.be/GU2S2SHjs20).
When responding to these questions remember that postmodernism and critical theory
have a similar view on knowledge, namely that our knowledge is about those knowledge
constructions imposed on us by powerful agencies in society, be they government, the
church, education or the corporate world.

ACTIVITY 9d

Read the section on Educators and postmodernism. The subsection on Wittgenstein

is quite revealing in the sense that it underscores the “different little languages” we
use to communicate and make sense of the world. Wittgenstein then coined the
expression “language games”. In his book, Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein
(1953:75) argues that “our language can be seen as an ancient city: a maze of little
streets and squares, of old and new houses, and of houses with additions from various
periods”. (a) How do you think this understanding of language affects your perception
of yourself as a teacher, understood as “transmitter of knowledge”? And (b) given
that language, or “language games” suggests a multiplicity of understanding certain
concepts, what do you think is a critical contribution of Wittgenstein’s teaching to
our practice as educators?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

66 FEEDBACK

Before responding to the questions above, remember that language is a very powerful
agent in transmitting knowledge and is culture-specific. Language is, therefore, important
when it comes to educating children in the context of their own culture. Educating children
in the language of another culture could impose another set of values on them different
from the values of their own culture and consequently result in their experiencing a loss
of cultural identity.
In this regard refer to the following YouTube link: Bringing Cultural Context and Self-Identity
into Education (https://youtu.be/bX9vgD7iTqw).

69 PDU3701/1
ACTIVITY 9e

While still on the section, Educators and postmodernism, identify some challenges
children are facing in school, as mentioned by Michael Peters. Peters seems to
suggest that subjecting children to assignments, tests and examinations might not
tell whether the children know what they are being tested for. Think about national
testing that is done in your country. In what ways is it effective or ineffective as a
tool for testing the child’s knowledge? Can you think of forms of knowledge that
children have which might be important to their lives, but which do not form part
of the curriculum and which are therefore never tested?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

67 FEEDBACK

When responding to these questions, also go back to the chapter on Empiricism and
education in your prescribed text, specifically the section Empiricism and education:
beware on pages 38–39. Note what is said in this section about tests, examination pass
marks and defined measurable outcomes when it comes to teaching and learning.

ACTIVITY 9e

Read the sub-section on Nicholas Burbules, an American philosopher of education.

How does Burbules’ philosophy of education differ from the philosophy that regards
the teacher as a ‘transmitter of knowledge’? What is Burbules’ view on the role of a
teacher?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

68 FEEDBACK

When responding to these questions, refer to the following YouTube-link – Collaborative

Learning Communities: A Postmodern Perspective on Teaching and Learning
(https://youtu.be/AujHDmJb1OM).

70
ACTIVITY 9f

Read the section on Postmodernism and Deconstruction and answer the following
questions. (a) How is deconstruction defined? (b) In what ways is postmodernism
different from ‘deconstruction? (c) Why is deconstruction regarded as postmodernism’s
partner? (d) What would be the focus of a deconstructionist working in the field of
education?
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................

69 FEEDBACK

Before attempting to answer the above questions, refer to the following YouTube-links:
• The Process of Deconstruction and Being Human (https//youtu.be/gfasO9sSdFI).
• Deconstructing the Pedagogy of Poverty (https//youtu.be/K5D2z89lnN4).
When looking at these links you will be able to get a better idea of what deconstruction
is all about and what issues it can address in education.

9.2 CONCLUSION
Modernism was characterised by its universal application which was characterised
by what was referred to as the ‘grand narratives’ of the modern day. These grand
narratives held validity and relevance irrespective of where one found oneself in the
world. Postmodernism reacted to this view and argued that one cannot offer universal
understandings, explanations and solutions to problems that arise in a specific context.
Each context has conditions that are peculiar to it; and to understand the problem,
you must offer an explanation or try to find a solution or you must investigate the
problem in its local context. In this instance, this view of postmodernism resonates with
African philosophy. This means that knowledge is culture-specific and consequently the
transmission of knowledge through education needs to be culture-specific.

REFLECTION

After completing this chapter, reflect on the following questions:

1. Where do you think you will be able to use the skills you learned in this
chapter in your professional life?

71 PDU3701/1
2. What did you find difficult? Why do you think you found it difficult? Do
you understand it now or do you need more help? What are you going
to do about it?
3. What did you find interesting in this chapter? Why?
4. How long did you take to work through this chapter? Are you still on
schedule or do you need to adjust your study programme?
5. How do you feel now?

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