Module 4 - Environmental Protection

Lesson 16 - Forestry Protection, Conservation and

Development

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: a.
define and internalize concepts of urban forestry.
b. appreciate the benefits derived the urban forestry.
c. Identify what urban forestry does to the environment.
d. equip with the basic laws governing urban forestry.
e. select appropriate species for urban parks.
f. Internalized the general prescriptions / requirements for urban greening.
g. able to recommended plant species for planting.

Introduction

Urban Forestry in the Philippines can be traced back over a hundred years ago as manifested
by the remnants of so many century -old trees that once marked the streets and parks of so many
old cities especially of old Manila and highly urbanized municipalities and provinces. How these
big old trees are carefully lined and aesthetically arranged in parks, roadsides and other places
indicate system used which is, no doubt, the basis of today’s system and practices. The principles
behind the establishment, cultivation and management of these various plants forms and species
fall under a specialized “branch” of forestry called Urban Forestry.

Sometimes, the term urban forestry is used interchangeably with Urban Greening which is
basically the process of planting trees and other ornamentals plants such as palm/bamboos, shrubs,
vines ferns, grasses and other vegetative ground covers. Therefore, urban greening is actually the
application or practice of urban forestry.

KEY CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

What is Urban Forestry?

Urban Forestry is a specialized ‘branch’ of forestry that deals with the cultivation and
management of trees and other plants forms for their present and potential contribution to the
physiological, ecological, aesthetic and economic well- being of urban society. In simpler terms,
it is the introduction of trees, shrubs, vines, herbs, grass and animal life singly, wholly or in

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combination that will blend and enhance the aesthetic value of the environment, safeguard the
populace from various forms of hazards and for productive purposes.

The Master Plan for Forestry Development of the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (1990) defines Urban Forestry as:

• The establishment and management of forests in urban environments for the physiological
and psychological well- being of the people.
• A deliberate process of cultivating trees, shrubs, or ornamental plants to affect the effects
of pollution and at the same time provide aesthetic and scenic surroundings in an otherwise
drab and dreary landscape of concrete and steel structures, asphalt roads, walks parking
lots, and shanties along railroad tracks;
• A forest park, a nature center, a green belt, a boulevard lined with trees or flowering plants
or even coconuts; a street with trees and other plants in the island or sidewalks; and vacant
lot planted to trees and other green plants, a school or hospital or a factory yard with trees;
or
• A greening movement a people – oriented forestry designed to raise the quality of the
environment of the people in Urban centers.

In Metro Manila, urban forests include urban parks, thoroughfares, islands, boulevards, and
other areas planted to trees and other plants. They are mostly viewed as man-made urban parks.
The Luneta Parks, the Ninoy Aquino Parks and Wildlife Center and the Nayong Pilipino are
examples of Urban forests.

The Concept of Urban forestry

How did Urban Forestry originate?

The term Urban Forestry is derived from two – urban which carries the characteristics of a
city; and forestry which carries the characteristics of a forest. Since a forest is an association of
plants predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, one may wonder how a forest will ever
exist in a city because foremost in his mind is a jungle teeming with trees, vines, shrubs and
possibly a roaring wild bar and tweeting birds roaming around in wild abandon. Truly, the city like
the Metropolitan Manila and Metro Cebu, among others, is not anymore a jungle teeming with
plants and animals but a jungle of cement and asphalt, of buildings, and of millions of people
scampering for space and fresh air to breath. Progress has its price and it is always in the form of
environmental degradation. Metro Manila suffers the most among the progressive urban centers
of the Philippines.

It is therefore for the serious issues mentioned above that Urban Forestry was conceived.
The concept is influenced largely by the purposes wherein its various segments are intended to
serve such as for shade and aesthetic. And the city dwellers find it very important. The trees provide
shade, beauty, and a long list of other benefits. In most cases, these benefits are taken for granted
attributed to the urban dwellers lack of basic knowledge on the uses and importance of trees in
environmental amelioration.

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History of Urban Forestry in the Philippines

 1988 – President Corazon C. Aquino issued Memorandum Oder No. 198 establishing the
Metro Greening Program and known as the “Luntiang Kamaynilaan” Program.
 1989 – The “Hardin ng Bayan” was conceptualized. It was primarily created to transform
Metro Manila into a four (4) persons per tree for the more 8 million Metro Manilans.
Subsequently, the first “Hardin ng Bayan” was inaugurated in the Freedom Park, Makati.
 1992 – President Fidel V. Ramos launched the Clean and Green Program thru
Memorandum Circular No.5
 1993 – President Fidel V. Ramos also launched the Ecological Revolution (EcoRev 9398).
Executive Order No. 199 was also issued directing all government offices and agencies to
adopt a street/park nationwide in all urban centers and assume the responsibility of
greening them.
 1993 – The Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) launched their
nationwide tree planting drive mobilized millions of grade and high school students from
more than 33,000 public and private schools throughout the country.
 1988 – Secretary Antonio H. Cerilles launched the Let’s Go Green Program with the
component projects such as OPLAN SAGIP PUNO and the Green Scout Movement.
 Issuances related to Environmental Protection- P.D 953 which require planting of trees and
other plants in certain places and penalizing and unauthorized cutting, destruction,
damaging and injuring of trees, plants and vegetation.

Benefits derived from Urban Forestry

A lot of benefits can be derived from the introduction of forest in Urban communities. In
general, it makes the city environment a better place to live in. Benefits include: modification of
temperature, protection from wind, erosion control, watershed protection, abates, noise, protection
from gas and particulate pollutants, control glares and reflection of solar radiation, screens
objectionable views from the landscapes like junkyards and slums; and privacy control which
secludes a particular area from its surrounding. Raw materials derived from the wood is also
beneficial.

With all these benefits, there is really a need to establish urban forest to improve
physiological, sociological and economic well-being of the urban society. The various benefits
that can be derived from Urban Forestry may be grouped under the following categories.

1. Climatic Amelioration
2. Engineering uses
3. Architectural uses
4. Aesthetic uses

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Climatic Amelioration. Trees, shrubs and grass ameliorates air temperature by controlling solar
radiation. Leaves of trees intercept, reflect, absorb and transmit solar radiation.

Trees and other vegetation also aid in ameliorating summer air temperature through
evapotranspiration. Trees have been called natures “air conditioner “. Single isolated tree may
transpire approximately 400 liters of water per day to which is comparable to 5 air conditioners
each with a capacity of 2500 kw/hr. running 20 hours’ day.

Architectural Uses. Trees and shrubs can be used to perform the following functions: space
articulation, screening, privacy control and anticipation enhancement.

Aesthetic Uses. Trees and shrubs in frame views soften architectural lines, enhance and
complement architectural elements unify divergent elements and introduce a naturalness to
otherwise stark setting.

Engineering Uses. Trees and plants are also used in solving environmental engineering problems
involving not only landscaping but also for soil erosion, air pollution, noise abatement, traffic
control and glare and reflection reduction.

How Trees Abate Pollution

Particulate air pollutants are reduced by the presence of trees and other plants in several ways.
They aid in the removal of airborne particulates such as sand, dust fly ash, pollen and smoke.
Leaves, branches, stems and their associated surface structures tend to trap particles that are later
washed by precipitation. Trees also aid in the removal of airborne particulate matter by air
washing. Transpiration increases humidity thus adding in the setting out of airborne particles.

How Trees Abate Noise

Excessive or unwanted noise are pollutants often referred to as the “Invisible pollution”. Noise
involves both physical and physiological effects. The physical effects deal with transmission of
sound waves through the air, while the physiological effects involve the human response to sound.
Sound waves are absorbed by the leaves, branches and twigs of trees and shrubs. These plant parts
are light and flexible. Properly planted trees and shrubs can reduce sound waves by as much as
50%.

How Trees Help in Traffic Control

Trees and plants besides being used to enhance beauty in an area in a definite pattern can be used
to direct or channel vehicular, pedestrian and animal traffic.

How Trees Abate Glare or Control Reflection

In Metro Manila we are surrounded by a myriad of shinning surfaces such as glass, steel,
aluminum, concrete and water all capable of reflecting light. During daytime we experience
discomfort when the sun`s ray is reflected towards us by these surfaces. At night, we experience
the same discomfort with glare from automobile headlights, streetlights, buildings and advertising

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signs. Plants can be used to soften and screen glares by proper placement of trees and shrubs on
center islands and side streets around terraces, patios and windows to protect driver vision.

What forestry does to the environment

 Trees contribute positively to the urban environment by providing green space screening
and habitat for urban wildlife. They help to ameliorate noise and air pollution. They
contribute to modify urban microclimate, add values to urban properties and provide
aesthetic enhancement to what could otherwise be a total asphalt and arid environment.
 Trees may contribute up to 25% of the value of unimproved land suitable for housing
development and up to 12% of the value of half-acre properties with houses (Driver and
Rosenthel, 1978).
 Trees can modify the urban micro-climate by (1) their shading effect; (2) increasing
longwave radiation; (3) reducing wind speed; (4) intercepting rain; (5) cooling the air by
evapotranspiration; and (6) possibly raising the humidity of the air.
 Vegetation can also help conserve energy. Strategically placed shade trees around small
homes can significantly decrease energy required for space cooling up to 80%. In hot
climate areas, reduction in wind velocity and air infiltration rates by vegetation may
produce additional energy savings. Windbreaks lessen heating energy needs by lowering
air infiltration rates. However, such is only adequate under conditions when air infiltration
is controlled at least in part by wind pressure forces. Research reveals that properly located
windbreak plantings may reduce energy requirements for heating houses by 10 to 25%
annually and by over 50% for cooing where houses are shaded.
 Narrow dense belts of trees are effective barriers to noise. The principal mechanism of
insertion loss in vegetative barriers is acoustic scattering by the holes and large branches
and acoustic absorption by the porous ground.
 Planting for noise abatement requires more land that is not available in many urban
location, although trees are efficacious screens against noise if sufficient space is available.
Trees and other vegetation in combination with constructed noise barriers may offer noise
relief. Aesthetic and other non-physical benefits must be considered as justification for
urban trees.
 The primary way that vegetation removes gases from the atmosphere is the uptake through
the stomates. Uptake by plant surface and bark pores and adsorption of gases to the surface
of plant parts also contribute.
 Small branches were found to be more efficient particle collectors than large branches,
pollutants are absorbed most efficiently by plant foliage near the canopy surface where
light mediated metabolic and pollutant diffusivity rates are greatest.
 Aesthetically, trees and shrubs provide their own inherent beauty in all settings. They
enframe views, soften architectural lines, enhance and complement architectural elements,
unify divergent elements and introduce naturalness to otherwise stark settings. They
provide movement and pleasant sounds the rustling of leaves and the whistling of wind
through the canopy. In addition, plants augment our aesthetic enjoyment by enhancing the
environment in which our urban wildlife live.
 Trees and shrubs are important in the hydrologic cycle. They intercept precipitation and
slow its descent to the soil surface, interception of rainfall by conifers (40%) is greater than
the hardwoods (20%) because leaf structure of conifers enables better entrapment of water

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droplets. This can increase in infiltration and decrease runoff and soil erosion. They may
also reduce soil moisture evaporation.
 Economic benefits both direct and indirect can be realized from urban forests. The direct
benefits include increased property values while the indirect benefits involve increase
income when such amenity resources help attract new industry.
 It is a common practice to place higher valuation on subdivided land if the development
includes or is near a part or other public green areas. The market value`s often 15-20%
higher. Other studies found that the presence of trees in developed residential lot
contributed to 12% and up to 25% of the estimated market value in undeveloped land.

Target Areas for Urban Forest Development

The following areas may be targeted for planting:

1. Parks
These include provincial, city, municipal, and barangay public parks, playgrounds, and
other areas devoted to public recreation. Most parks are publicly owned and managed by local
government units, while others are on private areas owned by churches, industries, and other
institutions and organizations.
The arrangement of trees and shrubs has to follow the rules of modern landscaping as an
“expressive, harmonious, and refine imitation of nature” (Dawning, 1859 as cited by Agapaoa et
al., 1975). Emphasis is on group planting with irregular spacing. The relative position of the
individual trees and shrubs has to be varied as much as possible. There may be single trees
neighboring small groups of the same species, but an intimate mixing of single trees and shrubs of
different species has to be discouraged. If the space is limited, mainly shrubs and only a few trees
should be chosen.

2. Street Right-of-Way
These are strips adjacent to streets between divided boulevards which are often called trees lawns,
pathways or parking strips. They vary in width and often provide space for sidewalks. There is
usually space for a single row of trees, shrubs and other landscape design features.
The most suitable forms of trees for street side situation include oval, round, upright oval and
irregular as compared to pyramidal and weeping forms. Pyramidal and weeping forms occupy
space often needed for vehicular and pedestrian movements as well as create visual obstructions.
Pyramidal form can be used only in some instances to reduce glare and provide visual screen
because of their low and dense characteristics.
The size of trees in these areas should be small (less than 10m) and medium (10-20m). It is not
advisable to use large trees because of the presence of overhanging electric lines and observed
breakage in sidewalks and curbs, obstruct views and create traffic hazards.

3. Public Buildings and Grounds

Grounds adjacent top public buildings such as schools, colleges, hospitals, auditoriums,
museum, penal institutions and courthouses are important parts of the urban forest. It also includes
military installations, cemeteries, airports, golf courses and nurseries which are managed by the

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government. The development of these public grounds is similar with that of the parks and street
right-of-way.

4. Extraterritorial Lands
The urban forest often goes beyond the populated limits of the city. Shelterbelts, groves,
forest reserves and even vegetated landfills are part of the urban forest. These forests provide
watershed protection, recreation, scenery, place for the disposal of waste products and the source
of raw materials for community use.
In the protection and improvement of watershed areas, broad-leaved and deciduous tree
species are most preferable. Broad-leaved trees protect the soil from splash erosion due to greater
leaf interception area. The use of deciduous species however has something to do with the amount
of water loss from the watersheds. Deciduous species consume less water for transpiration during
the dry season than evergreen species.

In the development of shelterbelts, shrubs should be approximately 65% and 35% for trees,
which further subdivided into 15% tall and 20% medium sized tree. The seedlings are planted in
groups of 2-7 plants of the same species and large trees are planted in small clusters and small
trees and shrubs in larger groups. The most effective is a mixture of medium to tall trees in the
center and small trees and shrubs on the outside of the belt so that the shelterbelt assume a
triangular cross-section.

5. Riparian Areas
These areas refer to riverfronts, canals, channel diversions, lakeshores and even seashores,
which are also part of the urban forest. These are often developed as areas for recreation, greenbelts
and open spaces within cities. The development of these areas usually is similar with that of parks
and other recreational areas.

6. Private Lands
Private lands refer to all kinds of residential, commercial and industrial lands which are
also target for urban forest development. Contribution of private land area to urban forests depend
upon the size and available space and the extent of the tree planting conducted by the owner. The
development of private lands is mainly dependent on the purpose of the owner towards the land.

Characteristics of Tree Species for Urban Forest Development

Species for urban plantings must be properly selected. These must have the capacity to
withstand the harsh condition of the urban areas. According to Collins (1978) the target species
for urban plantings should have the following qualities:

a. The capacity to grow and develop within the assigned space limitations.
b. Resistant to pests and diseases.
c. Adaptable to the existing and expected environmental stresses of the site.
d. It is culturally a low maintenance species.
e. It has satisfactory growth rate.

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f. Ability to fill the functional use in the urban areas as buffer, shade, shelter, and
aesthetics.
g. It has reasonably effective lifespan.
h. It has acceptable percentage survival that normally occur after transplanting or
planting.

Some Species Suitable for Urban Planting

Species for urban plantings should be suitable to the planting site and at the same time can
provide social and ecological benefits to urban areas:

Some of the common trees, shrubs, and palms that are adaptable to a variety of climate and
soil conditions in the urban areas are as follows:

1. Trees with bright colors

Bottle brush (Callistemon lanceolata)
Banaba (Largerstroemi speciosa)*
Dapdap (Erythrina orientalis)*
Fire tree (Delonix Regia)*
African Tulip (Spathodea campanulata)
Golden shower (Cassia fistula) *
Anchoan dilao (Cassia spectabili) Thailand
shower (Cassia siamea)

2. Trees with beautiful foliage or needles

Norfolk pine (Araucaria excelsa)
Japanese cypress (Cryptomeria japonica) Agoho
(Casuarina equisetifolia)
Silky oak (Grevillea robusta)
Buri Palm (Corypha elata)
Bunga or Betelnut palm (Areca cathecu)
Pugahas (Caryota cumingii)
Royal palm (Roystonia regina)

3. Shrubs with bright flowers or colorful foliage

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima)
Gumamela (Hibiscus spp.)
Yellow bell (Solandra hartwegii)*

Other species observed to be performing well in the urban environment are:

1. Rain tree (Samanea saman)

2. Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla)
3. Manila palm ( Vietchai merrillii)
4. Narra (Pterocarpus indicus)

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5. Rubber tree (Hevea brasilliensis)

6. Star apple (Chrysophyllum cainito)
7. Talisai (Terminalia catappa)
8. Japanese acacia (Acacia auriculiformis)
9. Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala)
10. Yemane (elina arborea)
11. Adelfa (Neriu oleander)
12. Nangka (Artocarpus heterophylla)
13. Neem (Azadirachta indica)
14. Mango (Mangifera spp.)
15. Duhat (Syzgium cuminii)
16. Macopa (Syzgium samaragense)
17. Camachile (Pithecollbium dulce)
18. Datiles (Muntingia calabura)
19. Tambis (Syzgium equeum)
20. Indian tree

CASE STUDY

OPLAN SAGIP PUNO

Trees in the urban areas like the Metro Manila are subjected to all kinds of environmental
hazards. Trees, if not cut, suffers from natural and man-made destruction which cause the reduction
in their natural life spans. A tree that would live 80 years in the forest is expected to live less in
the urban areas.
The project, OPLAN SAGIP PUNO, aims to raise the level of awareness of Metro Manila
residents on the urgent need to save damaged and injured growing trees and to identify all kinds
of trees that need to be treated and saved. It was first launched at the PHIL-AM LIFE Subdivision,
Quezon City and highlighted by the signing of the Memorandum of Agreement. After its
successful implementation, a seminar workshop was conducted for DENR, MMDA, Philippine
Safety College and LGUs to equip them to the basic knowledge and skills on the tree surgery and
other silvicultural treatments and practices. Thus, a replication of the project is in the works in
other urban areas in Davao and Cebu.

COMMON IDENTIFIED DEFECTS AND ABNORMALITES OF TRESS IN METRO

MANILA

 Cavities
 Injury by Root curling
 Gas Poisoning
 Catface/Scars
 Abnormality Formed Due to Nails
 Injuries and Defects Inflicted by Man

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 Injuries Caused by Bumps of Reckless Drivers

OBJECTIVES OF THE OPLAN SAGIP PUNO PROGRAM

 Undertake measures to save trees instead of cutting/burning them

 Undertake inventory/assessment of all living trees in Metro Manila particularly those
injured and/or diseases trees in major thoroughfares, parks and sidewalks that need to
be treated and saved.
 Encourage the participation of all stakeholders (LGUs, NGOs, civic clubs, religious
groups and POs) in technical training/seminars of saving trees to serve as counterparts
in their respective areas.
 Provide inputs for a master plan for urban greening to identify appropriate planting sites
and right trees and plants species needed.

BENEFITS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE RPOGRAM

This program will sustain the sustain the existence and improve the life span of trees so
that residents and the general public will continue to enjoy fresh, clean air, shade and
recreational value of trees. Saving and protecting the trees will lessen the burden of spending
more for replanting and in the maintenance of existing growing trees.

General Prescriptions/Requirements for Greening

Everybody is encouraged to grow trees in cities. Greening the metropolis should be part of
our commitment. The following are recommended general prescriptions/requirements for a more
successful implementation or the urban greening activities.

1. Conservation of existing flora

Unless it is necessary existing flora especially trees must be conserved in any development
activity in private or public area. Replacement of trees found not suitable to the area shall be
removed gradually so as not to create adverse impact on the microclimate of the area.

2. For all lands in Metro Manila

Whenever possible it is highly recommended that all lands whether private or public must
allocate 30% of the area as green spaces. In addition, the existing laws and regulations on zoning
should be properly observed and that all construction of buildings and structures must be set back
at least 2.0 meters from the boundary to the edge eaves of the roof or the edge of the floor
whichever is larger. The setback line must be turfed or landscaped or planted with trees wherever
possible. Planting verge/planter of at least 2.0 meters wide must be provided along all buildings.
For commercial areas landscaped promenades would enhance the environment within the
commercial district.

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3. For water bodies

This refers to water courses such as rivers, canals, streams, drains, lakes, esteros reservoir
and ponds. Easement of water bodies must be freed from any form of development that do not
conform with the greening objectives. Development of water bodies can be in the form of:
a. Constructing promenade along the banks;
b. Greening the banks by encouraging the growth of plants in perforated slabs or similar
materials;
c. Landscaping of the area with flowering plants and infrastructure like railings benches;
d. Hard surfaces around water bodies such as concrete walls, stones, bricks, etc. should
be camouflaged with greenery; and
e. Drainage canal can be covered and converted into a landscaped promenade.

4. As screen for unsightly areas

Unsightly areas such as workshops, storage areas, bin centers, substation, power houses,
etc. within land parcels, private or public can be screened to a height of at least 2.0 meters with
trees, palms, hedges and other appropriate plants.

5. Screening of Walls
All walls can be screened from sight to a height of at least 2.0 meters with trees, palms,
hedges, creepers, or climbers whichever is appropriate to the land. A planting strip of at least 30mm
must be provided for screening purposes. Boundary walls should not exceed 1.8 meters in height
and if the boundary wall is solid it should not exceed 2.8 meters.

6. For car parks

All open car parks whether public or private can be planted with trees with a wide crown
to provide shade. Aeration slabs covering 35% of the entire area can be provided and turfed with
grasses. All the void areas can also be planted to maintain aeration, drainage and greenery. The
trees must be properly spaced and provided with tree guards to prevent damage from careless
drivers.

7. For roadside planting

Generally, almost all roads in Metro Manila are not provided with green spaces for
planting. Even sidewalks are occupied illegally for other purposes, mostly vendors. Roads are also
subjected most often than not to widening or renovation. It is then highly suggested that the
following be undertaken or be incorporated in the development planning.

a. Provision of planting verge for the planting of shade and ornamental trees which are
properly turfed or landscaped.
b. Where there is insufficient land along narrow roads to accommodate planting verges,
at least one side of the road should be provided to maintain greenery and shade.
c. Center islands with the widths of more than 2 meters can be planted with shade trees
and trees with colorful flowers. All center islands can also be turfed or landscaped.
However, if there are possible expansion to ease heavy traffic in the future, think shrubs
can be planted and can be easily removed in case of road widening.

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d. An avenue of single species of usually smaller trees should be planted along short roads
and streets. For roads such as expressways, highways, etc. species of bigger trees
should be varied at least every kilometer to provide visual variety during long distances
travels and to prevent potential epidemic attacks of pests or diseases. Palms can be
substituted for small trees when there is insufficient depth to support the standard
requirement for small trees.
e. All trees planted along roadsides should have a characteristics of high branching of at
least 5.0 meters’ clear trunk.
f. Small trees can also be planted along roads which are close to buildings or congested
with overhead services to reduce the necessity of constant pruning of branches.
g. Tree positions on one side of the road should be as far as possible and alternate with
those on the other side.
h. Trees should be planted 1 meter away from the road curb; 6 meters away from lamp
posts and 6 meters away from traffic signs.

8. For special planting places and other hard surfaces

a. Overpasses and flyovers can be screened with plants from the ground to at least 2.0
meters in height with built-in planters from the sides
b. Planting areas should be required below overpasses and flyovers including staircases
to allow the growth of climbing plants and creepers. All structures below deck level
should have rough finish to facilitate the growth of creepers.
c. Where it may not be practical to existing overpasses and flyovers to be treated with a
rough finish, a mesh structure should be constructed around the columns to allow for
the climbing of climbers.
d. Ground soil should be provided around columns, staircase. etc. for planting to soften
the visual impact of the structure.
e. Whenever possible the space under the structure should be covered with soil, at least
turfed or provided with plants in planters.
f. Where possible the DPWH, DOTC and other agencies responsible in the construction
of overpasses, flyovers, etc. should be requested to include built-in planters that can
accommodate trees, palms, and other plants in the design before the construction.
g. Where it is applicable all planted areas should incorporate means of aeration and
selfwatering system from rainwater channeled from roof gutter to planting through.

9. For plazas, walkways, pedestrians, promenades

a. All plazas, whether public or private, should incorporate provisions for tree planting.
Trees planted must have an aeration of 20 square meters with an area of 1.5 meters by
1.5 meters around the roof collar and it must also be turfed.
b. Besides tree planting and landscaping, amenities such as footpaths, park shelters, park
lightings, play equipment, etc are to be provided and maintained in all public plazas
parks. hnh
c. Walkways of at least 2.0 meters wide should be provided for all plazas, parks and prom
enade areas. Aeration slabs should be used to construct walkways that are not pre-

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casmmted or treated with architectural finishes. And as in car parks, all the gaps and
joints slabs should be turfed, whenever possible.
d. Pedestrian lanes should be provided with aeration slabs or railings to protect green
areas, which are frequently damaged by pedestrian traffic.
e. Promenades developed within commercial district and waterfronts can greatly enhance
the environment. The width should be at least 8.0 meters wide and planting verges of
at least 2.0 to 4.0 meters should be provided along both sides if the promenades.

10. For planters/planting troughs

a. The use of planters or planting troughs is necessary when it is not possible to plant
directly on the ground.
b. The size of the planters/planting troughs should be proportional to the type of planting
materials to be planted.
c. Large planters with at least 1.0-meter internal width and 1.2 meters’ internal depth are
ideal for small trees and palms.
d. Planters with minimum internal depth and width of 5.0 meter are ideal for shrubs.
e. Planters with at least 0.2-meter internal depth and width are for creepers.
f. A drainage system must be provided for planting troughs. This system is basically a
perfected overflow pipe laid along the span of the planting trough to channel water to
the nearest drainage outlets.

Bagayan J.L. and R. L. Baggayan Jr. (1995) Guide to Urban Forest Development and
Management. Vol. 6 No. 7 Ecosystems Research & Development Service. Region 7, Banilad,
Mandaue City.

Denr. 2003 (Reprint). Urban Greening Primer. DENR, National Capital Region, Congressional
Plaza Bldg., Congressional Avenue, Quezon City.

Driver, B.L., D. Rosenthal and G. Peterson. (1978) Social Benefits of Urbana Forests and
Related Green Space in Cities. In: Proceedings of National Urban Forestry Conference. Vol.
2. Washington D.C. pp. 98-113.

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Grey, G.W. And F.J. Deneke. (1993) Urban Forestry. John Wiley & Sons. Consultancy
Services of the Urban Forestry Project for Metro Manila, Philippines. Vol. 3.

Environmental Modules for Project ECOCORPS. Department of Environment and Natural

Resources and Philippine Association of Tertiary Level Education, Institutions in
Environmental Protection and Management.

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Lesson 17 - Water Resource Management, Sanitation

and Conservation

Learning Objectives
At the end of the session, students are expected to:
1. internalize the importance of water resources to life;
2. acquire clear understanding the “tragedy of the commons” as a contrast to sustainable
development;
3. recognize the necessity of water conservation and prevention of water pollution to our
various water sources.

Learning Content
Increasing pressures from population and economic activities continued to take their toll
on the country’s coastal waters. While there have been noted improvements in some areas which
have been the subject of intense rehabilitation efforts by both government and the private sectors
alike.

Safe water supply and environmental sanitation are two important factors in the prevention of
diseases, improvement of living conditions and enhancement of the environment. Without these,
people, particularly the poor and disadvantaged, are more prone to infectious diseases such as
diarrhea, hepatitis, typhoid, schistosomiasis and other ailments brought about by contaminated
drinking water, poor personal hygiene and environmental sanitation.

Human settlements, industry and agriculture have considerable polluted both inland and coastal
waters. Domestic sewage still contributes approximately 52% of the pollution loads while the
industry contributes the remaining 48%. This continuing pollution could seriously compromise the
country’s water resources’ potential for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses.

The role of the state and the Filipino people to mitigate water pollution is equally important as our
adherence to the cause of improving out air quality or the resolve to implement an ecologically-
sound solid waste management.
Thus, a concrete action plan, especially from the academe, is being called for. The role of the
academe in this endeavor is essential in effecting the paradigm shift and the further promotion of
environmental literacy among the generation that will eventually inherit the earth.

Sources of Freshwater

Fresh water is one of those very-important-but-often-taken-for-granted things that we can’t

live without. Its specific uses are far too many to count, and there’s just no easy way to accurately

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quantify value in our lives. The sad truth, however, is that human activities continue to threaten
both the quality and abundance of water resources worldwide. To raise awareness on the need to
protect and properly manage this valuable resource, the United Nations General Assembly has
proclaimed year 2003 as the International Year of Freshwater.

In our country, we receive on the average some of 1.8m of good quality rain water – on a
yearly basis. Although Nature takes 50% for its own purpose and people cannot for irrigation. On
the other hand, domestic use for drinking, cooking, washing clothes, and sanitation accounts for
only about 8 percent.

Industry is the second largest user guzzling up to 23 percent of annual water withdrawals.
Again, the averages typically vary a great deal among countries. Industrial water consumption is
actually as high as 59% in the developed countries and only about 8 percent in low-income
countries. Companies from various industry sectors use Freshwater is also indispensable as cooling
water, and it is valuable for electric power generation. Just as farms and households need a clean
water supply, industries certainly can’t operate without access to enough freshwater.

Overall, it is estimated that we are already using more than half-specifically 54 percent of
the freshwater in the world. As the number of people continues to rise and as industrial output and
agricultural production are increased to supply the needs of this growing population, experts say
that humans could be using more than 70 percent of all available freshwater by 2025. The big
challenge is in how to meet the world’s rising water requirements with the available water supply.

Issues in Water Resources Management

The estimated national water resource potential is 226,430 MCM. Of this, 91 percent comes
from surface water and 9 percent from groundwater. Demand for water is less than one third of the
renewable water available nationally. Yet in 1995, as national water crisis was declared to address
the increasing water resources management challenge. Problems include the lack of
comprehensive and cross-sectoral strategy for development and protection of water resources;
fragmented water management; weak law enforcement and inadequate water resources data on
which to base rational planning and development.

1. Water problems…. As it is, due primarily to geographical and climatic factors, water
scarcity now affects some 450 million people in 29 countries. Eventually, however, as the demand
for water continues to expand, severe water shortages will extend to many other countries, not just
those in arid regions. The UN estimates that about 5.5 million people or as much as two-thirds of
the world’s populations is in danger of facing inadequate water supplies by 2025.

The problem on water scarcity is made worse by the destruction of natural ecosystems that
are vital for the replenishment of freshwater supplies. Portions of many rivers and lakes are now
drying up for most of the year as a result of human abuses. Marshes, swamps, and other freshwater
wetlands are also being converted into aquaculture farms or drained to create additional farmlands.
What’s more, water supplies are falling retrieved the rest with 100% efficiency, Cebu Island could

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supply 30 million people. Imagine on Cebu, 10 people for every person you see there today. The
quality of rain water is excellent. Thus, when there are problems, then they are related to the
availability. Or they are caused by man-man pollution. The third item (volume) is beyond our
powers; volume depends on area and rainfall.

In our climate, we seldom experience a steady rain. Rain nearly always comes in showers.
In this way, we have twice as much rain and twice the hours of sunshine than in Europe. We even
have a dry season, very much expressed in Ilocos, not so extreme anymore. But according to our
memory, the river that we had known from our childhood, we always had water. With such
irregular rain, how is it possible that the rivers had water? The answer is simple. Nature had draped
a spongy layer over our hills and mountains. That porous material quickly absorbed much water
and very slowly released it again. So the river had water, even days or weeks after the last rain.
We know the absorbing layer and we even may have seen it: loose soil covered with thick forest.

Groundwater is our storage for the dry season. This storage is made and maintained by
nature. With water covering over 70 percent of Earth’s surface, it certainly seems like there should
not be a problem at all in water supply. But as you well know, most of it (up to 97 percent) is in
the oceans, too salty to be used for anything. By some cruel twist of fate, over 99 percent of the
small fraction of freshwater in the world is locked up in glaciers and ice sheets. An additional
percentage exists as groundwater that is too deep and too expensive to extract.

Only a tiny volume of the water in the world is easily accessible to us as freshwater in
rivers, lakes, and underground aquifers. This limited supply is not evenly distributed among and
within countries. Some, particularly Iceland and Canada, have abundant water resource, while a
number of regions including the Middle East and North Africa experience chronic water shortages.
According to the UN’s World Water Assessment Programme, the main use of water
worldwiderepresenting nearly 70 percent of all freshwater for human use is revenue water ranges
from 30 percent for some of the Water Districts to 55 percent for areas served by the Metropolitan
Water Sewerage System (MWSS)

2. Groundwater extraction rising - The percent production of groundwater in the

Philippines is estimated at about 2,518 MCM/year. As much as 65 percent of groundwater
abstraction may be carried out without the required permit. Furthermore, with no metering system
in place and no effective monitoring, those with permits generally withdraw 20-60 percent more
than their allowable levels. Only 6 percent of those monitored are found to be in compliance with
their permit restrictions. In additions, abstraction for use is controlled and requires no permit from
the government.

Increasing groundwater use and declining aquifer recharge rates have led to saline intrusion
(in Metro Manila and Metro Cebu) and pollution of groundwater from domestic sewage, factory
wastes and agriculture chemicals.

3. Watershed management - Watersheds comprise about 70 percent of the country’s total

land area –covering 421 river basins, of which 18 are considered major. The drainage areas of

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these watersheds range from 5,000 to 2.5 million hectares. Many of the major basins are now
considered in critical condition due to over-exploitation and mismanagement. Their degradation
has resulted in accelerated soil erosions, surface drought and other imbalances in the ecosystem.
There are 119 watersheds covering, 1.36 M hectares that have been proclaimed as watershed
reservations. However, most of these watersheds are subject to various forms of cultivation and
settlement and are actually considered degraded.

4. Coastal and Marine Resources - The Philippines marine territorial waters cover about
2.2 million square kilometers – including the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 1.9 million
square kilometers (88 percent) of ocean waters and 267,000 square kilometers (12percent) of
coastal waters. About 55 percent of the population resides in some 10,000 coastal barangay and
large urban centers. The coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves support 80 percent of all
commercial species of fish and shellfish.

5. Coral reefs in poor conditions - The Philippines has one of the largest coral reef areas in
the world-covering about 27,000 square kilometers. Nearly one third of all fish species live on the
reefs, while others are dependent on them and on seagrass beds at various stages in their life cycles.
Almost 55 percent of fish consumed in the country depends on coral reefs. It is estimated that 10-
15 percent of total marine fisheries production is contributed by coral reefs. Despite their
importance, the latest inventory shows that only 4. 3 percent of the reefs are in excellence condition
due to the denudation of watersheds, land areas that absorb rainfall and deliver water into rivers
and lakes.
To further complicate the situation, human activities are severely degrading the quality of
freshwater. About half of the world’s 500 major rivers are now seriously polluted, and state of the
world’s lakes isn’t any better. Although agricultural runoff and domestic wastes are said to be
responsible for most water contamination, the contribution of industries is significant as well. By
regularly discharging tons of organic substances and toxic materials into bodies of water, a single
industrial firm can do more damage than 50 farms or a hundred households.

As a result of these problems, did you know the one-fifth of the world’s freshwater fish
species are presently threatened with extinction? Did you know that half of the world’s wetlands
have already been lost, with most of the destruction taking place over the past 50 years? Were you
aware that all rivers running through Asian cities are badly polluted?

The impact of poor water quality is particularly severe on human health. The statistics were
staggering. The UN points out that up to 2.3 billion people worldwide are affected by water- related
diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, malaria and dysentery. More than 5 million, most of them
children, die each year from diarrhea and other infections ailments spread is very serious in poor
countries due mainly to the lack of safe water supplies and proper sanitation facilities.

6. Water demand growing rapidly - Water demand nationwide is expected to grow from
43.000 MCM/year in 2000 to 88, 400 MCM/year by 2025. In Metro Manila, water demand for all
users increased by over 200 percent between 1981 and 1997, from 2,000 to 4,100 million liters/day.
This is projected to grow by 23 percent to 5,000 MLD by 2001. Based on 1996 data, Metro Manila

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water supply in 1996 was 2,500 MLD compared to a demand of 3, 400 MLD. In 1995, the Metro
Cebu Water District was only able to serve 36 percent of total demand. In Baguio City, about 80
percent of service connections are provided with water on a four-hour thrice a week schedule only.
The water “supply-demand” mismatch is often due to lack of infrastructure.

7. Agricultures use dominates - Agriculture accounts for 86 percent of water use, while
industrial and domestic usage are limited to 7 percent each. In the agriculture sector, irrigation is
the biggest water user, accounting for 72. 6 percent of total water (25,000 MCM in 1996) The
fishery sub-sector accounts for 27 percent while livestock / poultry accounts for under 0.5 percent.
Irrigation systems serve about 15M hectares, or 48 percent of the irrigable areas that produce about
70 percent of all rice in the country. Only 1.2 percent of this comes from the groundwater.

8. Access to water supply varies - One study reported that as of 1995, 72 percent of all
Filipino were served by a public water system, with 68 percent in Urban areas and 75 percent in
rural areas. However, service levels vary greatly. It is estimated that non the population of the
Philippines as of May 1, 2000 is roughly 76.5 M persons. This represents an increase of 11.5
percent from the 1995 census count of 68.6 million persons. The populations grew at the rate of
2.36 percent annually between 1995 and 2000 which is slightly higher than one growth rate during
the nineties (2.34 percent). The Southern Tagalog is the most populated region of the country
closely followed by the National Capital Region. However, the NCR remains the most densely
populated region with 15, 617 persons occupying a sq. km. of land. This man-land ratio is 61
times the national figure of 225 persons per sq. km. The other five most densely populated regions
are Central Luzon (Region III), Central Visayas (Region VII), Ilocos (Region I), Western Visayas
(Region VI) and Bicol (Region V)

The country’s economic profile is largely the agricultural sector with an estimated
employment of 40%. Agricultural products include rice, corn, sugarcane, coconut, bananas,
pineapples, mangoes, pork, eggs, beef and fish. With respect to the industries, there are about
15,000 manufacturing firms in the Philippines mostly located in Metro Manila. The main
manufacturing industries are textiles mills, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, wood products, food
processing, electronics assembly and petroleum refining.

Sources of Water Pollution

Water pollutants generally come from the five sources. These are:
1. domestic sewage,
2. industrial wastewater,
3. agricultural run-off,

4. storm–water run-off and

5. naturally- occurring sources.

These water pollutants can be either be point or on-point sources. Point source pollution
is defined as those entering the entering environment from a fixed source. Water pollutants of point

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sources are more manageable because these are normally concentrated limited to a few points and
can be treated prior to discharge. Non-point sources are those which continuously deposit
extraneous materials into watercourses from a widely spread area.

Domestic sewage is defined as wastewater discharged from residential commercial,

institutional, recreational and industrial facilities where wastes are generated through the use of
dining facilities, shower rooms and toilets. Commercial sources are hotels, restaurants and malls,
while institutional sources are hospitals and schools. Sewage from industrial sources of wastewater
because such facilities employ large number of employees.

Industrial wastewater, a principal example of a point source, is discharged by industries

after water has been utilized in production processes. Industries such as canneries, chemical plants,
food and beverage plants, pulp and paper factories and textile mills often discharged industrial
wastewater laden predominantly with organic load as well as chemicals and solids.

Agricultural and storm-water run-off are examples of non-point sources. Agricultural run-
off is wastewater from farms which often carries fecal materials, soil particles, fertilizers
(phosphates and nitrates), and pesticides. Storm-water run-off results from rainfall and may cause
turbidity and contamination of receiving water bodies.

Surface Water Quality Issues and Concerns

1. Untreated domestic sewage: a leading contributor to water pollution. While it is true that
many industrial discharges are also to blame for water quality deterioration, several studies
show that domestic sewage is the biggest water pollution problem the country is facing
today.

2. Industrial wastewater pollution. Pollution from industrial wastewater is another major

contributor to surface water pollution. This type of wastewater comes mainly from
manufacturing processes.

3. Threats from non-point pollution sources. Non-point sources are those contribute
extraneous materials into watercourses from an extensively wide area thus making it much
harder to control. Examples of non-point sources are agricultural and forest run-off and
urban storm water run-off.

4. Inefficient solid waste management. A serious concern from inefficient solid waste
management is its contribution to water quality deterioration. The indiscriminate dumping
of solid wastes particularly in urban areas creates aesthetic, nuisance and health problems

including clogging of already inadequate drainage systems creating stagnant water for
insect breeding and flooding during rainy seasons.

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Causes and mechanism of water sources degradation

Degradation of water sources refers to degradation of quantity of water as well as quality of water.
The sources could be atmospheric (rain) water, surface water or groundwater. The following are
some causes and mechanism of water sources degradation.

• logging of forest
• kaingin (slash and burn) farming
• mining activities
• transportation routes
• accidental leaks or spills of chemicals
• cattle grazing, piggery and poultry farming
• pesticide and fertilizers from agricultural lands
• human settlements and sewage disposal systems
• garbage open dumpsite and sanitary landfills
• underground storage tanks
• salinity intrusion into coastal aquifers
• recreation instream and lakes areas
• river quarrying of gravel and sand

Countermeasures to be done for maintaining good water quality

To ensure availability and sustainability of freshwater, the following countermeasures need to be

instituted.

• water conservation at home, in schools, offices and other places

• increasing the efficiency of irrigation system
• safeguarding all wetlands from destructive systems
• development of crop varieties that need less water or drought-resistant crops
• large scale reforestation of denuded watersheds
• cleaner production in industries (recycling wastewater, good housekeeping) • provision of
clean water for underdeveloped localities
• enactment of appropriate laws.

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