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Topics: Later Vedic Age, Buddhism and Jainism - Birth & Life, Sects, Literature, Teachings,
Patrons etc. Mahajanpadas - 16 Mahajanpadas, Magadha, Haryanaka, Shishunaga,
Nanda Dynasty, Invasions.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

Later Vedic  The Later Vedic Age is characterised by more complexities in social,
Culture and political, and economic life.
Civilisation  In terms of the political context, the tiny tribal settlements of the Vedic
period were replaced by comparatively stronger kingdoms, while royal
power increased.
 The core geographical area of the Rig Vedic texts corresponds to Eastern
Afghanistan, Punjab, and western U.P., whereas the core geographical
area of Later Vedic texts corresponds to the Kuru–Panchala Region,
which comprised the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga Valley.
 The term ‘Rashtra’ first appeared in this period.
 The wars were no longer fought for cows, but for territories.
 The predominantly pastoral society of Early Vedic times had become
agricultural.
 Chiefs grew at the expense of the tribal peasantry and handsomely
rewarded the priests who helped them in maintaining their authority.
 It should be noted that even in Later Vedic times, the king did not
possess a standing army and tribal units were mustered in times of war.
 Traces of election of the chief or king appear in late Vedic texts, but
hereditary kingship was emerging.
 The king’s influence was further strengthened by ritual enactments such
as the Rajasuya (which was royal consecration and conferred supreme
power on the king), Vajapeya (literally meaning drink of strength; it had a
chariot race in which royal chariot was made to win against all kinsmen),
and Aswamedha (unquestioned control over an area in which the royal
horse ran uninterrupted).
 It was slowly turning in its later stages to an age of the ‘janapadas‘
instead of ‘janas’. The king was usually a kshatriya and the office of the
monarch was made almost hereditary. The king was addressed by
different names across different regions.
Later Vedic  One of the most important changes from the Rig Vedic society was the
Society rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of the varna system.
 The Later Vedic society was clearly divided into four varnas: Brahmanas,
Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
 Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or
the different stages of life.
 Together with varna, Later Vedic society came to be known as Varna-
ashrama-dharma society.
 The upper three classes known as Dvija (twice born) discriminated
against both Shudras and Chandalas.
 Caste exogamy was extensively practiced and a rigid social hierarchy
developed, which restricted the social mobility of the earlier period.

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 The increasing cult of sacrifices added enormously to the power of the

Brahmanas.
 Education was largely confined to dvija castes and began with the
investiture ceremony (Upanayana), although women were also initiated
at times.
 Assemblies were then dominated by nobles and affluent men and
women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies.
 Sabha and Samities continued to hold ground, though not like the Rig
Vedic Age, but the vidatha completely disappeared.
 The Later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint family,
with three or four generations living together.
 The rows of hearths discovered at Atranjikhera and at Ahichchhtra (both
in western Uttar Pradesh) show that these were meant for communal
feeding or for cooking the food of large families.
 In the family, a patrimonial (authority of father) system developed and
women were generally confined to household chores and subordinate
positions.
 As compared to the Rig Vedic age, women lost importance in the society
and there have been references to rare instances of sati and child
marriage. In one text, women have been counted as a vice along with
dice and wine. In another text, a daughter has been said to be the source
of all sorrows.
 The institution of gotra appeared in the Later Vedic culture. Literally it
means ‘cow pen’ or the place where cattle belonging to whole clan are
kept, but in course of time it meant descent from a common ancestor.
Marriage between persons of the same gotra was forbidden.
 There were legendary seers, such as, Kashyapa, Vashista, Bhrigu,
Gautama, Bhardwaj, Attri, Vishwamitra, and Agastya, after whom the
gotras were named. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas took the same gotra names
of the families of Brahmans who traditionally performed their domestic
rituals. There is mention of the Chandrayana Penance for men marrying
women of the same gotra. Ashrama or the four stages of life were
prescribed, but were not religiously followed.
Later Vedic  The Later Vedic culture is also called as PGW–Iron Phase culture, as a
Economy particular kind of pottery (painted grey ware) was used during that
phase.
 The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the Later
Vedic period was the beginning of the use of iron, which was introduced
around 1000 BCE and is mentioned as Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas.
 The Rig Vedic people knew of a metal, called ayas, which was either
copper or bronze.
 The society was largely rural. However, towards the end of the period,
there are traces of the beginning of urbanism (as nagar in the sense of a
town is mentioned in the Taittiriya Aranyaka).
 Agriculture emerged as the chief means of livelihood of the Later Vedic
people. The forests were cleared by burning the trees, which is also

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mentioned in the Satapatha Brahamana (ruler Videha Madhava burned

the forests between river Saraswati to river Sedanira or Gandak).
Cultivation was done by the plough. Mixed farming (cultivation along
with herding) was one of the prime occupations of the Later Vedic
people.
 The land was still communally owned over which the ‘vish’ (clan) had
many participatory rights, but it was recognised as property and the
head of the household who owned the land was termed as ‘Grahpati’.
Rice (Vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) became the staple diet of the people
and lentils were also grown.
 Also, with the beginning of food production, agricultural produce began
to be offered in the rituals. The items of dana and dakshina included
cooked rice. Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable food-oil was
derived increasingly, came to be used in rituals.
 Diverse arts and crafts were practiced in the Later Vedic period. Tin, lead,
silver, Iron, gold, bronze, and copper were known to Later Vedic people.
There were probably good smiths and smelters as a lot of copper objects
have been found at PGW Sites. People had obtained knowledge of glass
manufacturing too.
 Shresthins indicate the guilds or organisation of merchants. Exchange
was still via barter, but Niskha was used as a convenient unit of value
although not as a typical currency.
 Wagons drawn by oxen were probably the most used mode of transport.
The Later Vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery:
1. Painted Grey Ware
2. Black and Red Ware
3. Black-slipped Ware
4. Red Ware
 Unlike the Rig Vedic age where only voluntary offerings were taken and
per se no revenue collection was done, in the Later Vedic age, collection
of taxes and tributes was made mandatory and were done by Sangrihitri.
It is equally interesting to note that the Vaishyas appear to be the only
tribute payers in Later Vedic times.
Later Vedic  The Later Vedic culture was focused on the centrality of the cult of
Religion sacrifice.
 Sacrifice became more important and elaborate, and assumed both
public and domestic character.
 There was an increase in the frequency and number of the yajnas, which
generally involved the killing of animals on a large scale and the
destruction of cattle wealth.
 This was probably the result of the growing importance of a class of
Brahmanas and their efforts to maintain their supremacy in the changing
society.
 These yajnas brought to them a large amount of wealth in the form of
dana and dakshina. Some of the important yajnas were − Ashvamedha,
Vajapeya, Rajasuya, etc.

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 The purpose of these yajnas was two-fold. Firstly, it established the

authority of the chiefs over the people, and secondly, it reinforced the
territorial aspect of the polity since people from all over the kingdom
were invited to these sacrifices.
 Changes in the material life naturally resulted in a change in their
attitude towards gods and goddesses as well.
 The two most important Rig Vedic Gods, Indra and Agni, lost their
importance and instead of them, Prajapati (the creator) became
supreme. Some of the other minor gods became prominent, such as
Vishnu (conceived as the preserver and protector of people) and Rudra
(the god of animals).
 Idolatry appears in late Vedic phase and just as the society was divided in
the later Vedic phase in terms of social classes, similarly some of the
social orders too adopted their own deities. For example, Pushan (who
was supposed to look after cattle) came to be regarded as the god of the
Shudras.
 However, towards the end of Later Vedic age, a strong reaction began to
emerge against priestly domination, against cults and sacrifices,
especially in the land of Panchala and Videha where, around 600 BCE,
the Upanishads were compiled.

BUDDHISM

Causes of  The Kshatriyas’ reaction against domination of the Brahmanas

Origin  Rise of new agricultural economy which demanded animal husbandry
 Patronising of Buddhism and Jainism by Vaishyas and other mercantile
groups who wanted better social status and a reign of peace
 Ready acceptance of simple, ascetic, peace-centred principles of
Buddhism and Jainism by general folk (laity)
Early  Early Buddhist literature is generally divided into canonical and non-
Buddhist canonical texts.
Literature 1. Canonical texts are those texts that are directly linked to Gautama
Buddha in one way or another.
 However, differences exist among various Buddhist schools as to
which texts are canonical.
 They can simply be understood as books which lay down the basic
tenets and principles of Buddhism, such as, the Tipitakas (Three
Pitakas, also known as the Pali canon).
2. Non-canonical texts or semi canonical texts are texts that are not the
sayings of the Buddha, but commentaries and observations on
canonical texts, treatise on the Dharma/Dhammapada, historical
information, quotes, definitions, grammars, and other writings in Pali,
Tibetan, Chinese, and other East Asian languages.
 Some important non-canonical texts are Milindapanho (written in
Pali, it consists of a dialogue on various philosophical issues
between the Indo-Greek king Milinda/Menander and the monk

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Nagasena),
 Nettipakarana (The Book of Guidance, which gives a connected
account of the Buddha’s teachings),
 Visuddhimagga (The Path to Purity, written by Buddhaghosa, deals
with development from purity of discipline to nibanna
/enlightenment),
 Nidanakatha (first connected life story of Buddha),
 Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa (written in Pali, both contain
historical cum mythical account of the Buddha’s life, Buddhist
councils, Ashoka, and arrival of Buddhism to Sri Lanka),
 Mahavastu (written in mixed Sanskrit–Prakrit, it lays down the
sacred biography, i.e., hagiography of the Buddha.)
 The Tipitaka (in Pali) and Tripitaka (in Sanskrit) meaning ‘The Three
Baskets/Collections’ is one of the earliest compilations of Buddhist
teachings written (originally) on long, narrow leaves.
 The Buddhist monks transcribed and categorised the Buddha’s teachings
in three baskets, which is how the name ‘Three Baskets’ originated.
 All branches of Buddhism have the Tripitaka as part of their core
scriptures, which comprises three books — the Sutta (conventional
teaching), the Vinaya (disciplinary code), and the Abhidhamma (moral
psychology).
1. The Sutta Pitaka (Sutra/Basket of Discourses):
 This contains the Buddha’s discourses on various doctrinal issues in
dialogue form.
 These texts are also known as ‘Buddhavacana’ or ‘the word of the
Buddha’, as it refers to texts that are supposed to contain what the
Buddha himself said.
 With the exception of few sutras, the authority of this text is
accepted by all Buddhist schools.
 These discourses were arranged on the basis of the manner in
which they were delivered.
2. The Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket):
 This contains rules for monks and nuns of the monastic order
(Sangha).
 It includes the Patimokka – a list of transgressions against monastic
discipline and atonements for these.
 Apart from monastic rules, the Vinaya texts also include doctrinal
expositions, ritual texts, biographical stories, and some elements
of the ‘Jatakas’ or ‘birth stories’.
3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings):
 This contains a thorough study and systemisation of the teachings
of the Sutta Pitaka through summaries, questions and answers,
lists, etc.
 The three Pitakas are divided into Nikayas (books). For instance, the Sutta
Pitaka consists of five Nikayas: Digha Nikaya (collection of long
discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (collection of medium-length discourses),
Samyutta Nikaya (collection of kindred sayings), Anguttara Nikaya
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(collection of discourses arranged in accordance with number), and

Khuddaka Nikaya (smaller collection).
 The Khuddaka Nikaya is further subdivided into fifteen books, the
prominent among them being the Jatakas (stories of the previous births of
the Buddha), Dhammapada (verses dealing with ethical sayings), Niddesa
(expositions), Buddhavamsa (the history of Buddha), Patisambhida
(analytical knowledge), the Theragatha and Therigatha (songs of Buddhist
monks and nuns).
Life of the  Also known as Siddhartha.
Buddha  Contemporary of Mahavira.
 Born – 563 B.C.
 Place – Lumbini in Nepal (near kapilvastu)
 Kshatriya family – Shakya clan
 Father – Suddhodana (probably elected ruler of Kapilvastu)
 Mother – Mahamaya (princess from Koshalan dynasty). She was birth
mother while Gautami was the one who brought him up. Buddha’s foster
mother, Mahapajapati Gautami was the first woman to be ordained as a
bhikkhuni.
 Four sights of Buddha: Old man, Sick man, Dead body & A monk. These
sites made him realize that there are sorrows in the world. And he wanted
to find the solution for these.
 Buddha from childhood showed a meditative bent mind.
 At 29, he left his house with a charioteer ‘Channa’ and a horse ‘Kanthaka’.
The act of leaving the house is called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’.
 He met four Brahmans and meditated with them.
 Later, at the age of 35, he sat under a ‘Peepal’ tree on the bank of river
Niranjana at Bodhgaya.
 ‘Mara’, a demon, tried to disturb Buddha and brought Hurricane, flood,
Earthquake, bad news and finally, he brought his three beautiful
daughters. But all of that failed to move Buddha.
 After a time span of 49 days, Siddhartha got enlightenment and became –
‘Buddha’ i.e. the enlightened. This is called the state of Nirvana in
Buddhism (Note: it is different from the Nirvana of Jainism)
 After enlightenment, he meditated again for 49 days.
 He then went to Sarnath and gave his first sermon to Channa and the four
Brahmans. They became his first disciples. Ananda and Upali were two of
his closest disciples.
 The first sermon at Sarnath is called ‘Dharma Chakra Parivartan’ i.e.
setting the wheel in motion.
 Budhha is represented in following forms –

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Doctrines  The core of Buddha’s doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-Sachchani (Four

Noble Truths), Ashtangika-Marga (Eight-Fold Path), Middle Path, Social
Code of Conduct, and Attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
 Buddha explains that his teachings are just like a raft, which helps one to
cross over the turbulent river of Life and Suffering.
 His teachings contain three important pillars:
1. Buddha – Founder/ Teacher
2. Dhamma – Teachings
3. Sangha – Order of Buddhist monks/nuns (who act as torch bearers of
Dhamma worshippers or Upasakas and are a major factor in the
dissemination of the Buddha’s doctrine)

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 While struggling for Enlightenment, Buddha had discovered

Dhamma/Four Noble Truths which form the central teachings of
Buddhism. The Four Noble Truths are:
1. The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Buddha taught that everything is
suffering (sabbam dukkham). It refers not only to the actual pain and
sorrow experienced by an individual, but also to the potential to
experience these things.
2. The Truth of the Cause of Suffering (Samudaya): Suffering is part of
living and there is a reason behind it. Desire (Trishna) is main cause of
suffering. The
3. Truth of the End of Suffering (Nirodha): This suffering can be ended
by attaining Nirvana/Nibbana.
4. The Truth of the Path Leading to the End of Suffering (Astangika-
Marga): There is a path that leads to the end of suffering.

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 The path taught by the Buddha is often referred to as the Middle Path
(the one between extreme indulgence and extreme asceticism.)
 Nibbana/Nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddha’s teachings.
 The Pali word Nibbana is formed of ‘Ni’ and ‘Vana’. ‘Ni’ is a negative
particle and ‘Vana’ means lusting or craving.
 It is called Nibbana, as it is a departure from the craving or lusting.
 Literally, Nibbana means nonattachment.
 It does not mean physical death; rather, it signifies dying out or
extinction of desire, attachment, greed, ignorance, hatred, and even
the sense of ego.
 Nibbana for the Buddhists is neither a mere nothingness, nor a state of
annihilation; but what it is, no words can adequately express.
 Nibbana is a Dhamma which is ‘unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, and
unformed’. Hence, it is eternal (dhuva), desirable (subha), and happy
(sukha).
 In Nibbana, nothing is ‘eternalised’, nor is anything ‘annihilated’,
besides suffering.
 Nibbana is not situated in any place, nor is it a sort of heaven where a
transcendental ego resides.
 It should be noted that Buddhism accepts the transmigration and
impermanence, but rejects the idea of God and soul (atman).
 According to Buddha, the soul is a myth.
 In the Buddhist universe, there are many realms (worlds) and many
different kinds of beings; one can be born as any one of them.
 Traditionally, Buddhism teaches the existence of the ten realms of being.
At the top is Buddha and the scale descends as follows:
1. Bodhisattva (an enlightened being destined to be a Buddha, but
purposely remaining on earth to teach others),
2. Pratyeka Buddha (a Buddha on their own),
3. Sravaka (direct disciple of Buddha),
4. Heavenly beings (superhuman angels),

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5. Human beings,
6. Asura (fighting spirits),
7. Beasts,
8. Preta (hungry ghosts), and
9. Depraved men (hellish beings).
 These ten realms are ‘mutually immanent and mutually inclusive, each
one having in it the remaining nine realms’.
 The Buddhist monks considered varna based on action, unlike the
Brahmanas, who conferred on it a divine sanction, dividing people based
on birth.
 In Anguttara Nikaya, it is mentioned that when a person joins the Sangha,
he becomes vevanniyanti (without varna).
 The Sangha had members from all castes, such as Mahakassapa, Sariputta,
Mahamoggallana (prominent Brahmana monks), the Buddha, Ananda,
Aniruddha (prominent Kshatriya monks), Upali (a barber), Chunda
(blacksmith who fed the Buddha his last meal).
 The Pali canon also reverses the order of rank and places the Kshatriya
varna higher than the Brahmana.

Buddhist Councils
Time Period Place Presided by Features
And ruler
First 483 BC- Rajgriha Mahakasappa  Held soon after the death of
Council just after the the Buddha, it was at this
death of Ruler: council that the Buddha’s
Buddha Ajatashatru teachings were divided into
categories or ‘baskets’ (pitaka):
discourses, discipline and
higher knowledge.
 Vinay Pitaka rules of the order,
recited by Upali. Sutta Pitaka
great collection of Buddha’s
sermons, by Ananda.
Second 383 BC Vaishali Presided by  The objective was to settle a
Council Shatakhambri debate on certain practices of
Buddhist monks, especially in
Ruler: western India Division:
Kalasoka Sthaviravadins and
Mahasanghikas.
 The group who stayed called
themselves the Elders(Thera
Pali). They felt they were in
keeping with the original spirit
of the Buddha’s teachings.
 The other group, the Great
Community (Mahasanghika in
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Sanskrit), interpreted Buddha’s

teachings more liberally, but in
a way that they felt was more
true to his intentions.
 These two groups would
eventually evolve into
Theravada and Mahayana
Buddhism.
Third 250-262 BC Patliputra Presided by  The objective of the council
Council Moghiputta was to purify the Buddhist
Tissa movement from opportunistic
factions.
Ruler: Ashoka  Origin of Theravada school.
 Tripatika coded in Pali
language.
 Sent Buddhist missionaries to
other countries.
Fourth 1st Century Kunzalwar, Presided by  Buddhism divided into the
Concil AD Kashmir Vasumitra and Mahayana sect and the
Ashwaghosha Hinayana sect Some believe
that the Fourth Buddhist
Ruler: Council is the name of two
Kanishka separate Buddhist council
meetings.
 The Theravada had a Fourth
Buddhist Council in the first
century BCE in Tambapanni,
i.e., Sri Lanka, at Aloka Lena
(now Alu Vihara) during the
time of King Vattagamani
Abaya.
 The second one was held by
the Sarvastivada school, in
Kashmir around the 1st
century CE.

Different Schools of Buddhism

Hinayana 1. Literally means ‘the Lesser Path’ and Theravada signifies ‘Doctrine
(Theravada) of the Elders’.
2. It is considered the orthodox school and to be truer to Gautama
Buddha’s teachings than Mahayana. Theravada was the original
school of Buddhist philosophy.
3. Its scriptures are in Pali, the language that Buddha taught in.
4. A School of Buddhism which treats Buddha as nothing more than a

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human being. Does not believe in idol worship and tries to attain
individual salvation through self discipline and meditation.
Ultimate aim of Hinayana is thus nirvana.
5. At present, Theravada Buddhism is to be found in Sri Lanka, its
main bastion, and also in Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of
South East Asia. Ashoka patronised Hinayana.
Mahayana 1. Literally means ‘the Greater Path’. The terms ‘Mahayana’ and
‘Hinayana’ were given by the Mahayana school.
2. It is the heterodox school of Buddhist philosophy. It originated
later than Hinayana. It has two chief philosophical schools: the
Madhyamika and Yogachara.
3. Its scriptures are in Sanskrit, the language of Indian scholasticism.
4. A school of Buddhism which treats Buddha as god and worships
idols of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature.
5. Mahayana believes in universal liberation from suffering for all
beings (hence the ‘Great Vehicle’). Ultimate aim of Mahayana is
‘spiritual upliftment’. It allows salvation to be alternatively
obtained through the grace of the Amitabh Buddha by means of
faith and devotion to mindfulness of the Buddha. It believes in
mantras.
6. At present, Mahayana Buddhism is to be found in Japan, China,
and other Asian countries. Kanishka patronised Mahayana and
later, Harsha Vardhana supported it as well.
Vajrayana 1. Literally means ‘Vehicle of Thunderbolt’.
2. The Vajrayana or ‘Diamond Vehicle’ is also referred to as
Mantrayana, Tantrayana, Tantric, or esoteric Buddhism.
3. The period of Indian Vajrayana Buddhism has been classified as the
final period of Buddhism in India.
4. It marks the transition from Mahayana speculative thought to the
enactment of Buddhist ideas in individual life. The term “vajra” is
used to signify the absolutely real and indestructible in a human
being, as opposed to the fictions an individual entertains about
himself and his nature; “Yana” is the spiritual pursuit of the
ultimately valuable and indestructible.
5. It was a form of Buddhism which appeared in eastern India in the
eighth century and was finally established in Tibet in the 11th
century, as a result of a mission sent from the great Vajrayana
monastery of Vikramshila.
6. The ‘Two Truths Doctrine’ is the central concept of the Vajrayana
practice path and lays down the philosophical basis for its
methods. The ‘Two Truths’ identifies ‘conventional’ and ‘ultimate’
truths. Conventional truth is the truth of consensus reality, and
common sense notions of what does and does not exist. Ultimate
truth is reality as viewed by an awakened, or enlightened mind.
7. Most of the terms originated in Sanskrit language of tantric Indian
Buddhism, but since it deals with inner experiences, the Vajrayana

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texts use a highly symbolic language ‘samdhya-bhasa’ or ‘Twilight

Language’, that aims at helping the followers of its disciplines to
evoke within themselves experiences considered to be the most
valuable available to human beings. Vajrayana thus attempts to
recapture the enlightenment experience of the historical Buddha.
8. A school of Buddhism which treats Buddha as god and worships
idols of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature.
Mahayana believes in universal liberation from suffering for all
beings (hence the ‘Great Vehicle’).
9. It is an esoteric extension of Buddhist thought and practice which
sees itself as a quicker, more effective path to enlightenment. Its
followers believed that salvation can be best attained by acquiring
the magical power, which they called Vajra.
10. As with Mahayana Buddhism, the Vajrayana emphasises the role
of the Bodhisattva, but the tradition tends to favour fierce deities
known as the Taras. Vajrayana ritual and devotion employs
mantras (esoteric verbal formulas), mandalas (diagrams and
paintings used in visualisation practices), and a complex array of
other rituals.
11. Great emphasis is placed on the role of the guru in the Vajrayana;
these are religious teachers who have mastered the philosophical
and ritual tradition. The Tibet translation of guru is ‘lama’, and the
various Tibetan schools of the Vajrayana trace long lineages of
gurus who serve both as religious and political leaders (the Dalai
Lama is the most well-known of Tibet’s Lamas).
12. It became popular in eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar
and is predominant in the Himalayan nations of Tibet, Nepal,
Bhutan, and also Mongolia.

Decline of Buddhism
 th
By early 12 century A.D. it became extinct.
 It lost its own identity: gradually the religion became more ritualistic and also started
practicing the rituals of Brahmanical and Vedic religion.
 Monks took Sanskrit language.
 From the first century AD, they practiced idol worship on a large scale and received
numerous offerings from devotees.
 Buddhist monasteries - dominated by ease-loving people and became centers of
corrupt practices
 Invasion of monasteries by Turkish because of monasteries’ richness.
 Sangh lost way: There were cracks in the Sangh, there was no more discipline.
 Revival and Reform of Brahmanism: Brahmanical religion was revived during Gupta
Period and the new Religion adopted many practices of Buddhism like vegetarianism
etc.
 Lack of Patronage: Palas were the last rulers which provided patronage to Buddhist
monasteries. Once the Brahmanical religion was revived, Buddhism lost its grip. Also,
many kings suppressed them with force. In 7th Century, a Shaivite King ‘Shashank’
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chopped the Bodhgaya Pipal tree.

JAINISM

Basic  Jainism believed in 24 Tirthankara or great teachers or leaders of their

Information religion.
 1st Tirthankara – Risabhdeva or Rishabhnatha (born in Ayodhya). He laid
foundations of orderly human society.
 Historical records of only last two Tirthankaras are found – Parsavnath
(23rd) and Vardhaman Mahavir (24th).

Early Jain  Jaina teachings were first preserved as an oral tradition, but later they
Literature were collated and recorded.
 In olden times, monks strictly followed the five great vows of Jainism.
 Even religious scriptures were considered possessions and therefore
knowledge of the religion was never documented. Later Jaina teachers
realised that it was extremely difficult to keep memorising the entire Jain
literature compiled by the many scholars of the past and present.
 In fact, significant knowledge was already lost and the rest was polluted
with modifications and errors.
 Hence, they decided to document the Jaina literature as known to them.
 The word ‘canon’ for the Jaina holy writings is increasingly felt to be
inadequate, for it implies an unchanging body of texts sanctioned by a
central authority.
 The sacred books of the Jainas are known as Siddhanta or Agama (‘what
has come down to us’ or tradition) and these earliest texts are in an
eastern dialect of Prakrit known as ArdhMagadhi. To a large extent, the
concepts of Siddhanta and Agama denote fluid groupings that are open
to change.
 The complication of the entire canon is traditionally believed to have
taken place in the fifth or sixth century CE at a council presided over by
Devarddhi Kshamashramana held in Vallabhi in Gujarat.
 Compilations such as Acharanga Sutra, Sutrakritanga, and the Kalpasutra
are regarded as the early texts. Jainism around third century CE split into
two major sects, the Digambara/Sky-clad or naked, and the
Shvetambara/Clad in White.
 Lord Mahavira’s immediate disciples were known as Ganadharas (these
disciples were mendicants, as the Jina is, and have followed him since
before his enlightenment).
 All Ganadharas possessed perfect knowledge (keval-gyan). They orally
compiled the direct preaching of Lord Mahavira into 12 main texts
(sutras). These texts are known as Angas (limbs or main texts) and are
the oldest religious scriptures and the backbone of Jaina literature.
 Monks who had knowledge of a minimum of ten Purvas (means ‘early’ or

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‘previous texts’ which are considered original teachings of the Jinas)

were known as Srut-kevlis. The Srut-kevlis wrote many texts (sutras)
expanding the subject matter defined in the Angas. Collectively, these
texts are called Angbahyas (meaning outside of Angas).
 The Shvetambara canon includes the 12 Angas; 12 Upangas (scriptures
which provide further explanation of Angas); 10 Prakirnas (scriptures
which describe independent or miscellaneous subjects of the Jaina
religion); six Cheda Sutras (subject matter described in these is only for
monks and nuns and not for lay people; it relates to the conduct and
behaviour of monks and nuns and also explains how they can repent for
their sins and mistakes); four Mula Sutras (scriptures which are essential
for monks and nuns to study in the earlier stages of their monkhood);
and a number of individual texts such as the Nandi Sutra and
Anuyogadvara.
 Believing that all the original Angas have been lost for centuries, the
Digambaras have a different canon (known as Siddhanta).
 The Tattvartha-Sutra contains the main doctrines of Jaina faith, though
the two main sects have slightly different versions and composition
dates.
 Jainas believe that each Jina reveals the same essential truths, according
to the needs of the society and in the era in which he is born. When he
reaches omniscience, he can make the divya-dhvani (divine sound),
through which he transmits his teachings to all sentient beings
(samavasarana).
 The Digamabara and Shvetambara sects interpret the notion of the
divine sound differently. Digamabaras consider it to be an unarticulated
sound, which is monotone and can be compared to the sound of ‘OM’.
Whereas, Shvetambaras call it ‘divine’ because all beings can hear it,
including five-sensed animals with understanding and spiritual abilities.
 It is considered to be a human language that takes the form of Ardha-
Magadhi Prakrit. The non-canonical (commentaries on the canonical)
Jaina works are partly in Prakrit dialects (such as Maharashtri) and partly
in Sanskrit.
 The Jaina Puranas (called Charitas by Shvetambaras) are the
hagiographies of the Jaina saints/Tirthankaras (literally meaning ‘ford
makers’, who build fords that help people across the ocean of suffering).
 The Adi Purana compiled in 9th century is the hagiography of Jaina
founder Rishabha (Adinatha). The 8th century Harivamsha Purana gives a
Jaina version of the stories of Krishna, Balarama, Pandavas, and
Kauravas, among others.
 The 9th century Jinasena and Gunabhadra authored Trishashtilakshana
Mahapurana contains not only life stories of various Jaina saints, kings,
and heroes, but also contains discussions on topics like interpretation of
dreams, life-cycle rituals, duties of a king and warrior, etc.
 The 12th century Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra gives details about
political history and provides the earliest account of Jaina teachers. Jaina
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texts include vast collection of lyrical poetry, hymns, and katha (didactic
story) in different languages like Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, and
Kannada.
 These texts not only offer glimpses of cultural history of that era, but also
tell us a great deal about the history and doctrines of Jainism, its rival
schools, the Sangha’s life, etc. It is rather unfortunate that Jaina texts
have not been studied as extensively as Buddhist texts.
Life of  Born – 540 B.C.
Vardhamana  Place – Kundagram (now Basokund) near Vaisali in Bihar.
Mahavira  Father – Siddhartha (head of famous Kshatriya clan Jnatrika and ruler of
his own area)
 Mother – Trishala (sister of lichchhavi chief Chetaka, whose daughter
was wedded to Bimbisara)
 Contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
 Initially he lived life of household but at the age of 30 he abandoned
house in search of the truth and became an ascetic.
 For the next 12 years he meditated and practiced the austerities of life.
 At the age of 42 years, he attained the Supreme knowledge (Kaivalya)
under a Sal tree in 498 BC at a place called Trimbhigram on the bank of
River Rijupalika (Jharkhand). Through kaivalya he conquered misery and
happiness.
 Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or
jina i.e. the conqueror of senses, and his followers are known as Jainas.
 He propagated this religion for 30 years and during this period he visited
to Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc.
 He preached for the first time in the five hills of Nalanda – Vipulchak.
 At the age of 72 (468 BC) he attained Nirvana (died) at Pavapuri
(Nalanda).

Doctrine  5 doctrines –
 Non – Violence: Not to kill or harm any living creature. At that period,
trees were considered non-living so cutting of trees was allowed.
However, it was advised not to do agriculture as ploughing of land
might kill the small organisms and insects. Hence, peasants were not
attracted towards this new faith and it was more famous amongst
traders and businessmen.
 Not to Steal: Do not try to take what is not yours rightfully.
 Not to Accumulate: Leads to a problem of haves and have nots. It
discouraged hoarding or keeping more than what is required.
 Not to tell a lie: Not to give wrong information to others.
 Celibacy: Celibacy in Jainism is slightly different than that of
Hinduism. In Hinduism celibacy means not to marry or not to have a

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relationship with the other sex.

 In Jainism, apart from the above two, some more conditions are
there like:
 Not to see the opposite sex.
 Not to talk to the opposite sex.
 Not to touch the opposite sex.
 Not to feel about the opposite sex.
 th
Only 5 doctrine was added by Mahavira, the other 4 were taken over by
him from previous teachers.
 Non-injury to living beings is most important to Jainism. But sometimes it
resulted in absurd results like Jain kings ordered execution of persons
guilty of killing animals.
 Parshvanath had asked is followers to cover upper and lower part of
body while Mahavira had asked them to discard cloth completely as he
wanted to have a more austere life for his followers.
 On the basis of this clothing the Jainism was divided into two sects –
 Shvetambaras – those who wear white cloths. (shveta meaning white
and ambar meaning cloth)
 Digambaras – those who remained naked.
 The Creator: There is no creator. It does not believe in a supreme God.
Tirthankars are the highest authority.
 The Universe: The universe is eternal. It has no beginning and no end and
it is moving in a cyclic fashion. It moves in phases of Highs and Lows:
 High phase: Avsarpani – during this phase people have a long life (200 –
300 years) and they are very tall (40-50 ft).
 Low phase Utsarpani – During this phase people have shorter life span
(15 – 20 years) and short height (2 -3 feet)
 Universe is composed of living and non – living elements.
 The Soul: Soul exists in living and non – living elements.
 Nirvana in Jainism
 According to Jainism, Soul is surrounded by Karma (Action).
 Karma has four aspects – Inherent and outside as well as Good or
bad.
 In order to get Nirvana, one has to free himself from all Karma,
whether good or bad, inherent or outside. This state of no Karma is
called the state of Shunya.
 There are certain Dos and Don’ts to achieve this:
 Dos – Live an Ascetic life, to give up clothes.
 Don’ts – One should have no attachments.
 Jainism on Varna System
 Jainism recognized god’s existence but placed them lower than Jina.
 Did not condemn Varna system.
 According to Mahavira a person born in higher or lower Varna
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depends on sins or virtues by him in his previous births.

 According to him lower castes can liberate themselves through pure
and meritorious life.
 Main aim of Jainism – freedom from worldly bonds. This can be
achieved by three jewels or triratna of Jainism and no rituals are
required.
 3 jewels or Tri Ratnas of Jainism
 Right knowledge
 Right faith
 Right action or conduct (5 doctrines are part of it)
 It prohibited war and even agriculture because of killings of living beings.
And so, Jainism confined to traders only.

Spread of  To spread teachings of Jainism, Mahavira organized an order in which

Jainism both men and women were admitted.
 Mahavira was not having a large number of followers (just 14000).
 Spread – in south India and west India where Brahmanical religion was
weak.
 According to a tradition, the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed
to Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.).
 During his last years of life emperor became a Jaina and led Jainas ascetic
life in Karnataka.
 200 years after the death of Mahavira, there was a famine in Magadha. It
lasted for about 12 years and in order to protect them, many Jaina
visited to south under the leadership of the Stahalabahu.
 After the end of the famine Jainas came back to Magadha and there
emerged differences between those who visited to south and those who
stayed in Magadha.
 To sort out differences and to compile the teachings of Jainism a council
was convened at Patliputra but it was boycotted by southern Jainas.
 From then onwards the southern Jainas were called as Digambar and
those at Magdhans were called as Shvetambars.
 The tradition belonged to drought is considered as doubtful but it was
sure that the Jainas were divided into 2 sects.
 The epigraphic evidence for the spread of the Jainism in Karnataka was
not before 3rd century A.D.
 After the 5th century, numerous Jaina monastic establishments called
‘Basadis’spread in Karnataka. Kings granted land in expectation of
support.
 In the 2nd and 1st century B.C. it also spread to southern district of Tamil
Nadu.

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Jain Councils
Time Period Place Presided by Features
First 310 BCE Patliputra Sthulabhadra  Compilation of 12 angas to
Council replace Purvas (Rejection by
Digambaras)
Second 453 or 466 CE Vallabhi Derridhiganj  Final compilation of 12 angas
Council (Gujarat) and 12 upangas

Digambara Shwetambara
Literally means ‘sky clad’. Digambaras stress Literally means ‘white clad’. Shvetambaras
the practice of nudity as an absolute pre- assert that the practice of complete nudity is
requisite to the mendicant’s path and to the not essential to attain liberation
attainment of salvation.
According to tradition, during the famous According to tradition, during the famous
Magadha Famine (200 years after the death Magadha Famine, they are the ones who
of Mahavira), they are the ones who under under the leadership of Sthalabahu had
the leadership of Bhadrabahu migrated stayed back at Magadha. When the Jainas
south and lived in the old traditional way. who had migrated south returned, they
accused this group of violating rules of
Jainism on account of wearing white
clothing.
On the point of liberation of women, Whereas, Shvetambaras acknowledge the
Digambara tradition holds that a woman possibility of women attaining Jina-hood and
lacks the body and rigid will necessary to maintain that women are capable in the
attain moksha, i.e., liberation, hence she has present lifetime of the same spiritual
to be reborn as a man before such an accomplishments as men. For instance, in
attainment is possible. For instance, the 19th the Shvetambara tradition, the 19th
Tirthankara of the Shvetambara tradition is Tirthankara is a female named Malli, who is
not accepted as female by them, rather as a the only female Tirthankara.
male named Mallinatha, born into a royal
family as a prince, who after taking vows of
Digambara monk, eventually became a
Tirthankara.
According to Digambara tradition, on Whereas, Shvetamabara tradition holds that
attaining enlightenment, an omniscient is even the omniscient requires food.
freed from the needs of ordinary existence
such as, hunger, thirst, sleep, disease, or
fear.
Regarding hagiography of Mahavira, both The Shvetambaras believe that Mahavira
differ to a great extent. For example, was born of a Kshatriya lady, Trishala,
regarding the embryo of Mahavira, though conception took place in the womb
Digambara tradition rubbishes the claim of of a Brahman lady, Devananda. The change
Shvetamabaras and dismiss the whole of embryo is believed to have been effected
episode as unreliable and absurd. by God Indra on the eighty-third day after

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conception.
Regarding marriage of Mahavira, Digambara The Shvetambaras believe that Mahavira
tradition holds that Mahavira never married married Princess Yashoda at a fairly young
and renounced the world while his parents age and had a daughter from her named
were alive. Priyadarshana, and that Mahavira led a
fullfledged householder’s life till he was
thirty. It was only after his parents’ death
that he became an ascetic.
Regarding idols of Tirthankaras, Digambara Whereas, the Shvetambara tradition depicts
tradition represents the idols of Tirthankaras the idols of Tirthankaras as wearing a loin-
as nude, unadorned and with downcast eyes cloth, bedecked with jewels and with glass
in the contemplative mood. eyes inserted in the marble.
Regarding canonicalliterature, Digambaras Whereas, the Shvetambaras believe in the
hold that the original and genuine texts were validity and sacredness of canonical
lost long ago. The Digambaras also refuse to literature, that is, the 12 angas and sutras, as
accept the achievements of the first council they exist now.
which met under the leadership of Acharya
Sthulabhadra and consequently the
recasting of the angas.
The Digambaras make use of the term Whereas, the Shvetambaras use the term
‘Purana’ for the hagiographies. ‘Charita’.
Regarding food of ascetics, the Digambara
monks take food standing and with the help Whereas, the Shvetambara monks collect
of knotted upturned palms and in one house their food from different houses.
only where their sankalpa (preconceived
idea) is fulfilled.
Regarding possessions of ascetics, the Whereas, the Shvetambara ascetic is allowed
Digambara ascetic must renounce all to have fourteen possessions including loin-
possessions, including clothes and is allowed cloth, shoulder-cloth, etc.
only two possessions: Rajoharana (a small
peacock-feather broom for brushing insects
away) and a Kamandalu (a wooden water-
pot for toilet hygiene).

Mahajanpadas

The period of Mahajanpadas (600 BCE) is also known as the Period of 2nd urbanization (IVC
was the 1st urbanization) as the center of polity and economy shifted from India’s North-
west to Eastern states (mainly Bihar).

Urban settlement and the use of Iron tools enabled the formation of large territories called
Mahajanapadas. At that time there were 16 such Mahajanapadas (as per Buddhist text
Anguttara Nikaya)
Difference between Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

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 ‘Jana’ in both terms means people. These people denoted a tribe or an ethnic group
or a tribal political organization.
 Indo-Aryans, as mentioned in the early Vedic texts, used to live in the semi-nomadic
tribal states. This tribal-state organization called ‘Jana’ transformed into Janapadas
towards the end of the Vedic period. Janapadas then meant, a foothold of a tribe.
 And when the Janapadas started growing, they transformed into Majahanapadas.
 There are seven features or main constituents of a Mahajanapada and they are listed
below:
o The King
o The Minister
o The Country
o Fortified City
o Treasury
o Army
o Ally
 Anguttara Nikaya (a part of Sutta Pitaka) and Mahavastu are the two Buddhist texts
which list down the 16 Mahajanapadas.
o However in Mahavastu, the Kamboja and Gandhara Mahajanapadas which
were located in the north-west region of Indian subcontinent were omitted.
Instead, the Sibi of Punjab and Dasarna of central India were listed as
Mahajanapadas.

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Based on the form of government, Mahanjanapadas can be classified into two types. They
are
 Monarchical Mahajanapadas
o Here, state was ruled by the hereditary king or chieftain.
o Rules gave importance to brahmanas and vedic sacrifices.
o Ex: Kosala and Magadha
 Republican Mahajanapadas
o In Republican or oligarchic Mahajanapadas, the king was elected from the
group of Rajas who were known for their fighting ability and he runs the
administration with the help of an assembly called Sabha.
o Here, the brahmanas and vedic sacrifices were not given much importance.
o It is evident from few Buddhist texts that the brahmanas were placed below
the kshatriyas in social hierarchy.
o Ex: Vajji

Mahajanapadas Capital City Description

Anga Champa  Located on the confluence of river Champa
and River Ganga.
Modern Day:  Anga is mentioned in Atharva veda and in
Munger and Prajnapan (highly revered text of Jaina)
Bhagalpur  It was annexed into the Magadha empire
by Bimbisara.
Magadha Rajagirha or  Its capital, Rajagirha was protected by five
Girivraja hills.
Modern day: Gaya  It started the policy of imperialism by
and Patna conquering most of the areas.
 Magadha was separated from Anga by the
river Champa
Kosala Sravasti  It was bounded by river Gomathi in the
west, river Sadanira in the east, Nepal hills
Modern day: in the north and river Syandika in the
Eastern Uttar south..
Pradesh  Hiranyanabha, Mahakasala Prasenajita and
Suddhodana were some of the rulers of
Kosala.
 During the reign of king Vidudabha, Kosala
was merged into Magadha.
 Ayodhya, Saketa and Sravasti were its
important towns.
Kasi Kasi  It was located in Varanasi.
 This city got its name from rivers Varuna
and Asi as cited in the Matsya Purana.
 They were known for their horse markets
and cotton textiles.

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 Brihadratha, the ruler of Kashi conquered

Kosala. However, it was later annexed by
Kosala, which turned out to be a cause of
war between Magadha and Kosala.
Vajji Vaishali  Oligarchy or Republic form of government
was followed
Bihar  River Gandak separated Vajji from Kosala
Mahajanapada.
 It was ruled by the Licchavis.
 Videhans, Vriji and Jnatrikas were the
important clans which ruled Vajji.
 Listed in both Buddhist and Jaina texts.
Malla Kusinara  Oligarchy or Republic form of government
was followed in Malla and they were
Modern day: referred to as Gana Sanghas.
Deoria and Uttar  It had several branches, out of which the
Pradesh branches at Pava and Kusinara towns were
very significant during the time of Buddha.
 Buddha died at Kusinara and Lord Mahavira
attained Nirvana at Pava.
Chedi Sothivati or  It was a monarchical Mahajanapada.
Banda  Sahajati and Tripuri were the important
Modern day: towns
Bundelkhand  Its territory stretched up to the Malwa
plateau.
 Mentioned in Mahabharata and Rig Veda.
Kuru Indraprastha  Koravya, Isukara were the important rulers
of Kuru Mahajanapada and they belonged
Modern day: to the race of Yudhisthira.
Meerut and South  They made matrimonial alliances with the
East Haryana Bhojas, the Panchalas and the Yadavas.
 The rulers of Kuru were referred to as
Rajasabdopajivinah (consul of the King) in
Arthashastra. Thus, it is evident that
absolute monarchy was absent in Kuru
Mahajanapada.
Panchala Ahichchatra and  According to ancient texts, there were two
Kampilya lineages of Panchalas – northern Panchalas
Modern day: and southern Panchalas.
Western Uttar  The two lineages were divided by the river
Pradesh Bhagirathi.
 Ahichchatra was the capital of northern
Panchalas whereas Kampilya was the
capital of southern Panchalas.
 Initially they followed a monarchical form
of government and later switched to the

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republican form.
Vatsa Kausambi  Also known as Vamsa
 Followed the monarchical form of
Modern Day: governance.
Prayagraj  Vatsas were a branch of Kurus who
migrated to Vatsa.
 Most prominent ruler of Vatsa was
Udayana who had a strong passion for
hunting.
 According to Puranas, Nichaksu (A Pandava
descendant) shifted the capital of Vatsa
from Hastinapur to Kausambi.
 It was known for trade and other economic
activities.
Matsya Viratnagar  It included the portions of Alwar and
Bharatpur regions of Rajasthan.
 Matsya was separated from Panchala by
river Yamuna.
 Their capital city was famed as the hiding
place of Pandavas.
 It once formed a part of Chedi
Mahajanapada which is evident from the
fact that king Sujata ruled over both
matsya and Chedi.
Surasena Mathura (on the  They followed the Oligarchy or Republic
banks of river form of government and they were
Yamuna) referred to as Gana Sanghas.
 Avantiputra, one of the prominent rulers of
Surasena was a chief disciple of Buddha. He
ensured the spread of Buddhism in
Mathura.
 It was later annexed into the vast Magadha
empire.

Asmaka Paithan  It was also known as Assaka.

 It was located in the Dakshinapatha and it
covered the regions of Telangana,
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
 Brahmadatta and Aruna were the
important rulers of Asmaka.

Avanti Mahishamati  It was one of the most powerful

and Ujjain Mahajanapadas.
 It was divided into two parts – northern
Avanti and southern Avanti.
 Ujjain was the capital of northern Avanti

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and Mahishamati was the capital of

southern Avanti.
 Pradyota was the powerful ruler of Avanti
during the 6th century BC. It is believed
that Vatsa was conquered by him.
 Another famous ruler of Avanti was
Prasenajit who strengthened his position
by making matrimonial alliances with
Magadha. While marrying his sister Kosala
Devi to Bimbisara, he gifted Kasi as the
dowry.

Gandhara Taxila  Its capital, Taxila was an important learning

center of ancient India.
 Its territory extended from Kabul in present
day Afghanistan to Rawalpindi in the North
Western Province.
 It was ruled by the king Pukkusati during
the 6th century BC. He was the
contemporary of Bimbisara.
 According to Mahabharata, Gandharas
were the strong allies of the Kurus who
together fought against the Pandavas
 It was conquered by Persians in the later
half of the 6th century BC.

Kamboja Pooncha  It was located in the Northwest region

around the Hindukush mountains in Punjab
Modern day: Rajori and Kashmir.
and Hajra  In Brahmanical texts, the Kambojas were
regarded as the uncultured people.
 The Arthashastra refers to them as Varta-
Sastropajivin Samgha which means
confederation of agriculturists, traders,
herdsmen and warriors.

Political Structure of the Mahajanapadas:

 Each Mahajanapada had its own capital.
 For security from other rulers, most of them had fortifications built around them.
 These new kings, or Rajas, maintained regular armies.
 They also took money from the people in the form of taxes.
 Crops were usually taxed at 1/6th of their value. This was referred to as Bhaga, or
sharing.
 Craftsmen, herders, hunters, and traders were all subject to taxes.

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 Out of the 16 Mahajanapadas, the Magadha emerged as the most powerful state
under the reign of Bimbisara and established a vast empire by conquering most of
the Mahajanapadas.
 Eventually, Magadha became the nerve center of political activity in North India. The
Magadha empire was the first empire in India.
 Vajji was a powerful Mahajanapada who governed under the Sangha system.
 From republican states came the founders of Jainism and Buddhism.

Changes in Agriculture:
 Iron ploughshares are becoming more popular. This resulted in higher output.
 Paddy was planted by the farmers. Instead of throwing seeds across the ground,
saplings were cultivated and planted in the fields.
 This considerably enhanced productivity, but it also resulted in a significant increase
in work.

Rise of Magadha Empire

 The Magadha Empire came into existence when the four Mahajanpada- Magadha,
Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti engaged in the struggle for the supremacy from the 6th
Century BC to 4th Century BC.
 Jarasandha and Brihadratha was the founder of Magadha but
o Growth started under the Haryankas
o Expansion took place under the Sisungas and Nandas
o Empire reached under its zenith point under the Mauryas

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Haryanka Dynasty
There were three important kings in Haryanaka Dynasty- Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and
Udayin. Giriviraja was the earliest capital of Magdha and later shifted to Rajagriha.

Bimbisara (Soeniya  Under Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of the Buddha and
or Sreniya) who, like the Buddha, lived in the 6th - 5th century BCE,
Magadha emerged as a controller of the middle Ganga plains.
 According to Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita, Bimbisara
belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He is considered to be the
first important ruler of Magadha.
 With political foresight he realised the importance of
establishing dynastic relations through marriage with the royal
house of Kosala. Through this alliance he acquired a village in
Kashi as dowry.
 He married to the Mahakosaladevi (princes of Koshala and
siter of Prasanjit), Licchhavi princes Chellana and Khema
(Princes of Madra clan of Punjab).
 He had cordial relations with the king of Gandhara.
 Pukkusati came into his court who was the ambassador of the
Gandhara ruler of Taxila.
 He sent his personal physician Jivak(son of Salavati), to his rival
Chandapradyota Mahasena of Ujjain to cure him of jaundice.
 Known as Seniya, he was the first Indian king who had a
regular and standing army.
 He built the city of New Rajagriha.
Ajatshatru  He was the son of Chellana and Bimbisara who occupied
(Kunika) throne by killing his father.
 Ajatashatru followed a more aggressive policy. He gained
complete control over Kashi and broke the earlier amicable
relations by attacking his maternal uncle Prasenjit, the king of
Kosala.
 The Vajji confederation was Ajatashatru’s next target of attack.
This war was a lengthy one and tradition tells us that after a
long period of 16 years, he was able to defeat the Vajji only
through deceit, by sowing the seeds of discord amongst the
people of Vajji.
 He was a contemporary of both Mahavira and Gautama
Buddha.
 He was also instrumental in convening the First Buddhist
Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of Buddha.
 Kashi and Vaishali, the capital of Vajji were added to
Magadha, making it the most powerful territorial power in the
Ganges Valley.
 He built the fort of Rajagrihaanda watch – fort (Jaladurga)at a

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village called Patali on the banks of the Ganges.

Udayin  Son and successor of Ajatshatru
 Built the fort on the confluence of the Ganga and the Son river
at Patliputra (now Patna)
 He was murdered at the instigation of the king of Avanti, Palak.
 He was succeeding by week successors- Anuruddha, Munda
and Naga-Dasak.

Shisunaga Dynasty: 412 BC – 344 BC

 Nag – Dasak was unworthy to rule. So, the people got disgusted and elected
Shisunaga as the King, the minister of the last king.
 The most important achievement of Shisunaga was the destruction of the Pradyota
dynasty of Avanti. This brought to an end the hundred years old rivalry between
Magadha and Avanti. From then on Avanti become a part of the Magadha rule.
 Shisunaga was succeeded by Kalashoka (Kakavarna). His reign is important because
he convened the Second Buddhists Council in Vaishali (383 BC).

Nanda Dynasty: 344 BC – 323 BC

 Mahapadma overthrown the Shisunaga dynasty and established a new line of kings
known as the Nandas.
 He was also known as Ekaarat, Eka-Chchhatra (Sovereign ruler), Sarvakshatrantaka
or Ugrasena (popsser of huge army).
 According to the Puranas, Mahapadmanada was the son of a Sudra woman but Jain
texts and Greek writer Curtius consider him as the son of a Courtesan and a barber.
 He seems to have overthrown all the dynasties which ruled at the time of Shisungas.
He is often described as ‘the first empire builder of Indian history’.
 He conquered Koshala and Kalinga (from here he brought an image of the Jina as
victory trophy).
 Mahapadma was succeeded by his eight sons.
 Dhanananda was the last one.
o The last king Dhanananda is possibly identical with the Agrammes or
Xandrames of the Greek texts.
o It was during the rule of Dhanananda that the invasion of Alexander took
place in north – west India in 326 BC.
o According to Greek writer Curtius, Dhanananda commanded a huge army
20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 3,000 elephants.
o It was the might of Dhanananda that terrorised Alexander and stopped his
march to the Gangetic Valley.
 The Nanda dynasty came to an end about 322 – 21 BC and was supplanted by
another dynasty known as Mauryas, with Chandragupta Maurya as the founder.

Reason behind the Rise of Magadha

 Geography as both Rajgir and Patliputra located at strategic location.
 Abundance of natural resources especially iron which made them to equip with
effective weapon.
 Due to agricultural produce because region was situated at fertile gangetic plain.
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 Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce.
 Unorthodox character of Magadha society.

Foreign Invasions
 In North east India smaller principalities and republics gradually merged with the
Magadha Empire. But the North -West India did not have any strong kingdom to
protect the area from foreign invasion. The area was also wealthy and could be
easily entered through the passes in the Hindukush.
 There were two major foreign invasions of Indian Sub-continent which happened in
the form of Iranian invasion in 518 BC and Macedonian invasion in 326 BC.

Iranian/Persian Invasion – Darius’s Invasion in 518 BC.

 The Achaemenian rulers of Iran (Persia), who expanded their empire at the same
time as the Magadhan princes, took advantage of the political disunity on the North
West Frontier of India.
 The Achaemenian ruler Darius I (Darayabahu) penetrated into North – West India in
518 BC and annexed Punjab, West of the Indus and Sindh. This area constituted the
20th province (Kshatrapi) of Iran, the total number of provinces in the Iranian
empire being 28. This province was the most fertile area of the Iranian empire.
 Effects of invasion
o The invasion increased the Indo-Iranian trade and commerce.
o A new form of writing was introduced to Indians by the Iranians known as
Kharosthi.
o The Indo – Iranian contact lasted for about 200 years.

Macedonian/Alexander's Invasion
 Alexander sat on the throne of Macedonia at the age of 20 years succeeding his
father. He dreamt of word-conquest and conquered many areas before attacking
India in 326 BC.
 Ambhi (the rulers of Taxila) and Abhisara surrendered but the ruler of Punjab
refused to do the same.
 A battle ensued between them near river Jhelum between the forces of Alexander
and Porus, known as battle of Hydaspes. Although Porus was defeated, he was
treated generously by Alexander.
 However, this victory proved to be his last major victory in India as his forces refused
to go any further. They were too tired to carry on with the Alexander’s expedition
and wanted to return home. Moreover, the might of Magadhan Empire (the Nanda
Rulers) also dissuaded them.
 Alexander marched back in 325 BC after making necessary administrative
arrangement for the conquered territories. He died at the age of 33 years when he
was in Babylon.
 Effects of invasion
o It created the need for political unity in India which saw the emergence of
Chandragupta Maurya and his descendants who united the India under their
rule.

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o As a result of Alexander’s invasion, Indo- Bacterian and Indo-Parthian states

were set in India which influenced Indian architecture, coinage and
astronomy.

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