3CE01

WATER AND WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Dr. Reshma L. Patel

Civil Engineering Department
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya
Objectives of water treatment
Water treatment has two primary objectives:
 To make water potable (safe to drink) and
 Palatable (aesthetically acceptable for drinking).
• Potable: - Water that can be consumed in any
desired amount without concern for adverse heath
effects. Potable dose not necessarily mean that the
water tastes good.
• Palatable: - it is a water that is pleasing to drink but
not necessarily safe.
• Water treatment aims at producing water that
satisfies a set of drinking water quality standards at a
reasonable price to the consumers.
Objective of Waste Water Treatment:
• The objective of municipal and industrial waste
water treatment is to extract pollutants, remove
toxicants, neutralise coarse particles, kill
pathogens so that quality of discharged water is
improved to reach the permissible level of water
to be discharged into water bodies or for
agricultural land.
• Treatment of water aims at reduction of BOD,
COD, eutrophication etc. of receiving water
bodies and prevention of bio-magnification of
toxic substances in food chain.
1. To improve quality of wastewater
2. Elimination of pollutants, toxicants and many
such
3. Preservation of water quality of natural water
resources
4. To make wastewater usable for other purpose
5. Prevention of harmful diseases
Surface water
• SOURCES OF WATER
• All sources of water can be broadly classified as
follows:
(a) Surface sources.
• These can be further divided as :
(i) Streams (ii) Lakes (iii)Ponds (vi) Rivers
(v) Imponded reservoirs (vi) Stored rain water
and cisterns.
• Ground sources.
These can be further divided as :
(i)Springs (ii)Infiltration galleries
(iii)Porous pipe galleries (iv)Wells.
• 1 GENERAL
• Surface sources of water include rivers, streams, lakes,
ponds, etc. There is large variation in the water yield of
the surface sources, which vary from season to season.
The development, reliability and quantity of water
mainly depends on the following :
(i) the selection of the site for collection works,
(ii) preparation and control of the catchment area,
(iiithe choice of the type of reservoir,
(iv)the treatment of reservoir sites as well as operation of
the reservoir,
(v the design, construction and maintenance of dams and
dikes,
(vi)the design, construction and maintenance of intake and
outlet structures.
• STREAMS.
• In mountainous regions streams are formed by the run off.
The discharge in streams is much in rainy season than
other seasons.
• Those streams which dry up in summer and contain water
only during rainfalls are known as 'Rainly Streams'. The
quality of water streams is normally good except the water
of first run- off. But some times run-off water while
flowing over grounds is mixed with clay, sand and mineral
impurities.
• All the suspended impurities can be removed in settling
tanks up to certain extent, but the dissolved impurities
require special treatments. The streams generally flow in
valleys and are the main source of water supply to villages
of hills which are situated near them.
• LAKES.
• In mountains at some places natural basins are
formed with impervious beds.
• Water from springs and streams generally flows
towards these basins and 'Lakes' are formed.
• The quantity of water in the lakes depends on its
basin capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall,
porosity of the ground etc.
• The quality of large lakes is good than that of the
small lakes. But lakes which are situated at high
altitudes contain almost pure water which can be
used without any treatment.
• Lake water is available only to those towns and cities
which are situated near them, such as NainiTal in
U.P.
• RIVERS.
• Rivers are born in the hills, when the discharge of large number of springs and streams
combine together.
• In mountains the quantity of water in rivers remains small, therefore at such places
these are called as small rivers. But as the river moves forward more and more streams
combine in it and it increase it discharge. Therefore rivers grow bigger and bigger as they
move forward due to increase in their catchment area.
• Rivers are the only surface sources of water which have maximum quantity of water
which can be easily taken, therefore at the very ancient times the town and cities
started developing along the banks of rivers.
• Mostly all the cities which are situated near rivers discharge their used water of sewage
in the rivers, therefore much care should be taken while drawing water from the river.
• River water has self-purification action, due. to which it automatically becomes clean in
some distance travel from the point of disposal of sewage.
• In summer the quality of river water is better than that in monsoon, because in rainy
season water is better than that in monsoon, because in rainy season the run-off water
also carries with it clay, silt, sand etc, which make the water turbid.
• River water should always be used after necessary treatment. Some rivers are snow fed
and perennial, and have water throughout the year; therefore they do not require any
arrangement to hold the water.
• But some rivers dry up wholly or partly in summer, therefore they require special
arrangement to meet the water demand during hot weather.
• PONDS
• These are depressions in plains like lakes of mountains, in
which water is collected during rainy season.
• Sometimes ponds are formed when much excavation is done
for constructing kaccha houses in villages, embankment for
road and railways, and manufacture of bricks.
• Generally the quantity of water in ponds is very small and
contains large amount of impurities.
• In the villages mostly the used water flow towards ponds and
further contaminates its water.
• The water of ponds is used for washing clothes, animals
bathing and drinking. In some backward villages people also
take bath in the dirty water of ponds.
• The water of ponds cannot be used for water-supply purposes
due to its limited quantity and large amount of impurities.
• IMPONDED RESERVOIRS
• Mostly its is found that there is great variation in the quantity
of river water during monsoon and summer season.
• The discharge in some rivers remains sufficient to meet the hot
weather demand, but in some rivers the flow becomes very
small and cannot meet the requirements of hot weather.
• In such cases it becomes essential to store the water for
summer season. The water can be stored in the river by
constructing a bund, a weir or a dam across the river at such
places where minimum area of land is submerged in the water
and the reservoir basin remains cup-shaped having maximum
possible depth of water.
• The construction of imponded reservoirs is not feasible under
the following conditions:
a) When the average annual flow is lower than the average
demand, as in this case no extra water is available to meet the
hot weather demand.
b) When the rate of flow in the streams in dry season is more
than the demand.
• While deciding the site for the location of impended reservoir the following
points should be considered :

(i) Site where the width of river is narrow but rapidly widening upstream
should be selected, because at this site the length of the dam will be small
and at the same time it can store large quantity of water quantity of water.

(ii) Site where sufficient quantity of water is available should be selected. This
will depend on the intensity of rainfall, run off and catchment area.

(iii) As far as possible the site should be such that water can flow simply under
gravity from the reservoir to the treatment plant.

(iv) Site should be such that cultivable land, highways, towns, railways and
costly estates should not submerge in its reservoir.
(v) At the site, bed soil should not contain soluble salts, minerals which may
affect the quality of water.
(vi) Watershed should be free from swampy areas,
otherwise micro organism will grow inside the water and
will make its treatment very difficult.
(vii) Site should be such that useful construction materials
for the construction of dam and appurtenant should be
available nearby.
(viii) The reservoir area in the flood zone should contain little
marshland. Important roads, rails should not pass through
them otherwise it will be very costly to divert them.
(xi) The reservoir area should not have thick forests or developed
towns, because the construction of dam will require the
shifting of town and cutting of forest, which
will be very costly affair.
(xii) The topography should be favourable for sites of spillway and
construction of aqueduct or pipe line.
• STORED RAIN WATER
• At some places where neither ground water nor
surface water is easily available, the only way is to
store the rainwater in cisterns or tanks from roofs
of biddings. The rain water from roofs and pucca
courtyards is collected in water-light tanks with
the help of channels. Water stored in this way is
limited and can never be utilized for water supply
schemes on large scale.
• SPRINGS
• Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground
surface in the form of springs.
• Springs generally can supply small quantity of water,
hence these can not be used as source of water to
big towns.
• Good developed springs (when more numbers are
combined together) can be used as water supply
sources for small hill towns.
• Due to presence of sulphur in certain springs, they
discharge hot water. Such hot water springs are only
useful for taking dips for the cure of certain skin
disease patients. These are not useful for public
water supply. Generally springs are formed under
following circumstances.
(a) When the surface of the earth
drops sharply below the normal
ground water table

When the surface of the

earth drops sharply the
water bearing stratum is
exposed to the
atmosphere and springs
arc formed.
 Fig. shows formation of
such springs resulting from
an overflow of the ground
water table.
This type of spring is also
called as 'Gravity' or
'Shallow' springs and water
table to such springs varies
with the rainfall.
(b) When due to an obstruction
ground water is collected in the
form of reservoir and forces the
water to overflow at the surface
Fig. shows the most
common type of spring.
This is formed when an
impervious stratum which
is supporting the ground
water reservoir becomes
out crops.
The storage capacity of
these types of springs is
very small which ceases
after a drought.
These springs can be
developed by constructing
a cut off trench.
(c)When a fissure in an
impervious stratum allows
artesian water to flow in the
form of springs

Fig. shows the

formation of springs
when ground water
rises through a fissure
in the upper
impervious stratum.
These are also known
as 'Artesian springs'
and generally have
constant rate of flow,
because water comes
out by a constant
pressure.
Deep – seated spring

 Fig. shows formation of

'Artesian spring' from a deep
seated spring.
When the water-bearing
stratum has too much
hydraulic gradient and is
closed between two
impervious stratum such type
of springs are formed. These
springs usually have a large
length of watershed and their
outcrop is too much far away
from the spring. The water
comes out in the form of
springs under pressure.
 INFILTRATION GALLERIES
We have seen earlier that
ground water travels towards
lakes, rivers or streams.
This water which is
travelling can be intercepted
by digging a trench or by
constructing a tunnel with
holes on sides at right angle
to the direction of flow of
underground water.
These underground tunnel
used for tapping
underground water near
rivers, lakes or streams are
called 'Infiltration Galleries'.
• Underground water may be allowed to enter these
infiltration galleries from both sides or one side as
desired. The yield from these galleries may be as much
as 1.5x10 litres/day/metre length of the infiltration
gallery. Sometimes these are also known as horizontal
walls.
• For maximum yield the galleries should be placed at the
full depth of the aquifer. Infiltration galleries may be
constructed with masonry or concrete with weep-holes
of 5 cm x 10 cm. Infiltration galleries are surrounded on
sides and top with gravel or pebble stones to increase
their intake capacity. Longitudinal slope is given to the
galleries and at the end sump well is constructed, from
where water is pumped out.
 POROUS PIPE GALLERIES.

When there is large quantity

of ground water existing over
a wider area, it can be
cheaply collected by laying
porous pipes or pipes with
open joints in the full area at
some distance.
These longitudinal and cross
pipes will be given a slope
such that they bring the water
towards a point, where a well
is constructed to take out the
water.
These porous pipes should
be surrounded with gravel
and broken stone pieces to
increase their intake capacity.
• CLASSIFICATION OF WELLS
• Depending on the method of construction,
wells arc classified as follows :
(i)Dug well or Percolation well,
(ii)Driven well, and
(iii)Tube wells.
DUG WELL OR PERCOLATION
WELL

Sometimes these are also known

as 'Draw Wells' or Open Wells.
 These are shallow wells which
are usually confined to soft ground,
sand and gravel.
 The diameter of these wells may
be between 1 m to 4 m. and depth
may be upto 20 metres depending
on the requirement and
geological structure of the earth.
 These wells are suitable for small
discharge of about 20 cu.m./hour.
 The walls of these wells may be
constructed with precast R.C.C.
blocks, bricks or stone masonry. The
thickness of the steining of the well
mainly depends on the depth of the
well and varies from 50 cm to 75 cm.
• For the construction of such wells first of all a well curb of steel, wood or R.C.C.
is constructed at the site over which masonry work is done upto about 1.5
metre height. Now the earth from the inside of the curb is excavated by means
of pick-axes and shovel.
• Due to self-weight the masonry wall will sink gradually. More and more
masonry work will be done as the excavation Dug-well proceeds till the well is
sinked upto required depth.
• After complete sinking parapet wall will be constructed over the well, and a
plate form with outward slope will also be constructed around the well.
Sometimes roofs on pillars are also constructed over the well to protect it from
contamination.
• Dug wells are very cheap in construction, therefore these are very popular in
rural areas and small towns, due to their large diameter, these wells act as a
small storage reservoir also and can meet all types of small demands.
• These wells should be disinfected frequently to avoid the risk of
contamination, because these wells generally are in poor sanitary conditions.
• As the open wells are constructed upto limited depth, their yield
is also limited, if the ground water storage is also limited. The
quantity of water which can be withdrawn from these wells also
depends on the critical velocity for the soil. Water cannot be
withdrawn at higher rate, as it will lead to the disturbance of the
soil particles which may further lead to the sinking of the well
steining.
• The main difference between the shallow well and deep well that
shallow well draws its water only from the top most water
bearing stratum, whereas deep well draws its water from more
than one water bearing stratum.
• Their names do not depend on the depth of the wells, as shallow
wells may be deeper than the 'deeper wells' which depends on
the geological formation of the ground sub- soil.
• TUBE-WELLS
•
The maximum discharge which is available from the ordinary open wells, is
between 4 to 5 litre/sec. Due to their low yield open wells are useful for small
locality or private dwellings. For small localities or private estates there may
be their own source of water supply. It is not economical to install pumps in
these wells, due to their low yield.
• For obtaining more yield, nowadays tube-wells are commonly used. These
wells essentially consist of blind pipes and strainer pipes, and their supply of
water is from large number of aquifers. As India has enormous quantity of
ground water which can be easily tapped by the tube wells, Now-a-days tube-
wells are becoming more and more popular for supplying water to cities,
colonies, private estates, factories, industrial areas and also for irrigation
purposes.
• Mostly all State Governments of India have tube-well departments for the
construction of tube-wells. Some private companies also undertake tube-well
construction. The depth of the tube-wells may vary from 50 to 500 m. and the
maximum yield from the tube-well may be about 200 litres/sec. The yield of
the average tube-well is about 50 litres/sec.
• It is very difficult to construct rube-wells in the hill areas, as boring in rocks is
very difficult. But some tube-wells have been constructed in hill regions with
success. Following types of tube-wells are usually constructed : (a) Strainer
type tube-wells (b) Cavity type tube-wells, (c) Slotted type tube-wells
(d) Perforated type pipe tube- wells.
STRAINER TYPE TUBE-WELLS

This type of the tube-well is in

maximum use, and most of the
state Government
departments construct only this
type of tube-wells.
In this tube-well a strainer or
fine screen is placed against all
the water bearing stratums
through which tube-well passes.
 The construction strainer is
done by wrapping and soldering
or welding the fine wire mesh
screen around the perforated
or Ground surface slotted
pipe.
The wire-mesh screen checks
the entry of sand particles
inside the well.
• Fig.Illustrates the section through such a type of
tube-well. The diameter of outer shell of these wells
varies from 15 cm to 100 cm.
• The diameter of the pipe drawing the water varies
from 2.5 cm to 90 cm.
• The size of the tube-well is usually denoted by the
diameter of the inner-pipe which draws water.
Sometimes gravel is packed around the outside of
the screen or strainer pipe to a thickness of at least
8 cm, which helps in checking the entry of sand
particles in the tube-well and increasing the yield of
the well.
• This type of tube-well is not suitable for very fine
sandy water bearing stratums, because finer
strainers may be chocked and the yield of the tube-
well will be considerably reduced.
CAVITY TYPE TUBE WELLS
These types of tube-wells are not commonly used, the yield
from these wells is also not more. These wells mainly draw
their yield from their bottom aquifer only.
Fig. shows the section through such a well. In case of open
well the water is drawn from the topmost water-bearing
stratum and in few cases from the second aquifer from the
ground.But in case of cavity type tube-well, it may draw its
water from the first, second, third or any other suitable aquifer.
The cavity type tube-well essentially consists of blind pipe
throughout its length. The lower small portion and the bottom
consists of mesh.
 In the beginning just after construction fine sand, silt come
out alongwith the water which causes formation of a cavity in
the bottom.
With the increase of the velocity of water or pumping the
spherical area of the cavity increases. When the area of the
cavity increases the critical velocity decreases causing
reduction in the yield velocity.
 This prevents the entry of the sand particles without coming
water. The yield of these wells can be increased with the
increase in the size of the cavity.
 SLOTTED TYPE TUBE-WELLS
If the geological formation of the earth strata is such that sufficient
number of water bearing stratum are not available for the construction
of strainer tube-well even upto depth of 100 m, slotted type tube-wells
are constructed.
These wells can be constructed under the above situations, if at least
one water- bearing stratum having good quantity of water is present.
Fig. clearly illustrates the section through such type of tube-well. It
essentially consists of a slotted wrought iron pipe, passing through the
main water-bearing stratum.
Usually slots of 25 mmx3 mm are formed at 10 to 12 mm c/c spacing in
the pipes by means of slotting machines.
 The slotted portion of the pipe is surrounded all around by mixture of
gravel and bajri, known as shrouding. The shrouding is filled in between
the casing pipe and the slotted pipe, during withdrawing the casing pipe.
 In the beginning the water is pumped at high rate, which withdraws
fine sand and soil particles with the water, there by forming a cavity
which is filled by shrouding.
The high rate pumping is continued till the required quantity of
shrouding reaches at its proper place, and clear water starts coming.
As shrouding is to be done, in these wells, the size of the casing pipe is
more than that required in the construction of strainer type tube-well
for the same size tube-well.
PERFORATED PIPE TUBE-WELLS

When the water table is very near to the ground or

the tube-wells are required for obtaining water for
short duration only, these rube wells may be used.
In this wells the pipes are made perforated by drilling
holes in them. These holes are covered by wrapping
coconut jute rope over the pipes.
The jute acts as strainer for preventing the flow of
sand particles.
Fig. shows such a type of tube-well. These types of
tube-wells are commonly used during the
construction of canals, dams and other irrigation
structures for obtaining the water during construction
as well as for doing the dewatering work and lowering
the water- table.
In India these types of tube-well are not commonly
used for water supply purposes.
DRIVEN WELL (Percussion well)
This is a shallow well constructed by driving a casing
pipe of 2.5 cm to 15 cm in diameter.
The lower portion of casing pipe which is driven in the
water-bearing stratum is perforated. The bottom is drive
point or well point.
The perforated bottom end of casing pipe is pointed
known as drive point or well point.
The perforated portion of the pipe is covered with fine
wire gauge to prevent the passage of soil and sand
particles inside the well.
The discharge of these wells is very small and these are
suitable for domestic purpose only. For obtaining more
quantity of water numbers of driven wells should be
used.
The casing pipe is driven in the ground by means of
hammer or by water jet. These pipes may be upto 12
metre deep; after this depth the water can be taken out
by means of pumps.
 Domestic Water Demand
• This includes water required in private buildings
for drinking, cooking, bathing, lawn sprinkling,
sanitary purposes etc.
• The amount of domestic water consumption per
person shall vary according to the living
conditions of the consumers.
• As per IS: 1172-1993, the minimum domestic
consumption for a town or a city with full
flushing system should be taken at 200 lpcd,
although it can be reduced to 135 lpcd for
economically weaker sections and LIG colonies
depending upon prevailing conditions.
Water Quality Criteria
 Introduction to water QUALITY STANDARDS
Water Quality Criteria for best Use of water

Designated-Best-Use Class of water Criteria

Drinking A Total Coliforms Organism
Water Source without MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less
2.pH between 6.5 and 8.5
conventional
3.Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or
treatment but after more
disinfection 4.Biochemical Oxygen Demand
5 days 20oC 2mg/l or less

Outdoor bathing B 1.Total Coliforms Organism

(Organised) MPN/100ml shall be 500 or less
2.pH between 6.5 and 8.5
3.Dissolved Oxygen 5mg/l or
more
4.Biochemical Oxygen Demand
5 days 20oC 3mg/l or less
Drinking water source C 1.Total Coliforms Organism
MPN/100ml shall be 5000 or
after conventional
less
treatment and disinfection 2.pH between 6 to 9
3.Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or
more
4.Biochemical Oxygen
Demand 5 days 20oC 3mg/l or
less
Propagation of Wild life D 1.pH between 6.5 to 8.5
2.Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or
and Fisheries
more
3.Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2
mg/l or less
Irrigation, Industrial E 1.pH betwwn 6.0 to 8.5
2.Electrical Conductivity at
Cooling, Controlled
25oC micro mhos/cm
Waste disposal Max.2250
3.Sodium absorption Ratio
Max. 26
4.Boron Max. 2mg/l
Below-E Not Meeting A, B, C, D & E
Criteria
 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
• Physical parameters define those
characteristics of water that respond to the
senses of sight, touch, taste or smell.
• TEMPPERATURE :

Water having higher temperature than that is required for its intended purpose is objectionable
temperature.

 Sources:-
 The temperature of natural water system respond to many factors.
 The ambient temperatures being the most universal, shallow bodies of water are more
affected by ambient temperatures than deeper bodies.
 Discharge of industrial waste water containing higher temperature may result in
temperature changes in receiving streams.
 Impacts :-
 Water in the temperature range of 7 deg. C to 11 deg C has a pleasant taste & is
refreshing.
 At higher temperature with less dissolved gases, the water becomes tasteless & even
does not quench the thirst.
 Temperature changes affect the reactions rates & solubility levels of chemicals.
 Most chemical reactions involving dissociation of solids are accelerated by increased
temperatures.
 Temperatures also affect physical properties of water.
 As temperature decreases, the viscosity of water increases, & the rates of
sedimentation & filtration decreases.
 The efficiency of colour & turbidity removal by coagulation, sedimentation & filtration
may be less under winter temperature conditions than in summer.
• TURBITY :-
Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is absorbed or scattered by suspended
material in water.
 Sources :-
 Most turbidity in surface waters result from the erosion of colloidal material such as clay,
silt, rock, fragments & metal oxides from the soil.
 Vegetation fibers & micro organisms also contribute to turbidity.
 House hold & industrial waste waters may contain a wide variety of turbidity producing
materials.
 Impacts :-
Turbidity is an important consideration in public water supplies for following reasons:
 Aesthetic :
With the rise in the level of turbidity, water starts loosing its clarity & besides the
deterioration in aesthetic quality, water also looks dirty.
 Filterability :
Filtration of water is rendered more difficult & costly when turbidity increases. Increase in
the concentration of turbidity shortens filter runs & frequent back washing of filters.
 Disinfections :
Disinfection of turbid waters are difficult because of the absorptive characteristics of some
colloidal & because the solids may partially shield organisms from the disinfectant, stimulate the
growth of bacteria in water & itself exert a significant chlorine demand.
In natural water bodies, turbidity may impart a brown or any other color to water,
depending on the light-absorbing properties of the solids & may interfere with light penetration &
photosynthetic reaction in streams & lakes. Accumulation of turbidity causing particles in porous
streambeds result in sediment deposits that can adversely affect the flora & fauna of the stream.
• Color :-
Pure water is colorless, but in nature is often cured by foreign substances. Water whose
color is partly to suspended matter is said to have apparent color. Color contributed by dissolved
solids that remain after removal of suspended matter is known as true color.
 Sources :-
 After contact with organized debris such as leaves, conifer needles, weeds or wood, water
picks up tannins, humic acid & humates and takes a yellowish brown hue.
 Iron oxides reddish water & manganese oxides causes brown or blackish water. Industrial
wastes from textile & dyeing operations, pulp & paper production, food processing,
chemical production & mining, refining and slaughterhouse operations may add
substantial dual brown color to water in receiving streams.
 Impacts :-
 Colored water is not aesthetically acceptable to the general public. In fact, given a choice,
consumers tend to choose clear, non colored water of otherwise poorer quality over
treated potable water supplies with an objectionable color.
 Highly colored water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, paper making beverages
manufacturing, dairy production other food processing, textile and plastic production.
 Thus, the color of water affects its marketability for both domestic & industrial use.
 While true color is not usually considered unsanitary or unsafe, the organic compounds
causing true color may exert a chlorine demand & thereby seriously reduce the
effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant.
 Perhaps more important are the products formed by the combination of chlorine with
some color producing organics, phenolic compounds, common constituents of vegetative
decay products, etc.
 They produce very objectionable taste & odor compounds with chlorine. Additionally,
some compounds of naturally occurring organic acids & chlorine are either known to be,
or are suspected of being carcinogens ( cancer causing agents ).
• TASTE & ODOR :-
The taste of water is the sensation that results from interaction between the saliva &
substances dissolved in the water as perceived by receptor located in taste buds.
The odor of drinking water may be defined as the sensation which is due to the presence of
substances having an appreciable vapor pressure & which stimulates the human sensory organs in
the nasal & sinus cavities.
Substances which produce an odor in water will almost invariably impart a taste as well.
 Sources :-
 Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during human use
may impart perceptible taste & odor.
 These include minerals, metals & salts from the soil & products from biological reactions
& constituents of waste water.
 Inorganic substances are more likely to produce tastes unaccompanied by odor.
 Alkaline material imparts a bitter taste to water, while metallic salts may give a salty or
bitter taste.
 Impacts :-
 The presence of objectionable taste in public water supply may cause consumers to seek
alternative sources of potable water on grounds of aesthetic value, which may or may
not be subject to the same degree of microbial protection afforded by the rejected
supply.
 Odor in the potable water is almost invariably indicative of some form of pollution of the
water source or of malfunctioning during water treatment or distribution.
 Odors of biological origin are indicative of increased biological activity which may include
an increased loading of dangerous pathogens on the system.
 Odors of industrial origin are associated with pollution of the sources water with
commercial waste products, some of which may be toxic.
 The taste & odors in the water are also not suitable in food, pharmaceuticals & beverage
industries.
• SUSPENDED SOLIDS :-
Solids are of two types, suspended and dissolved forms.
 Sources :-
 Solids suspended in water may consists of inorganic or organic particles or of immiscible
liquids.
 Inorganic solids such as clay, silt & other soil constituents are common in surface water.
 Organic material such as plant fibers & biological solids ( algae cells, bacteria, etc) are
also common constituents of surface waters.
 These materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the erosive action of
water flowing over surfaces.
 Because of the filtering capacity of soil, suspended material is seldom a constituent of
ground water.
 Other suspended material may result from human use of water.
 Domestic wastewater usually contains large quantities of suspended solids which are
mostly organic in nature.
 Industrial use of water may result in a wide variety of suspended impurities of either
organic or inorganic nature.
 Immiscible liquids such as oils and greases are often constituents of wastewater.
 Impacts :-
 Suspended material may be objectionable in water for several reasons.
 It is aesthetically displeasing & provides absorption sites for chemical & biological agents.
 Suspended organics solids may be degraded biologically, resulting in objectionable by-
products.
 Biologically active (live) suspended solids may include disease causing organisms as well
as organisms such as toxin producing strains of algae.
Chemical water quality parameters
Water has been called the universal solvent
& chemical parameters are related to the solvent
capabilities of water. pH, total dissolved solids,
acidity & alkalinity, hardness, fluorides, metals,
organics & nutrients are chemical parameters of
concern in water quality management.
• pH :-
pH is a term used to express the intensity of acid or alkaline conditions of a solution. It is a
way of expressing the hydrogen ion concentration, or more precisely, the hydrogen activity.
pH = -log10(H+)
As the ionic product of water is 1*10-14 at the 25oc, a neutral solution will have 1*10-7 ions
of H+ & OH- each. pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 with 7 as neutral, below 7 being acid & above 7
being alkaline.
 Sources :-
 Most natural waters are generally alkaline due to presence of sufficient quantities of
carbonates.
 pH of water gets drastically changed with time due to exposure to air, biological activity
& temperature changes.
 Significant changes in pH occur due to disposal of industrial wastes, acid mine drainage,
etc.
 In natural waters, pH also changes diurnally & seasonally due to variation in
photosynthetic activity which increases the pH value due to consumption of co2 in the
process.
 Impacts :-
 Most chemical & biological reactions occur at a narrow range of pH.
 In the field of water supplies, it is a factor which must be considered in chemical
coagulation, water softening & corrosion control, chemical processes used to consulate
waste water, dewater sludges or oxidize certain substances requires that pH be
controlled.
 pH has no direct adverse effect on health. However, a lower value below 4 will produce
sour taste & higher value above 8.5, an alkaline taste.
 Higher values of pH hasten the scale formation in water heating apparatus & also reduce
the germicidal potential of chlorine.
• TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS :-
The material remaining in water after filtration for the suspended solids analysis is
considered to be dissolved. The material is left as a residue upon evaporation of the water &
constituents a part of total solids.
 Sources :-
 Dissolved material result from the solvent action of water on solids, liquids & gases.
 Like suspended material, dissolved substances may be organic & inorganic in nature.
 Inorganic substances, which may be dissolved in water, include minerals, metals & gases.
 Water may come in contact with these substances in the atmosphere, on surfaces &
within the soil.
 Materials from the decay products of vegetation, from organic chemicals & from the
organic gases are common organic dissolved constituents of water.
 The solvent capability of water makes it an ideal means by which waste products can be
carried away from industrial sites & homes.
 Impacts :-
 Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water.
 Dissolved minerals, gases & organic constituents may produce aesthetically displeasing
color, taste & odors.
 Some chemicals may be toxic & some of the dissolved organic constituents have been
shown to be carcinogenic.
 Quite often, two or more dissolved substances – especially organic substances &
members of the halogen group – will combine to form a compound whose characteristics
are more objectionable than those of either of the original materials.
 High concentration of dissolved solids near 3000 mg/l may also produce distress in cattle
& livestock.
 Plants are also affected by the higher content of solids in irrigation water, which increases
the salinity of soil.
• ACIDITY :-
Acidity is not a specific pollutant & it is a measure of the effects of combination of
substances & conditions in water. It may be defined as the power of water to neutralize hydroxyl
ions (OH-) & is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate.

 Sources :-
Acidity of natural water is caused by dissolved carbon dioxide and/or strong mineral acids,
such as sulfuric & weakly dissociated acids.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Acidity :-

 Carbon dioxide is a normal component of all natural waters. It may enter surface waters
by absorption from the atmosphere, in accordance with Henry’s law.
 CO2 may also be produced in waters through biological oxidation of organic matter, if
present.
 Ground waters & waters from hypolimnion of stratified lakes & reservoirs often contain
considerable amounts of carbon dioxide.
 This concentration results from bacterial oxidation of organic matter with which the
water has been in contact & under these conditions, the carbon dioxide is not free to
escape to the atmosphere.

Mineral Acidity :-
 Certain mineral water may contain mineral acidity.
 The drainage from abandoned mines, lean ore dumps & “gob” piles will contain
significant amounts of sulfuric acid or salts of sulfuric acid.
 If sulfur, sulfides or iron pyrites are present, conversion of these materials to sulfuric acid
sulfates is brought about by sulfuric oxidation bacteria under aerobic conditions.
 Mineral acidity is present in many industrial wastes, particularly those of metallurgical
industry & some from the production of synthetic organic materials.
 Impacts :-
 Carbon dioxide determinations are particularly important in the field of public
water supplies.
 In the development of new supplies, it is an important factor which must be
considered in the treatment method & the facilities needed.
 Many under ground supplies require treatment to overcome corrosive
characteristics resulting from carbon dioxide.
 The amount present is an important factor in determining whether removed
aeration or simple neutralization with lime or sodium hydroxide will be chosen
as the treatment method.
 The size of the equipment, chemical requirements, storage space & cost of
treatment – all depend upon amounts of carbon dioxide present.
 Carbon dioxide is an important consideration in estimating chemical
requirements for lime or lime soda ash softening.
 Most industrial wastes containing mineral acidity must be neutralized before
they can be discharged to rivers or sewers or subjected to treatment of any
kind.
 Quantities of chemicals, size of chemical reefs, storage & costs are determined
from laboratory data on acidity.
• Alkalinity :-
alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water which will react to
neutralize hydrogen ions. Alkalinity is thus a measure of water to neutralize
acids.
 Sources :-
 The alkalinity of natural or treated water is normally due to the
presence of bicarbonate & hydroxide compounds of calcium,
magnesium, sodium & potassium. Borates, phosphates & silicates also
contribute to alkalinity.
 Some other ions, not ordinarily found in natural waters, such as
arsenates, aluminates & certain organic anions in colored water can
also increase the alkalinity.
 Because of the relative abundance of carbonate minerals & because of
the ready availability of carbon dioxide which enters into equilibrium
with them in water solution most waters contain bicarbonates &
carbonates only.
 The occurrence of hydroxide ions in natural waters is very rare unless
artificial contamination has occurred.
 In surface waters may contain appreciable amounts of carbonate &
hydroxide alkalinities.
 Impacts :-
 The alkalinity of water has little public health significance. Highly
alkaline waters are usually unpalatable & consumers tend to seek
other supplies.
 Alkalinity is significant in many uses & treatment of natural waters &
wastewaters.
 Chemical coagulation : Chemicals used for coagulation of water &
waste water react with water to form insoluble hydroxide precipitates.
The hydrogen ions released, react with the alkalinity of water in a pH
range where the coagulation can be effective & complete.
 Water Softening : Alkalinity is a major item which must be considered
in calculating the lime & soda ash requirements in softening of water
by precipitation methods. The alkalinity of softened water is a
consideration in terms of whether such waters met drinking water
standards.
 Corrosion Control : Alkalinity is an important parameter involved in
corrosion control.
 Buffer Capacity : Alkalinity measurements are made as a means of
evaluation of the buffering capacity of wastewater & sludge.
 Industrial Waste : Municipal authorities usually prohibit the discharge
of wastes containing caustic alkalinity to sewers. Alkalinity as well as
pH is important factor in determining the amenability of wastewater to
biological treatment.
• Hardness :-

Hardness is defined as the concentration of multivalent metallic cations in

solution. Water hardness is caused by dissolved polyvalent metallic ions in solution. In
fresh water, the principle hardness causing ions are calcium & magnesium. The ions
strontium, iron, barium & manganese also contribute. At super saturated conditions,
the hardness cations will react with anions in the water to form a solid precipitate.
although hardness is caused by cations, it may also be discussed in terms of
carbonate (temporary) & non-carbonate (permanent) hardness. Carbonate hardness
refers to the amount of carbonates & bicarbonates in the solution which can be
removed by boiling. Non carbonate hardness is caused by the association of the
hardness causing cations with sulfate, chloride or nitrite & is referred to as “Permanent
Hardness” because it can not be removed by boiling.

 Sources :-
The principal natural sources of hardness in water are sedimentary rocks,
seepage & runoff from soils. Hard water normally originates from areas with thick top
soil & lime stone formations. Ground water is generally harder than surface water.
 Impacts :-
 The relative amounts of calcium & magnesium hardness & of
carbonate & non carbonate hardness present in a water are factors in
determining the most economical type of softening process to be used
& become important considerations in design.
 Hard waters are reported to cause no harmful effect upon the health of
consumers.
 Excessive soap consumption in homes & laundries is the chief factor of
rejection of hard water.
 Hard waters are undesirable for dyeing & textile industries. Calcium &
magnesium ions precipitate certain dyestuffs, producing streaky or
sporty dyed goods or sometimes cause greater dyestuff absorption &
deeper shades.
 For boiler use, calcium & magnesium ions are major scale formers.
Calcium sulfate forms hard crystalline deposits. Calcium Carbonate
forms either soft or hard scale and Magnesium Silicate & Magnesium
Hydroxide form soft deposits & sludges.
• Fluorides :-
Fluorine is common element & occupies 0.3/kg of earth’s crust. It
exists in the form of fluorides in minerals like fluorspar, cryolite &
fluorapatite. They are used in industry for production of aluminum.
Fluorides are present in phosphate fertilizers, bricks, tiles & ceramics.
They are widely used in metallurgy. Fluorides are now frequently added
to certain pharmaceutical products like toothpaste & vitamin
supplements.
 Impacts :- Fluorine is fairly essential element for some animals. Fertility
& growth rates are improved by small doses of fluoride. Once fluorides
is incorporated into the teeth, it reduces the solubility of the enamel
under acidic conditions & thereby provides protection against dental
caries. Up to 1mg/l of dose is beneficial beyond 1.5- 2 mg/l “mottling”
(diff. spot of color) i.e. dental fluorisis will occur & ultimately at higher
doses of 3 to 6 mg/l skeleton fluorisis will take place. High dose of
fluoride are acutely toxic to human beings.
• ARSENIC :-
 Sources :-
Arsenic occurs naturally in all environmental media & is usually present in the
form of compounds with sulfur & with many metals. The earth crust contains @ 2
mg/kg of arsenic. Many arsenic compounds are water soluble. The chemical form of
arsenic in water has not been fully elucidated. Both tri & pentavalent forms have been
identified. The most arsenic forms in water are from industrial discharges.
 Health Effects :-
There is no firm evidence that arsenic in any form is essential to man, although
it is known that some organic arsenic compounds are beneficial as a growth stimulant
for animals.
Acute poisoning by arsenic involves the central nervous system, leading to coma
& for doses of 70-180 mg, to death. The gastrointestinal tract, the nervous system, the
respiratory tract & the skin can be severely affected.
Chronic poisoning is manifested by general muscular weakness, loss of appetite
& nausea, leading to inflammation of the mucus membranes in the eye, nose &
carnyz. Neurological manifestations & even malignant tumors in vital organs may also
be observed. Poisoning may appear with doses as low as 3-6 mg/kg over extended
periods.
• CHROMIUM :-
 Sources :-
Most rock and soil contain small amounts of chromium. The commonest
ore is chromate, in which metal exists in the trivalent form. Contamination of
air, water & food is due to man’s use of chromium.
The major uses of chromium are for alloys, chrome plating, oxidizing
agents, corrosion inhibitors, manufacture of chromium compounds such as
pigments, & in textile, ceramic, glass & photographic industries.
 Health Effects :-
Chromium is useful for glucose & lipid metabolism & for utilization of
amino acids in several systems. It also has an advantageous effect like
prevention of mild diabetes & arteriosclerosis ( loss of elasticity of inner walls
of arteries). Harmful effects shown by chromium is like lever narcosis ( bringing
something to end), nephritis ( disease connected to kidney) & death in man at
10mg/kg of body weight. Lower doses will cause irritation of gastrointestinal
mucus. Chromium at higher dose causes digestive tract cancer.
• Lead :-
 Sources :-
Lead is a natural constituent of the earth’s crust at an average
concentration of about 16 mg/kg. it is present in a number of minerals.
The principal one is galena (lead sulfide). Lead is used widely for a
variety of purposes like manufacture of acid accumulators, alkyl lead
compounds for gasoline, solder, pigments, ammunition, caulking &
cable sheathing. It is used as roofing material & piping material
including pipes used for potable water.
 Health Effects :-
Lead in high dose is cumulative general metabolic poison. Some of
the symptoms of acute poisoning are tiredness, lassitude, slight
abdominal discomfort, irritability, anemia & in the case of children,
behavioral changes. Lead at low levels can reduce the activity of an
enzyme paraphobilinogen synthesis. Decrease in activity of this enzyme
is used as an index of lead poisoning. Significantly higher lead blood
levels (400 mg/l) have been found in mentally retarded children. Lead
as such is not an essential element for biological system.
• MERCURY :-
 Sources :-
Earth’s crust contains good levels of mercury. It can exist in environment
as metal, as monovalent & divalent salts & as “ Organomercurial”. Among
these, most important is methyl mercury. Fish & mammals absorb and retain
methyl mercury & it accumulates a long food chain. Various industrial
activities like burning of fossil feuls, smelting of various metals, cement
manufacture & waste disposal, paints as preservatives or pigments in
electrical switching equipment & batteries, medical equipment contribute
significant amount of mercury to the environment.
 Health effects :-
Major effects of mercury poisoning are neurological & mutagenic effects
& disturbs the cholesterol metabolism. Low level effects are abdominal pain &
gastrointestinal disturbances. Methyl mercury is highly toxic. It produces
weakness, fatigue followed by neurological disorders, numbness around
mouth, loss of side vision, poor co-ordination of speech & gait, tremors of
hands, irritability & depression. The ultimate effect of methyl mercury is
blindness, paralysis & death.
• NITRATE :-
 Sources :-
Nitrates are the end products of the aerobic stabilization of organic
nitrogen. In surface water supplies, nitrates occur in trace quantities, but may
attain high level in some ground waters. Application of fertilizers to land &
leaching from cesspools contribute nitrate to ground water. Waste from
chemical fertilizer plants also contribute nitrate.
Nitrosomonas
2NH3 + 3O2 ------------> 2NO2- + 2H+ + 2H2O
Bacteria
Nitrites are oxidized by the nitrobacteria to nitrates.
2NO2- + O2 ---------------> 2NO3-

 Impacts :-
Nitrate is an important consideration with regard to potable waters. It
has been reported that nitrate concentration above 20 mg/l causes
“Methemoglobinemia” in infants & the disease “cyanosis” in which the
hemoglobin apparently incapable of transporting oxygen.
• PHOSPHORUS :-
 Sources :-
Phosphorus appears as phosphate in aquatic environment. Phosphate
may occur in surface or ground waters as a result of leaching from minerals or
ores, from agricultural runoff, as a constituent of boiler waters & cooling
waters. It also occurs as a result of industrial wastes & as a major element of
municipal sewage due to the utilization of synthetic detergent.
Phosphorus occurs in natural waters & wastewaters in the form of
various phosphates. They are classified as orthophosphorus, condensed
phosphates & organically bound phosphates. These various forms of
phosphates may occur in soluble form or particulate form.
 Impacts :-
In raw waters, polyphosphates are detrimental. They interfere with
coagulation, floculation & lime-soda treatment of water. Surface waters
seldom contain higher concentration of phosphates, as they are utilized by
plants. Ground waters usually contain appreciable amounts of phosphates.
• AMMONIA :-
 Sources :-
Proteins, aminoacids, etc. yield ammonia as one
of their breakdown products. As a result of its
presence in protein decomposition products
ammonia is present in sewage. The feces of animals
contain appreciable amount of unassimilated
protein matter. Protein matter remaining in the
bodies of dead animals & plants are converted to
ammonia by the action of saprophytic bacteria,
under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
 Impacts :-
The determination of its concentration used as
an indication of the degree of contamination of
water supplies. It is very important for the analysis
of sewage & sewage effluents.
 BIOLOGICAL IMPURITIES
 Biological impurities especially bacteriological impurities
are caused by the presence in water of the pathogenic or
disease- producing type of bacteria, making water
dangerous for human consumption and health.
 from the public health point of view, therefore,
bacteriological impurities are the most important.
 The pathogenic bacteria are generally inherent in the
coliaerogenus or Coliform group of bacteria of which the
Bacilius coli formally known as B coli ( and now called the
Escherichia coli or E coli) is important.
 The E coli bacterial inhibit the intestinal tracts of warm-
blooded animals and also in crude sewage.
 They by themselves are not harmful but their presence
serves to indicate the possible existence in water of
pathogenic type of bacteria.
 It is therefore, important for test to be carried out to
indicate the presence or otherwise of E coli before
declaring water absolutely fit for human consumption.
 Indian Standard
DRINKING WATER- SPECIFICATION
• SCOPE :
• The Standard prescribes the requirements for
the essential and desirable characteristics
required to be tested for ascertaining the
suitability of water for drinking purpose.

• REFERENCES:
• The Indian standard listed in Annex A are
necessary adjuncts to this standard.
• CHARACTERISTICS :
– The test characteristics are given in Table-1.
– Bacteriological Examination
• Water in Distribution System
• Ideally, all samples taken from the distribution system
including consumers premises, should be free from
coliform organisms. In practice, this is not always
attainable, and the following standard for water collected
in the distribution system is therefore recommended
when tested in accordance with IS 1622:1981.
• Throughout any year, 95 percent of samples should not
contain any coliform organisms in 100 ml;
• No sample should contain E. coli in 100 ml;
• No sample should contain more than 10 coliform
organisms per 100 ml; and
• Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 ml of
any two consecutive samples.
• If any coliform organisms are found the minimum action
required is immediate resampling, The repeated finding of 1
to 10 coliform organisms in 100 ml or the appearance of
higher numbers in individual samples suggests that
undesirable material is gaining access to the water and
measures should at once be taken to discover and remove
the source of the pollution.
– Unpiped Water supplies
• Where it is impracticable to supply water to consumers
through a piped distribution network and where untreated
sources, such as wells, bore-holes and springs which may not
be naturally pure, have to be used, the requirements for
piped supplies may not be attainable. In such circumstances,
disinfection although desirable is not always practicable, and
considerable reliance has to be placed on sanitary inspection
and not exclusively on the results of bacteriological
examination.
• Everything possible should be done to prevent pollution of the water.
Obvious sources of contamination should be removed from the
immediate catchment area, special attention being given to the safe
disposal of excrement.
• Wells and storage tanks should be protected by lining and covering,
surface drainage should be diverted, erosion prevented and the
surrounding area paved. Access of man and animals should be
restricted by fencing, and should be so designed that fouling is
prevented when drawing water.
• Although not supplied through pipes, water from such sources is likely
to undergo further deterioration in quality during transport or storage
before drinking.
• Containers used for water should be kept clean, covered and clear of
the floor.
• The most important factor in achieving these objectives is to ensure the
cooperation of the local community, and the importance of education in
simple sanitary hygiene should be strongly stressed . In hospitals or
medical clinics with such supplies, the value of some form of treatment
is stressed.
• 3.2.2.1 Bacteriologically, the objective should be to reduce the
coliform count to less than 10 per 100 ml, but more
importantly, to ensure the absence of faecal coliform
organisms. If these organisms are repeatedly found, or if
sanitary inspection reveals obvious sources of pollution which
cannot be avoided, then an alternative source of drinking
water would be sought , whenever possible. Greater use
should be made of protected ground-water sources and rain-
water catchment which are more likely to meet requirements
for potable water quality.
• 3.2.2.2 Although private sources of drinking water may be
outside the jurisdiction of public health and water supply
authorities, such supplies should still be of potable quality. The
results of bacteriological tests and those of sanitary surveys
should therefore be used to encourage improvement. Partial
treatment may be necessary to remove turbidity even when
coliform counts are low: and other quality criteria may dictate
the need for treatment processes.
• 3.3 Virological Examination
• 3.3.1 It is theoretically possible that virus
disease can be transmitted by water free
from coliform organisms, but conclusive
evidence, that this has occurred, is lacking.
 TABLE 1 - TEST CHARCTERISTICS FOR DRINKING WATER
Sr.No Substance or Requirement Undesirable Permissible Methods of Remarks
Characteristics (Desirable Limit Effect outside the Limit in the Test Ref 9 to
) Desirable Limit Absence of 18)
Alternative
Source

1 Essential Characteristics

i) Colour, Hazen Units, 5 Above 5, Consumer 25 3025(Part4):198 Extended to 25 only if

Max acceptance 3 toxic substances are not
decreases suspected, in absence of
alternate sources

ii) Odour Unobjectionable - - 3025(part a)Test cold and when

5):1983 heated
b) Test at several
dilutions

iii) Taste Agreeable - - 3025 (part 7 and Test to be conducted

8 ):1984 only after safety has
been established
iv) Turbidity, NTU, 5 Above 5, Consumer 10 3025(Part -
Max acceptance decreases 10):1984

v) pH Value 6.5 to 8.5 Beyond this range the No 3025(Part11):198 -

water will affect the Relaxation 4
mucous membrane and/
or water supply system

vi) Total Hardness ( 300 Encrustation in water 600 3025(Part -

as CaCo3)mg/l, supply structure and 21):1983
Max adverse effects on
domestic use

vii) Iron ( as Fe) 0.3 Beyond this limit 1.0 32 of 3025:1964 -

mg/l, Max taste/appearance are
affected, has adverse
effect on domestic uses
and water supply
structures, and promotes
iron bacteria
Viii Chlorides ( as 250 Beyond this limit, 1000 3025(Part 320: -
Cl)mg/l, Max taste,corrosion 1988
and palatability
are affected

ix) Residual, free 0.2 - - 3025(Part26):19 To be applicable

chlorine, mg/l,Min 86 only when water is
chlorinated.Tested
at consumer
end.When
protection against
viral infection is
required, it should
be Min 0.5mg/l.

DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS

X Dissolved solids 500 Beyond this 2000 3025(Part16):19 -

mg/l, Max palatability 84
decreases and may
cause gastro
intestional
irritation
xi) Calcium (as 75 Encrustation in water supply 200 30259Part -
Ca)mg/l, Max structure and adverse effects 40):1991
on domestic use

xii Copper 9as Cu) 0.05 Astringent taste, discoloration 1.5 36 of 3025;1964 -
mg/l, Max and corrosion of pipes, fitting and
utensils will be caused beyond
this

Xiii Manganese (as Mn) 0.1 Beyond this limit 0.3 35 of 3025 :1964 -
mg/l, Max taste/Appearance are affected,
had adverse effect on domestic
uses and water supply structures

Xiv Sulphate (as 200 Beyond this causes gastro 400 3025 (Part 24): May be
SO4)mg/l, Max intenstinal irritation when (see col 7) 1986 extended
magnesium or sodium are present up to 400
provided
(as Mg)
does not
exceed 30
Xiv Sulphate 200 Beyond this 400 3025 (Part May be
(as causes gastro (see col 7) 24): 1986 extended
SO4)mg/l, intenstinal up to 400
Max irritation when provided
magnesium or (as Mg)
sodium are does not
present exceed 30
Xv Nitrate ( as 45 Beyond this 100 3025(Part -
NO2) mg/l, methaemoglobin 34): 1988
Max emia takes place

Xvi Fluoride ( 1.0 FDluoride may be 1.5 23 of 3025 -

as F) mg/l, kept as low as :1964
Max possible. High
fluoride may
cause fluorosis
Xvii Phenolic 0.001 Beyond this, it 0.002 54 of -
compounds ( may cause 3025:1964
as C6H6OH) objectionable
mg/l, Max taste and
odour

Xviii Mercury ( As 0.001 Beyond this No (See Note ) To be

Hg) , mg/l, ,the water Relaxation Mercury tested
Max becomes toxic Ion when
Analyzer pollution is
suspected

Xix Cadium ( as 0.01 Beyond this No ( See Note) To be

Cd) mg/l, ,the water Relaxation tested
Max becomes toxic when
pollution is
suspected
Xx Selenium ( 0.01 Beyond this No 28 of To be tested
As Se) mg/l, ,the water Relaxation 3025:1964 when
Max becomes toxic pollution is
suspected

Xxi Arsenic ( as 0.05 Beyond this No 3025 (Part To be tested

As) mg/l, ,the water Relaxation 37): 1988 when
Max becomes toxic pollution is
suspected

Xxii Cyanide ( as 0.05 Beyond this No 3025 (Part To be tested

CN), mg/l, ,the water Relaxation 27):1986 when
Max becomes toxic pollution is
suspected

Xxiii Lead ( as 0.05 Beyond this No ( see note) To be tested

Pb) mg/l , ,the water Relaxation when
Max becomes toxic pollution is
suspected
Xxiv Zinc ( as Zn) 5 Beyond this 15 39 of 3025 To be tested
mg/l, Max limit it can :1964 when
cause pollution is
astringent suspected
taste and
opalescence
in water
xxv Anionic 0.2 Beyond this 1.0 Methylen To be tested
detergents ( limit it can e-blue when
as MBAS) cause a light extraction pollution is
mg/l, Max forth in water method suspected

Xxvi Chromium ( 0.05 May be No 38 of To be tested

As Cr+6) carcinogenic Relaxation 3025:1964 when
mg/l , Max above this pollution is
limit suspected
XXVII Polynuclear - May be - - -
aromatic carcinogenic
hydrocarbo
ns 9 as PAH)
g/l , Max
Xxviii Mineral oil 0.01 Beyond this 0.03 Gas To be tested
mg/l, Max limit chromatogr when
undesirable aphic pollution is
taste and method suspected
odour after
chlorination
take place
Xxix Pesticides Absent Toxic 0.001 - -
mg/l, Max

Xxx Radioactive 58 of
materials : 3025:1964 -
a)Alpha - - 0.01 - -
emitters Bq/l, -
Max
b)Beta - - 1
Emitters
pci/l, Max
Xxxi Alkalinity 200 Beyond 600 13 of -
mg/l, Max this limit 3025:1964
taste
becomes
unpleasant
`

xxxii Aluminlum ( 0.03 Cumulative 0.2 31 of -

as Al), mg/l, effect is 3025:1964
Max reported to
cause
dementia

Xxxiii Boron, mg/l, 1 - 5 29 of -

Max 3025:1964
• 3.3.2 None of the generally accepted sewage treatment
methods yield virus-free effluent. Although a number of
investigators have found activated sludge treatment to be
superior to trickling filters from this point of view, it seems
possible that chemical precipitation methods will prove to
be the most effective.
• 3.3.3 Virus can be isolated from raw water and from
springs. Enterovirus, reovirus and adenovirus have been
found in water, the first named being the most resistant to
chlorination. If enterovirus absent from chlorinated water,
it can be assumed that water is safe to drink. Some
uncertainty still remains about the of infectious hepatitis,
since it has not so far been isolated but in view of the
morphology and resistance of enterovirus it is likely that, if
they have been inactivated hepatitis virus will have been
inactivated also.
• 3.3.4 An exponential relationship exists between the rate of virus inactivation
and the redox potential. A redox potential of 6.50mV(measured between
platinum and calomel electrodes) will cause almost instantaneous inactivation
of even high concentrations of virus. Such a potential can be obtained with
even a low concentration of free chlorine, but only with an extremely high
concentration of combined chlorine. This oxidative inactivation may be
achieved with a number of other oxidants also, for example iodine,ozone and
potassium permanganate, but the effect of the oxidants will always be
counteracted if reducing components, which are mainly organic, are present.
As a consequence, the sensitivity of virus towards desinfectants will depend
on the milieu just as much as on the particular disinfectant used.
• 3.3.5 Thus, in a water in which free chlorine is present, active virus will
generally be absent if coliform organisms are absent. In contrast, because the
difference between the resistance of coliform organisms and of virus to
disinfection by oxidants increases with increasing concentration of reducing
components, for example, organic matter, it cannot be assumed that the
absence of viable coliform organisms implies freedom from active virus under
circumstances where a free chlorine residual cannot be maintained.
Sedimentation and slow sand filtration in themselves may contribute to the
removal of virus from water.
• 3.3.6 In practice 0.5 mg/l of free chlorine for one hour is sufficient to
inactivate virus, even in water that was originally polluted.
– Biological Examination
• Biological examination is of value in determining the causes of
objectionable tests and odours in water and controlling remedial
treatments, in helping to interpret the results of various chemical
analysis and explaining the causes of clogging in distribution pipes
and filters. In some instances, it may be of use in demonstrating
that water from one source has been mixed with that from
another.
• The biological qualities of a water are of greater importance when
supply has not undergone the conventional flocculation and
filtration processes, since increased growth of methane-utilizing
bacteria on biological slimes in pipes may then be excepted and
the development of bryzoal growths such as Plumatella may cause
operational difficulties.
• Some of the animalcules found in water mains may be free-living
in the water, but others such as Dreissena and Asellus are more or
less firmly attached to the inside of the mains. Although these
animalcules are not themselves pathogenic, they may habour
pathogenic organisms or virus in their intestines, thus protecting
these pathogens from destruction by chlorine.
• Chlorination at the dosages normally employed in
waterworks, is ineffective against certain parasites,
including amoebic cysts; they can be excluded only by
effective filtration or by higher chlorine doses than can be
tolerated without subsequent dechlorination. Amoebiasis
can be conveyed by water completely free from enteric
bacteria; microscopic examination after concentration is,
therefore, the only safe methods of identification.
• Strict precautions against back-syphonage and cross-
connections are required if amoebic cysts are found in a
distribution system containing tested water.
• The cercariae of schistosomiasis can be detected by similar
microscopic examination, but there is , in any case, no
evidence to suggest that this disease is normally spread
through piped water supplies.
 • The Cyclops vector of the embryos of Dracunculus medinensis
which causes dracontiasis or Guinea-worm disease can be found
in open wells in a number of tropical areas. They are identifiable
by microscopic examination. Such well supplies are frequently
used untreated, but the parasite can be relatively easily excluded
by simple physical improvements in the form of curbs, drainage,
and apron surrounds and other measures which prevent physical
contact with the water source.
• The drinking water shall be free from microscopic organisms
such as algae, zooplanktons, flagillates, parasites and toxin-
producing organisms. An illustrative ( and not exhaustive ) list is
given in Annex B for guidance.
• SAMPLING
• Representative samples of water shall be drawn as
prescribed in IS 1622:1981 and IS 3025 (Part 1):
1987
 ANNEX B
(Clause 3.4.8)
ILLUSTRATIVE OF MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS WHICH MAY BE
PRESENT IN WATER
Classification of Group and Name of Habitat Effect of the
Microscopic Organism the Organism Organisms and
Significance
1. ALGAE a) Chlorophyceae Polluted water, Impart
Species of Coelastrum, impounded sources colouration
Comphospherium,
Micractinium,Mougeot
ia,oocystis,Euastrum,S
cenedesmus,Actinastr
um,Gonium,Eudorina
Pandorina,Pediastrum,
Zygnema,Chlamydomo
nas, Careteria,
Chlorella,Chloroococcu
s,Spirogyra,Tetraedron,
Chlorogomium,
Stigeoclonium
Species of Polluted Waters Produce taste and
Pandorina,Volvox, odour
Gomphospherium,
Staurastrum,Hydro
dictyon, Nitella

Species of Clean Water Indicate clean

Rhizoclonium,clado condition
thrix,
Ankistrodesmus,Ulo
thrix,Micrasterias,C
hromulina

Species of Polluted Waters, Clog filters and

Chlorella,Tribonema impounded sources create operational
,Closterium,Spirogy difficulties
ra, Palmella
2. ZOOPLAN a) Protozoa
KTON
Amoeba, Giardia Polluted waters Pollution indicators
Lamblia Arcella, Diffugia,
Actinophrys
Sewage and activated Parasitic and Pathogenic
Endamoeba, Histolytica sludge

b) Ciliates Highly polluted waters, Bacteria eaters

Paramoccium, Vorticella sewage and activated
, Carchesium, Stentor, sludge
Colpidium, Coleps,
Euplotes, Colopoda,
Bodo

C) Crustancea

Bosmina, Daphnia Stagnant polluted waters Indicators of pollution

Cyclops Step wells in tropical Carrier host of guinea

climate worm
3. ROTIFERS a) Rotifers
Anurea, Rotaria, Philodina Polluted and algae laden Feed on algae
waters

b) Flagellates
Ceratium, Glenodinium, Peridinium Rocky strata, iron bearing Impart colour and fishy
Dinobryon and acidic waters taste

Polluted waters
Euglena, Phacus Impart colour

c) Miscellaneous Organisms sponges, Fresh water Clog filters and affect

Hydra purification systems

Highly polluted waters, Clog filters and render

Tubifex, Eristalis, Chironomids
sewage and activated water unaesthetic
sludge and bottom
deposites
d) Plumatella Polluted waters Produces biological slimes
and causes filter
operational difficulties

Harbour pathogenic
Polluted waters organisms
Dreissena, Asellus