Chapter 1

An Introduction to Nanomaterials

Fatma Hadef

Contents
1.1 Introduction and Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Nanoworld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Lotus Leaves (Self Cleaning) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Gecko Feet (Adhesive Materials) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Structure of Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Properties: The Physics at the Nanoscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.1 Confinement Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.2 Surface Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.3 Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.4 Optical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.5 Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5 Nanomaterials Synthesis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.5.1 Bottom-Up Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5.2 Top-Down Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.6.1 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.6.2 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6.3 Nanomedicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6.4 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.6.5 Nanoelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.6.6 Food Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.6.7 Textile Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.6.8 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

F. Hadef (*)
Département de Physique, Faculté des Sciences, Université 20 Août 1955-Skikda, Skikda,
Algeria

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

N. Dasgupta et al. (eds.), Environmental Nanotechnology, Environmental Chemistry
for a Sustainable World 14, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76090-2_1
2 F. Hadef

Abstract Nanotechnology can be defined as the systematic study of materials that

have properties critically dependant on length scales on the order of nanometers.
Such novel and improved properties make nanoscale materials promising candidates
for a wide range of applications that are expected to improve our lifestyles. Here, I
review different aspects of nanotechnology. This paper describes first, definitions
and classifications of nanomaterials reported in published research works. Then, I
disscuss the most enhanced properties of manufactured nanomaterials. This will be
followed by a description of the synthesis methods being used to obtain nanostruc-
tured materials. Nanotechnology applications in the energy, environment,
nanomedicine, sensors, nanoelectronics, textile, food and agriculture fields are
discussed in the last section.

1.1 Introduction and Historical Background

The first Industrial Revolution, at the end of eighteenth century, has triggered the
development of technological research and the obtention of novel materials (Fajardo
et al. 2015). The challenges today are the miniaturation of devices and instruments;
smaller volume, lesser power consumption but greater performance. The progression
relies upon the searching out new desirable materials and the ability of making tiny
structures with high precision. However, the development is not so smooth and easy.
One of the most brilliant methods created to answer such condition is the nanotech-
nology (Fajardo et al. 2015; Huyen 2011). In recent years, research involving
nanoscale materials has generated a great deal of interest from scientists and
engineers. They view nanotechnology as the revolutionary technology of the
twenty-first century (The Royal Society 2004).
Visualize printing all 24 volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica on the head of
a pin. In 1959, Richard Feynman articulated this reality in an insightful address at the
annual meeting of the American Physical Society. In what became a prophetic
speech, “There’s plenty of room at the bottom” (Feynman 1960). It was a masterly
and provocative talk in which the problem of manipulating and controlling things on
a small scale was discussed to its extreme limits. Points considered, several of which
contained sound predictions, included: information on a small scale, comparisons
with the biological systems, miniaturization by evaporation, making small machines,
arranging the atoms one by one the way we want (Ferro and Saccone 2008). The
tunable material properties that nanotechnology can provide were stated in Norio
Taniguchi’s paper in 1974 where the term “nanotechnology” was first used in a
scientific publication to explain precision engineering in semiconductor processes
(Taniguchi 1974). However, the growing interest in nanosciences and nanotechnol-
ogy emerged during the 1980s with the invention of the scanning tunnelling micro-
scope by Binning and Rohrer. They received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986
(Binnig and Rohrer 1986). It was also used in the development of the atomic force
microscope, invented by Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber (Khun 2015). They
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 3

provided atomic resolution, three orders of magnitude better than the diffraction
limit of optical microscopes, which more than fulfilled Feynman’s request to make
the electron microscope 100 times better (Roduner 2006). In 1985, fullerene, which
is shaped like a ball and just 1 nm in diameter, was discovered by Kroto et al. (1985).
In 1986, Eric Drexler published a book titled “Engine of Creation” which dissem-
inates his provocative ideas on molecular nanotechnology to a general audience
outside the scientific community (Drexler 1986). In 1991, Sumio Iijima discovered
carbon nanotubes, which are tube shaped materials whose diameter measures on the
nanometer scale (Iijima 1991). Ahead of schedule in 1995, S.Y. Chou and coworkers
firstly proposed the nanoimprint lithography concept in Nanostructure Laboratory of
University of Minnesota. Dr. T. Sasaki from National Institute of Research discov-
ered nanosheets and investigation of nanosheets in photocatalytic activity in 1996
(Bashir and Liu 2015). As a strategic and distinct area of scientific inquiry, nano-
technology research began in the United States with the establishment of the
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in 2001 (Eckelman et al. 2008). Actually,
scientific journals that are focused specifically on nanotechnology have been started
including: International Journal of Nanotechnology, Nano Letters, Journal of
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Journal of Nanoparticle Research. . .etc.
(Eckelman et al. 2008).
The term nanotechnology is derived from a Greek word ‘nano’ meaning ‘dwarf’,
hence it relates to materials of very small size ranges (Nikalje 2015). Indeed, it is the
creation of materials, components, devices and/or systems at near atomic or molec-
ular levels. Usually, one of the dimensions of nanoproducts is between 1 and 100 nm
length in scale. This emerging technology involves fabricating, imaging, measuring,
modeling, and manipulating matter at individual atoms, molecules, or particles to
significantly improve the physical, chemical, physico-chemical, and biological
properties of materials and devices, for various purposes (Asmatulu et al. 2010).
This definition has two parts. One is the part about engineering at dimensions of
1–100 nm, and the other is about properties of materials at the nanoscale that enable
their use for novel applications. The size range that holds so much interest is
typically from 100 nm down to the atomic level, because it is in this range that
materials have radically different properties from their bulk counterparts. The main
reasons for this change in behavior are an increased relevance of surface and
interfacial area (Wardak et al. 2008). On the other hand, nanotechnology, is a new
paradigm in fundamental thinking and understanding about the physical universe,
where the bottom up approach is the norm and not an exception. In this new
approach, one has to think in terms of atoms and how they interact to make useful
materials, structures, devices and systems (Raza and Raza 2013; Rocco 2007; Rocco
et al. 2011) (Fig. 1.1).
Nanotechnology has been moving from the laboratory environment into applica-
tions and consumer products for some time now (Barakat and Jiao 2011). Actually,
nanotechnology is a highly multidisciplinary field, bringing together many fields,
including: electrical and mechanical engineering, physics, chemistry, and biosci-
ences. It will radically affect all these disciplines and their application areas. Eco-
nomic impact is foreseen to be comparable to information technology and telecom
4 F. Hadef

Government and non-government

organizations, funding agencies
(policies, regulations, IPR, public and business interests)

Scientific Disciplines
(e.g. physics, chemistry,
material sciences, biology,
engineering sciences)

Nano-science
Nano-knowledge Manufacturing and
Commercialization & technology
generation
evolution
Nano-knowledge
dissemination
and use
Technology Domains
(e.g. materials, electronics,
manufacturing, biotechnology)

Institutions
(universities, PRIs, industries and firms)

Fig. 1.1 General framework of nanoscience and technology evolution (Reproduced from Islam
and Miyazaki 2010 Copyright (2010) Elsevier)

industries (Ermolov et al. 2007). As a result, demand has risen significantly for a
workforce capable of supporting this promising technology (Barakat and Jiao 2011).
The nanotechnology will create the new horizons for the human world and their
promises have been realized to deliver the greatest scientific and technological
advances in several areas including: environment, energy, health and medical care,
information, communications, and electronics (Daryoush and Darvish 2013). This
article addresses to fill current knowledge of manufactured nanomaterials, by pro-
viding a comprehensive review of recent developments in the nanotechnology field.
It highlights the various definitions, classifications, fundamental properties and
synthesis routes of nanomaterials. The review also focuses onto their potential
applications in many fields.
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 5

1.2 The Nanoworld

The nanoworld is not new. Many important functions of living organisms take place
at the nanoscale. The human body uses natural nanoscale materials such as proteins
and other molecules, to control the body’s many systems and processes. A typical
protein such as hemoglobin, which carries oxygen through the bloodstream, is 5 nm
in diameter (National Nanomaterial Initiative 2010).
Nanometal particle inclusions have been used for a long time, for example the
famous Lycurgus Cup from fourth century AD, which was probably carved in Rome
(Fig. 1.2). It appears red by reflexion and green by transmission (Daniszewska et al.
2006). The reason for this dichroism was unknown until detailed SEM analysis of
the cup was performed in 1990. It was found that it was due to the presence of nano-
sized particles of silver (66.2%), gold (31.2%) and copper (2.6%), up to 100 nm in
size, embedded in the glass. Light absorption and scattering by these nanoparticles
determines the different colours (Filipponi and Sutherland 2013). Another applica-
tion of alloy nanoparticles is lustered pottery, which shows shining surfaces with
particular optical properties. Lustering is one of the most sophisticated techniques
used to decorate majolica. It was developed in Iraq and was then introduced in Italy
via Spain. The studies showed that the beautiful iridescent reflections of various
colors (especially gold and ruby-red) were obtained from a thin metallic film
containing silver, copper, and other substances such as iron oxide and cinnabar.
The differences in the luster nanostructures suggest how they are affected by not
only the chemical composition of the recipes used but also the technological
processes used (Pienpinijtham and Thongnopkun 2015).
The existence of nanomaterials has been known for centuries; examples of which
are the carbon black, fumed silica, titania; their industrial applications dated since the
1900s (Charitidis et al. 2014). Nanomaterials are, also in the environment (Klaine
et al. 2008):

Fig. 1.2 The Lycurgus cup

dates from the Roman
empire (British Museum)
6 F. Hadef

1. In urban atmospheres: diesel- and gasoline-fueled vehicles and stationary com-

bustion sources have for many years contributed particulate material throughout a
wide size range, including nanoparticles, amounting to more than 36% of the total
particulate number concentrations (Shi et al. 2001).
2. In aquatic systems: colloid is the generic term applied to particles in the 1–100 nm
size range. Aquatic colloids comprise macromolecular organic materials, such as
humic and fulvic acids, proteins, and peptides, as well as colloidal inorganic
species, typically hydrous iron and manganese oxides.
3. In soils: natural nanoparticles include clays, organic matter, iron oxides, and other
minerals that play an important role in biogeochemical processes.
Nanomaterials are in nature. We see hundreds of examples of nanoscience under
our eyes daily. Natural nanomaterials are of interest not only to understand the
amazing properties of biological materials but also to gather inspiration for the
design and engineering of new materials with advanced properties (Filipponi and
Sutherland 2013). These natural nanomachines are inspiring in their own right, and
their existence and the detailed study of their mode of operation have driven efforts
to mimic them using artificially designed and constructed systems – this is called
bioinspired nanotechnology or biomimetic nanotechnology (Ramsden 2016).

1.2.1 Lotus Leaves (Self Cleaning)

In recent times there has been new understanding about how the hydrophobic (water
hating) and hydrophilic (water loving) surfaces work. This effect has been there for
millions of years and now scientists call it as the Lotus effect. Lotus (Nelumbo
nucifera Gaertn) is an important freshwater aquatic plant within the family
Nelumbonaceae (Fig. 1.3). Lotus is also commonly known as sacred lotus or
Indian lotus (Zhu 2017). This flower, a symbol of beauty, has a superficial hydro-
phobic molecular layer made of nanometric-sized hairs on which the tiny water
droplets slide, removing any dust particles; as a result the flower retains its shape
(Nouailhat 2008). In fact, The surface properties of the lotus leaf were first investi-
gated by Wilhelm Barthlott. In 1997, he published an important paper where he
described for the first time the ‘Lotus effect’ (a term that he later copyrighted)
responsible for the self-cleaning properties of the lotus leaves (Filipponi and Suth-
erland 2013). This self-cleaning behavior, called superhydrophobicity, is useful for
many modern applications, including stain-resistant paints and roof tiles as well as
coatings for fabrics and other surfaces that need to stay dry and repel dirt. Scientists
are also studying this effect for lab-on-a-chip applications, in which hydrophobic
and hydrophilic materials can be used to control the flow of liquids through
microfluidic components (Risbuda and Bartl 2013; Ressine et al. 2007).
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 7

Fig. 1.3 Lotus flowers and

leaves (Reproduced from
Guo 2009 Copyright (2009)
Springer)

1.2.2 Gecko Feet (Adhesive Materials)

Scientific interest in the gecko began when, more than 2000 years ago, the Greek
philosopher Aristotle first coined the phrase “like the Gecko lizard” (Aristotle 1918).
Since then, this lizard’ s amazing ability to climb walls and run on ceilings has
inspired a wealth of research studies, many of which have proposed reasons for the
gecko’s amazing adhesive abilities (Greiner 2010). Gecko feet is one of the attractive
examples since these animals can climb vertical surfaces without the need of
cleaning their feet (Hansen and Autumn 2005). It was not until the 1960s that the
German anatomist, Uwe Hiller made a major breakthrough when, using electron
microscopy, he revealed the bristle – like, hierarchical structure of the gecko’ stoe
pads (Hiller and Blaschke 1967; Hiller 1968) that today, are recognized as being
responsible for the animal’s climbing abilities (Greiner 2010). The gecko foot has a
series of small ridges called scansors which contain numerous projections called
setae. Each seta is about 100 μm long and has a diameter of about 5 μm. There are
about half a million of these setae on the foot of a gecko. Each seta is further
subdivided into about a thousand 200 nm-wide projections called spatulae (Fig. 1.4).
As a result, the total surface area of the gecko’s feet is enormous. The gecko spatulae
are very flexible, so they essentially mould themselves into the molecular structure
of any surface. The result is a strong adhesion which is entirely due to van der Waals
forces (Filipponi and Sutherland 2013). Researchers are experimenting with using
gecko tape on the feet of climbing robots (Kunkel Microscopy).
8 F. Hadef

Fig. 1.4 Multi-scale combined hierarchical gecko foot hairs. As shown, millions of fine micro-
scopic foot hairs (setae) on the attachment pads split into hundreds of nanoscale ends (spatulae)
(Reproduced from Jeong and Suh 2009 Copyright (2009) Elsevier)

1.3 Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials and nano-manufactured goods represent areas of scientific research

and industrial applications in full expansion (Gaffet 2011). Size reduction can lead to
a whole range of new physico-chemical properties and a wealth of potential appli-
cations (Lehn 2006). These propertites strongly depends on size, shape, surface area
and structure of particles. Nanomaterials can exist in single, fused, aggregated or
agglomerated forms with spherical, tubular, and irregular shapes (Kumar and
Kumbhat 2016). The major advantages of nanomaterial over bulk material include
decrease in melting point and surface area, increase in dielectric constant and
mechanical strength (Maddineni et al. 2015; Dasgupta et al. 2016; Ranjan et al.
2016; Pulimi and Subramanian 2016). In addition, size of nanoparticles enables
them to absorb exceptionally on to other material (Dasgupta et al. 2015; Ranjan et al.
2015, 2016). Because of all these unique behaviour and properties, nanoparticles
have wider application in textiles, clothing, and cosmetics, pharmaceutical, elec-
tronic and paint industry. Also, they are widely used for development of health care
products and remediation of contaminated environment (Pulimi and Subramanian
2016).
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 9

Water Glucose Antibody Virus Bacterium Cancer cell A period Tennis ball

10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

(nm)

Nanodevices
Nanopores
Dendrimers
Nanotubes
Quantum dots
Nanoshells

Fig. 1.5 A size comparison of nanoparticle with other larger-sized materials (Reproduced from
Amin et al. 2014 Copyright (2014) Hindawi publishing corporation)

1.3.1 Definitions

Nanomaterials, once called by Paul Ehrlich as “Magic Bullets” (Kreuter 2007), are
one of the most studied materials of the century that gave birth to a new branch of
science known as nanotechnology (Nasir Khan et al. 2017). Nanomaterials are
chemical substances or materials that are produced or used at a very small scale.
In fact, the term material refers to an almost infinite number of constituents,
collectivelly displaying an averaged statistical behavior. Therefore the behavior of
nanomaterials is dominated by particular interface effects and exhibit characteristics
affected by size and the limited number of constituents (Bahrami 2007).
But what is a nanometer? A nanometer is a thousandth of a micron and a micron is
a thousandth of a millimeter, so a nanometer is a millionth of a millimeter or 10
9 m
(Fig. 1.5). To date, there is no uniformly accepted definition of what in fact
constitutes a ‘nanomaterial’. To be classified as a nanomaterial, the material must
be less than 100 nm in size in at least one direction. In 2008 and 2010, the
International Standardization Organization has provided overarching technical def-
initions for nanotechnology-related terms: ‘Nanomaterial’ is defined as material with
any external dimension in the nanoscale or having internal or surface structure in the
nanoscale, with ‘nanoscale’ defined as the size range from approximately 1 to
100 nm (ISO/TS 27687 2008; ISO/TS 80004-1 2010). The European Commission
has defined a nanomaterial as “Nanomaterial” means a natural, incidental, or
manufactured material containing particles, in an unbound state or as an aggregate
or as an agglomerate and where, for 50% or more of the particles in the number size
distribution, one or more external dimensions is in the size range 1–100 nm (Official
Journal of the European Union 2011). The definition, adopted in 2011, aims to
provide a reference for determining whether a material should be considered as a
nanomaterial for legislative and policy purposes in the European Union. This latter is
10 F. Hadef

the only definition that includes natural or accidentally occurring nanoparticles,

whereas all other definitions are restricted to ‘intentionally produced, manufactured,
or engineered nanomaterials (Cefic 2012).
The following microstructural features are considered to be the main factors on
which the properties of the nanostructured materials are defined (Lemoine 2000):
1. Fine grain size and size distribution (less than 100 nm).
2. Presence of interfaces (grain boundaries, heterophase interfaces, free surface).
3. Interactions between constituent domains.

1.3.2 Classifications

A nanomaterial is a broad name given to all types of materials found at the

nanoscale. Several names have been given to these new materials; nanostructured,
nanometer-sized, ultrafine-grained . . .etc. They can be naturally occurring or chem-
ically, mechanically, physically, or biologically synthesized with various structures
(Saleh 2016). Nanomaterials can be classified based on different parameters includ-
ing their origin (natural or anthropogenic); chemical composition (organic and
inorganic); formation (biogenic, geogenic, anthropogenic, and atmospheric); size,
shape, and characteristics; and applications in research and industry (Salah and
Gupta 2016).

1.3.2.1 Classification of Nanomaterials Based on Their Origin

Nanomaterials can be of two types (Filipponi and Sutherland 2013):

1. Non-intentionally made nanomaterials, which refers to nano-sized particles or
materials that belong naturally to the environment (e.g. proteins, viruses,
nanoparticles produced during volcanic eruptions, . . .etc.) or that are produced
by human activity without intention (e.g. nano-particles produced from diesel
combustion).
2. Intentionally made nanomaterials, which refers to nanomaterials produced delib-
erately through a defined fabrication process.

1.3.2.2 Classification of Nanomaterials Based on Chemical Composition

On the basis of their chemical composition, they can be classified into various
categories, Metal-based materials are mainly composed of metals (e.g, silver, gold,
and copper nanoparticles). Metal oxide nanomaterials are made of metal and oxygen,
such as titania, silica, and alumina. . .etc. (Saleh and Gupta 2016).
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 11

Fig. 1.6 Particle

distribution of CdTe
nanoparticles from TEM
micrograph (Reproduced
from Das et al. 2016
Copyright (2016) Elsevier)

1.3.2.3 Classification of Nanomaterials Based on Dimensionality

Nanomaterials with structural features at the nanoscale can be found in different

forms. The materials of interest include metals, amorphous and crystalline alloys,
semiconductors, oxides, nitride and carbide ceramics in the form of clusters, thin
films, multilayers, and bulk nanocrystalline materials. According to this concept,
nanomaterials can be classified as follows:

1.3.2.3.1 Zero-Dimensional (0-D)

They are crystalline clusters of a few hundred to a few thousand atoms with sizes of
ranging from 2 to 100 nm (Wani 2015) (Fig. 1.6). Nanoparticles have been used in
glass making since Mesopotamian and Roman times. However, it is only recently
that nanoparticles and materials have been knowingly and deliberately manufactured
(Royal Society of Chemistry 2011). In general, there are two broad types of
nanoparticles: incidental and engineered. Incidental airborne nanoparticles (diame-
ters less than 100 nm), also referred to as ultrafine particles, are common in indoor
air. Engineered nanoparticles, on the other hand, are manufactured materials, and
there are a growing number of concerns about the potential hazards associated with
these particles (Jordan et al. 2014). Engineered nanoparticles cover a broad range of
compounds, including both inorganic (elemental metals, metal oxides, metal salts,
and aluminosilicates) and organic (fullerenes, micelle-like amphiphilic polyurethane
particles, and dendrimers) compounds (Filella 2012).
Man-made/engineered nanoparticles have well-known applications in wide range
of fields with the increasing demand in material science, electronic devices, biomed-
ical research, food industry etc. Within the biomedicine industry, nanoparticle
application has expanded to the areas of diagnostics and therapeutic purposes. The
nano product demands in medicine and the pharmaceutical industry is expected to
12 F. Hadef

rise by over 17% each year and at a much higher rate in the food industry (Jones and
Grainger 2009, Jain et al. 2016). Metal nanoparticles are mainly used for drug
delivery systems. These metals include silver AgNP, gold AuNP, titanium dioxide
TiO2 NP, and silica SiO2.
Many techniques, including both top-down and bottom-up approaches, have been
developed and applied for the synthesis of nanoparticles. The most traditional
preparation method for nanoparticle synthesis is the sol-gel method (Brinker and
Scherer 1990; Rajendran and Sen 2017). This technique allows the addition of all the
dispersants in one synthetic step. In the spray-drying technique, a homogenized
precursor solution and relevant additives are sprayed within a specially designed
chamber at temperatures at or above the boiling point of the solvent leading to the
quick formation of metallic nanoparticles. The ablation of a solid source with a
pulsed laser can also yield nanoparticles, but the formation mechanism is at present
not very clear. A micronsized aerosol droplet may also yield nanoparticles by
evaporating a solute-containing droplet. Electrospray systems are often applied as
droplet generators, as they produce very small droplets being quite monodisperse in
comparison to other spray processes (Kruis 2001). Recently much attention was
focused on green and biological synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using plants and
microorganisms (Kumar et al. 2012, 2015; Kumar and Sen 2013).
Quantum Dots
Quantum dots or QDs, also known as nanocrystals, are another form of nanomaterial
and are a specific type of semiconductor. They are 2–10 nm (10–50 atoms) in
diameter (Salamon et al. 2010). The optical properties of nanocrystals are defined
by their size and surface chemistry and they differ drastically from those of the bulk
solids (Mohapatra et al. 2012). Indeed, QDs of the same element, are clusters of
atoms less than tens of nanometers in size that emit different colors depending on
their specific particle size (Kang 2010). In structure, quantum dots consist of a
metalloid crystalline core and a ‘cap’ or ‘shell’ that shields the core. QDs cores
can be formed from a variety of metal conductors such as semiconductors, noble
metals and magnetic transition metals (Allsopp et al. 2007). The shells are also
formed of a variety of materials. Therefore, not all quantum dots are alike and they
cannot be considered to be a uniform group of substances (Hardman 2006). As
quantum dots have such a small size they show different properties to bulk material.
Hence the ‘tunability’, for example, sensitivity to different wavelengths of light, can
be adjusted by the number of atoms or size of the quantum dot. They are typically
made from CdSe, ZnS or CdTe compounds (Salamon et al. 2010). Quantum dots can
be used for LEDs and solid-state lighting, displays, photovoltaics, transistors,
quantum computing, medical imaging, biosensors, among many others (Material
Matters 2012).
Fullerene
The first 0D graphite allotrope molecule to be discovered, and the family’s name-
sake, buckminsterfullerene (C60) (Fig. 1.7), was prepared in 1985 by Richard
Smalley, Robert Curl, James Heath, Sean O’Brien, and Harold Kroto at Rice
University. They named the molecule Buckminsterfullerene in honor of the
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 13

Fig. 1.7 The structures of C60 and C70 molecules (Reproduced from Wang 2015 Copyright (2015)
Elsevier)

American architect R. Buckminster Fuller who introduced geodesic structures in

architecture (Kroto et al. 1985). Its existance had been predicted before, in 1970, by
the Japanese theoretician Eiji Ozawa (Ozawa et al. 1993). Fullerene or C60 is soccer
– ball – shaped molecule, with a diameter around 1 nm, consisting of 20 hexagonal
and 12 pentagonal rings as the basis of an icosahedral symmetry closed cage
structure. In fullerenes, all the carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized but they are not
arranged on a plane like in graphite (Connell 2006; Meyyappan 2005). The unique
morphology of these nanostructures possess large surface area to volume ratio and is
suitable for a wide variety of applications (Cherusseri and Kar 2015). More than
thirty higher fullerenes including C70, C76, C78, C84, C90 and C94 and their deriva-
tives are synthesized along with C60 (Diederich et al. 1991).

1.3.2.3.2 One-Dimensional (1-D)

The second class of nanoscale materials, referred to as 1-D nanostructures, is

reserved for those materials that have nanoscale dimensions that are equivalent in
all but one direction (Balaz 2008). They are generally well understood and techno-
logically advanced (The Royal Society 2003). One-dimensional nanoscale materials,
such as nanowires and nanofibers, are extremely attractive as main elements for the
first action of the sensors (Fig. 1.8). These nanoscale materials offer significant advan-
tage over bulk or thin-film planar devices (Abdelsalam and Abdelaziz 2014). Nanofibers
are slightly larger in diameter than the typical nanomaterial definition, though still
invisible to the naked-eye. Their size ranges between 50 and 300 nm in diameter and
are generally produced by electro spinning in the case of inorganic nanofibers or
catalytic synthesis for carbon nanotubes. Nanofibers can be electrostatically aligned
and biochemically aligned (Kumar and Kumbhat 2016). Similar to nanofibers are
nanowires. In these systems, one dimension exceeds by an order of magnitude the
14 F. Hadef

Fig. 1.8 SEM images (a and b) and TEM images (c and d) of FeC2O4 nanowires (Reproduced
from Du et al. 2010 Copyright (2010) Springer International Publishing)

other two dimensions, which are in the nano-range (Gubin 2009). This class of
nanomaterials can be potentially used in nanophotonics, laser, nanoelectronics, solar
cells, resonators and high sensitivity sensors (Chellammal 2013).
Carbon Nanotubes
The discovery of carbon nanotubes is most often attributed to Sumio Iijima and his
1991 publication in Nature (Iijima 1991). Carbon nanotubes (CNTs, also called
buckytubes in earlier days) are elongated cylindrical fullerenes with diameters of
nanometers and lengths of microns even millimeters (Ren et al. 2013). There are two
basic types of CNTs: single-wall carbon nanotubes, SWCNTs, which are the fun-
damental cylindrical structure and multi-wall carbon nanotubes, MWCNTs, which
are made of coaxial cylinders (Fig. 1.9), having interlayer spacing close to that of the
interlayer distance in graphite (0.34 nm) (Ajayan 2000). The walls of these tubes are
constructed of a hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms and capped by fullerene-like
structures (Ong et al. 2010).
The electrical conductivity of SWNTs may vary from metallic to semiconducting,
depending on the way a graphene sheet is folded. For metallic SWNTs, the electrical
conductance may exceed silver or copper by three orders of magnitude. Another
electronic application for CNTs is for next-generation field-effect transistor, FET
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 15

a b c

nm
.0
00
10
.0 -
20
1.0-3.0 nm

0.4-3.0 nm 2.0-100.0 nm

Fig. 1.9 (a) TEM micrograph of SWCNT (Reproduced from De la Luz-Asunción et al. 2015
Hindawi publishing corporation) (b) single walled carbon nanotube and (c) multiwalled carbon
nanotube (Reproduced from Rastogi et al. 2014 Copyright (2014) Hindawi publishing corporation)

design. In addition to the above tunable conductive properties, CNTs are the
strongest and stiffest materials known to date (Fahlman 2007).

1.3.2.3.3 Two-Dimensional (2-D)

They are the group of two-dimensional objects (2-D) in which two dimensions are an
order of magnitude greater than the third dimension, which is in the nanometer range
(Gubin 2009). 2-D nanomaterials exhibit platelike shapes (Thomas et al. 2014).
They are moderately understood in terms of properties, but manufacture is much less
advanced. These include: surface coatings, thin films, interfaces. . .etc. They are
applied to structural bulk materials in order to improve the desired properties of
the surface, such as wear resistance, friction, corrosion resistance and keeping the
bulk properties of the material unchanged (Koch et al. 2007). Nanofilms are thin
layers of material spanning from a fraction of a nanometer to several micrometers in
thickness.
Graphene
Graphene is the most recent member of the multidimensional carbon-nanomaterial
family, starting with fullerenes as a 0D material, SWCNTs as 1D nanomaterials, and
ending with graphite as a 3D material (Du et al. 2014). Graphene was discovered in
2004 by Andre Geim and Konstatin Novoselov. They obtain graphene sheet by
splitting graphite crystal into increasingly thinner units until individual atomic
planes were reached. This remarkable contribution was felicitated by Noble prize
in physics on 2010 and led to a sudden increase of research interest in graphene
(Enoki et al. 2009; Liang et al. 2009). Graphene consists of a layer with π-conjugated
structure of 6-atom rings which can be conceptually viewed as a planar aromatic
macromolecule (Liu et al. 2013). The thickness of the graphene layer has been
reported to be between 0.35 and 1.0 nm (Singh et al. 2011) (Fig. 1.10). Graphene can
be readily doped with heteroatoms (e.g., nitrogen, boron) (Qu et al. 2010) or
16 F. Hadef

Fig. 1.10 The two-dimensional honeycomb structure of carbon atoms in graphene along with the
high-resolution transmission electron microscopic, TEM image (Reproduced from Sur 2012 Copy-
right (2012) Hindawi publishing corporation)

modified with organic molecules, polymers, or inorganic components (Stankovich

et al. 2006; Liu et al. 2012a, b). The single layer graphene, bi-layer graphene,
multilayer graphene, graphene oxide or GO, reduced graphene oxide or rGO and
chemically modified graphene are widely used graphene family nanomaterials
(Zhang et al. 2016) (Fig. 1.11).

1.3.2.3.4 Three-Dimensional (3-D)

Three-dimensional (3-D) structures are materials having three arbitrary dimensions

beyond the nanoscale (Saleh and Gupta 2016). However, these materials possess a
nanocrystalline structure or involve the presence of features at the nanoscale
(e.g. magnetic tunnel junctions, heterostructures, . . .etc.) (Law et al. 2004). They
can be composed of a multiple arrangement of nanosize crystals, most typically in
different orientations. 3-D nanosystems provide the great challenges in terms of both
properties and controlled manufacture (Bahrami 2007).
Nanocomposites
The term nanocomposites is in the broadest sense referring to every type of material
with fillers in the nanometer size range at least in one dimension (Roy et al. 1986).
These are high performance materials that exhibit unusual property combinations
and unique design possibilities and are thought of as the materials of the twenty-first
century (Anandhan and Bandyopadhyay 2011). The bulk properties of
nanocomposites are highly dependent on the properties of the filler, the host matrix,
and the interfacial properties. The interface can be tailored using techniques such as
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 17

Fig. 1.11 Graphene uses and benefits: (a) Flexible transparent electronics, touch screen. (b)
Aeronautical field. (c) Solar panels. (d) Batteries. (e) Actuators. (f) Conductive ink, flexible
electrodes. (g) Gas sensors. (h) Biosensors (Reproduced from Ponnamma and Sadasivuni 2015
Copyright (2015) Springer International Publishing)

chemical functionalization and core-shell structuring to achieve desired properties

(Irwin et al. 2010). There are three major classification of nanocomposites:
1. Ceramic matrix nanocomposites.
2. Metal matrix nanocomposites.
3. Polymer matrix nanocomposites.

1.3.3 Structure of Nanomaterials

The understanding of changes of nanomaterials properties requires a good knowl-

edge of each of the constituents. The microstructural features of importance include:
(a) grain size, distribution, and morphology, (b) the nature and morphology of grain
boundaries and interphase interfaces, (c) the perfection and nature of intragrain
defects, (d) composition profiles across grains and interfaces, and (e) identification
of residual trapped species from processing (Suryanarayana 1994).
Two types of atoms can be distinguished in nanomaterials: crystal atoms with
nearest-neighbor configuration corresponding to the lattice and the boundary atoms
with a variety of interatomic spacings, differing from boundary to boundary
18 F. Hadef

a b

c
0

-1

-2
Δ a / a (%)

nanoparticle
nanofilm
-3 nanowire

-4

-5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Radius (nm)

Fig. 1.12 2D schematic representation of the atomic structure in (a) nanocrystalline alloys, (b)
nanostructured powders (Reproduced from Grenèche 2002 Copyright (2002) Springer Nether-
lands), (c) Variation of lattice distortion rates (Δa/a) with the size for a Au nanoparticle, nanowire,
and nanofilm, respectively (Reproduced from Yu et al. 2015 Copyright (2015) Elsevier)

(Suryanarayana and Koch 2000) (Fig. 1.12a, b). It has been recently reported that the
lattice distortion rates of nanoscale crystals and the nanosize exhibit an inverse
proportional relationship when considering the atomic bond energy of a nanoscale
crystal particle (Yu et al. 2015).
Nanomaterials are inherently heterogeneous on a nanometer scale consisting of
nanometer-sized building blocks separated by boundary regions (Gleiter 2000). A
nanocrystalline metal contains typically a high number of interfaces with random
orientation relationships, and consequently, a substantial fraction of the atoms lies in
the interfaces (Li 2000). As example, in a polycrystalline sample with 5 nm grain
size, typically a fraction of 30% of all atoms are found within one lattice spacing, or
less from a grain boundary of average thickness between 0.5 and 1 nm. If the average
grain size is 10 nm, the above fraction falls as low as about 15% and for 100 nm grain
size it falls to about 1% (Ossi 2006).
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 19

Grain boundary, GB, is the junction of two crystalline particles. They are
characterized by the relatively large free volume, the great number of dangling or
weakened bonds, and the extended GB width of ~1 nm. Therefore, the general GBs
have the energy of near half of surface energy and greater than of special one. It is
important to mention that the structure of grain boundaries in metallic systems is
controversially debated: Gleiter assumed that nanocrystalline materials consist of
perfect crystalline grains and completely disordered grain boundaries with low
density (Gleiter 1993). Such a concept of a “gaslike” structure (Zhou et al. 1987;
Grenèche 2002). The total intercrystalline region consists of grain boundaries, triple
junctions, i.e., intersection lines of three or more adjoining crystals, and other
interfaces (Suryanarayana 2004).
In general, grain boundaries in nanostructured materials have specific structural
features, which are responsible for their specific behavior and properties (Gogotsi
2006). It has been reported that the structural distortions and symmetry breaking at
the grain boundaries modify the nature of magnetic exchange interactions and induce
a surface anisotropy and magnetostriction. Consequently, the ground-state magnetic
arrangement of atoms located at the surface or in the interfacial region has to differ
from that observed in the corresponding bulk material (Grenèche and Ślawska-
Waniewska 2000).

1.4 Properties: The Physics at the Nanoscale

In fact, the fundamental properties of matter change at the nanoscale and

nanomaterials manifested fascinating and useful properties. The physical and chem-
ical properties of nanoparticles can be quite different from those of larger particles of
the same substance. They are closer in size to single atoms and molecules than to
bulk materials, and to explain their behavior, it is necessary to use quantum mechan-
ics (Kumar and Kumbhat 2016). Quantum mechanics is a scientific model that was
developed for describing the motion and energy of atoms and electrons. Altered
properties can include but are not limited to colour, solubility, material strength,
electrical conductivity, magnetic behavior, mobility (within the environment and
within the human body), chemical reactivity and biological activity (Blackwelder
2007) (Fig. 1.13).

1.4.1 Confinement Effect

Quantum size effects are related to the “dimensionality” of a system in the nanometer
range (Richards and Bönnemann 2005). The quantum effects are a consequence of
quantum mechanics and of the particle wave duality. These arise in the case where
the size of the system is commensurable with the de-Brogli wavelengths of the
electrons, phonons or excitons propagating in them (Naseri and Saion 2012). Indeed,
20 F. Hadef

High catalytic Large thermal High magnetic

activity expansion susceptibility

Large specific
Enhanced self
heat
diffusion

High mechanical strength and

microhardness

Fig. 1.13 Size-dependent properties

electrons behave at the same time as particles and as waves. As waves they explore
the entire space in which they are free to move. The nanograin behaves like a kind of
box, within which a specific property may or may not exist. Below a certain critical
size, characteristics of the property directly and strictly depend on the grain size. This
is called the confinement effect (Rezaie et al. 2013). Quantum size effects play a
crucial role in determining the physical and chemical properties, e.g. electronic
structure and charge-transport mechanisms. Optical and electron-tunnelling spec-
troscopies are essential for studying these systems (Van Keer 2015). Quantum
tunneling is a nanoscopic phenomenon in which a particle violates the principles
of classical mechanics by penetrating a potential barrier or impedance higher than
the kinetic energy of the particle (Wikipedia 2017).

1.4.2 Surface Effects

1.4.2.1 The Fraction of Atoms at the Surface

Atoms at surfaces have fewer neighbours than atoms in the bulk. Because of this
lower coordination and unsatisfied bonds, surface atoms are less stabilised than bulk
atoms (Roduner 2006). The smaller a particle the larger the fraction of atoms at the
surface, and the higher the average binding energy per atom. The surface-to-volume
ratio scales with the inverse size, and therefore there are numerous properties which
obey the same scaling law. Edge and corner atoms have an even lower coordination
and bind foreign atoms and molecules more tightly. The coordination number is also
limited in narrow pores (Lokhande and Pathak 2014).
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 21

1.4.2.2 Surface Structure Changes

The effect of size reduction is not without consequences for the atomic arrangement
and the physical properties of materials. Actually, if the structure of the outer region
of a particle is affected over the range of the particle size, a surface layer cannot be
defined accurately (De Rogatis et al. 2008). It is known that the composition or the
crystal structure is modified at the free surface of material. The volume of this
surface layer becomes significant in nanoscale materials. The surface layer of
nanoparticles in that case can be defined as the outer region where the composition
or the crystal structure are different from those of the particle core (Wang et al.
2008). The clean surface of crystalline materials relaxes and reconstructs in order to
minimize the total Gibbs energy, given the new chemical environment of the semi-
infinite crystal (Pigozzi 2006).

1.4.2.3 Increasing of Surface Energy and Tension

Energy is a key physical characteristic because a knowledge of which give us a

possibility to calculate a variety of derivative characteristics. Having the extended
surface, the nanocrystals have therefore extended external free surface energy, Gibbs
energy (Pokropivny et al. 2007):

ΔGs ¼ γ Sf

where γ is a specific surface energy (the energy per surface unit), or a specific work
to create the free surface area, or a specific tension. The surface energy gradually
becomes the dominating contributor to the total energy of the material. Such a
property will evolve monotonically with size and can be treated within the frame-
work of thermodynamics. Among them are the melting and other phase transition
temperatures (Rezaie et al. 2013).

1.4.3 Thermal Properties

Thermodynamics of nanosystems differs from the thermodynamics of macroscopic

systems, where the number of particles tends to infinity (Labastie and Calvo 2007).
As previously reported increasing of surface energy will evolve monotonically with
size and can be treated within the framework of thermodynamics (Nièpce and
Pizzagalli 2007). Among them are the melting and other phase transition tempera-
tures. Figure 1.14 illustrates the general experimental variation of melting point of
GaN spherical nanoparticles against the size of the particles (Antoniammal and
Arivuoli 2012). Its physical origin is the increase of surface energy, the increase of
amplitude of atomic vibrations, and the additional surface growth of thermal vibra-
tion energy in the result (Pokropivny et al. 2007). It has been reported that the
22 F. Hadef

2400

Melting temperature (K) 2200

2000

1800

1600
0.05 J/m2 0.15 J/m2
1400 0.1 J/m2 0.2 J/m2

1200

1000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Radius of particle Rs (nm)

Fig. 1.14 Variation of melting point of GaN spherical nanoparticles against the size of the particles
(Reproduced from Antoniammal and Arivuoli 2012 Copyright (2012) Hindawi publishing
corporation)

specific heat increased with the decrease in particle size, whereas the melting entropy
and enthalpy decreased as the particle size decreases (Singh et al. 2017).
The use of nanofluid to enhance the thermal transport is a promising application
of the thermal properties of nanomaterials (Murty et al. 2013). Nanofluids are
generally referred to the solid-liquid composite materials, which consist of
nanomaterials of size in the range 1–100 nm suspended in a liquid (Obaid et al.
2013). Nanofluids hold increasing attentions in both research and practical applica-
tions due to their greatly enhanced thermal properties compared to their base fluids.
Many type of nanomaterials can be used in nanofluids including nanoparticles of
oxides, nitrides, metals, metal carbides, and nanofibers such as single wall and multi
wall carbon nanotubes, which can be dispersed into a variety of base liquid
depending on the possible applications, such as water, ethylene glycol, and oils
(Gorji and Ranjbar 2017).
The most important features of nanofluids are the significant increase of thermal
conductivity compared with liquids without nanomaterials, which have been proved
by many experimental works (Han 2008) (Fig. 1.15). Nanofluidics based devices
will enable the development of real-time, minimally invasive medical diagnostic
systems to monitor astronaut health and aid in diagnosing and treating illness
(Berger 2012).
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 23

0.30

0.29

0.28
Knf /WK-1m-1

0.27

0.26

0.25

0.24

0.23
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
φ
Fig. 1.15 Experimental thermal conductivity of iron oxide nanofluids in EG vs volume fraction
concentration at different temperatures: (○, ●) 283.15 K; (◊, ♦) 303.15 K, and (□, ■), 323.15 K.
White symbols represents Fe3O4/EG and black symbols Fe2O3/EG nanofluids (Reproduced from
Pastoriza-Gallego et al. 2011 Copyright (2011) American Institute of Physics)

1.4.4 Optical Properties

The optical properties are connected with electronic structure, a change in zone
structure leads to a change in absorption and luminescence spectra. Their character-
istics such as spectral width and position, and sensitivity to light polarization, depend
not only on the intrinsic properties of the nano-objects (e.g., composition, structure,
size, shape), but also on their environment (Rezaie et al. 2013).
The appearance of color is caused by the partial absorption of light by electrons in
that material; the unabsorbed part of light remains visibe. On most smoot metals
surfaces, light is entirely reflected by the very high density of electrons; this is why
the surfaces of slabs of metals have mirror-like appearance. In contrast, small
particles absorb some of light, leading to the appearance of color (Kaur 2010). As
example, bulk gold appears yellow in color however nanosized gold appears red in
color. The particles are so small that electrons are not free to move about as in bulk
gold, because this movement is restricted, the particles react differently with light. In
1857, Faraday reported that colloidal Au nanoparticles can be prepared by the
reduction of gold salts with reagents including organic compounds or phosphorus
(Faraday 1857). Faraday correlated the red color of Au colloid with the small size of
the Au particles in metallic form. He concluded that gold is present in solution in a
“finely divided metallic state” smaller than the wavelength of visible light that shows
colors different from the original color (Niu and Lu 2015).
24 F. Hadef

1.4.5 Magnetic Properties

Nanomagnetism is a vivid and highly interesting topic of modern solid state mag-
netism and nanotechnology (Petracic 2010). It is of paramount scientific interest and
high technological relevance. Ferromagnetic nanomaterials have potential advan-
tages over existing materials in numerous applications in soft magnets, hard mag-
nets, magnetic recording,. . .etc. (Schwarz et al. 2004). It is well established, that the
coercivity of magnetic materials has a striking dependence on their size (Fig. 1.16). It
increases with the reduction of particle size in the nanometer range going through a
maximum at the single domain size, and then decreases again for very small particles
because of thermal effects and becomes zero at the superparamagnetic particle size.
Iron, which is a soft magnetic material with coercivity about 20 Oe at room temper-
ature, could be made “hard” with a coercivity of 540 Oe (Schwarz et al. 2004).
Another example is the remarkable phenomenon of giant magnetoresistance (GMR)
of magnetic multilayers that has been exploited to increase the capacity of hard discs
by over a factor of a hundred in a small number of years (Mills and Bland 2006).

Fig. 1.16 Experimental relation between coercivity and diameter for particles deriving their
coercive force principally from crystal anisotropy energy (Reproduced from Lubrosky 1961
Copyright (1961) American Institute of Physics)
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 25

1.4.5.1 Nanocrystalline Soft Magnetic Alloys

Soft magnetic nanocrystalline alloys have been a field of intensive research during
the recent past decades. There are two main families of the soft magnetic nanocrys-
talline alloys: the FINEMET (Yoshizawa et al. 1988) and the NANOPERM (Suzuki
et al. 1991). Generally, the microstructure of these systems consists of ferromagnetic
crystals with grain sizes in the nanometer range, embedded in a ferromagnetic
amorphous matrix. In an effort to extend the outstanding soft magnetic properties
of these materials to higher temperatures, the HITPERM-type alloys have been
developed (Willard et al. 1998; Franco et al. 2002).

1.4.5.2 Superparamagnetism

Magnetic nanoparticles behave very differently from bulk or thin film systems.
When the size of the particles is reduced below the single domain limit (<15 nm
for the common materials), they exhibit superparamagnetism behavior at room
temperature (Tartaj et al. 2003). In fact, the first modelization of a nanometered-
size particle was done by Kittel in 1946 (Kittel 1946). Bulky sized particles of
magnetic materials display ferromagnetic properties due to their multi-domain
structure of particles. Such materials are said to be ferromagnetic because they
have magnetic properties regardless of the existing of an applied magnetic field
(Shi 2006).
Superparamagnetism describes the state of a single-domain-sized grain when
thermal energy is sufficient to overcome barriers to a reversal of magnetization.
When the energy barriers are large with respect to thermal energy, the magnetization
is “blocked” and the probability of spontaneous reversal becomes negligible. When
the barriers are relatively low, thermal excitations can result in reversal of the
magnetization over very short time scales, and the grain is in a superparamagnetic
state (Bowles et al. 2009). This relaxation process was first proposed by Neel (1949)
and further developed by Brown (1963) and Bedanta and Kleemann (2009).
Superparamagnetic nanoparticles have a high potential as carriers for oligonucleo-
tides and biomolecules, liver enzymes, antibodies and proteins in different life
science applications such as magnetic cells separation, nucleic acid separation and
magnetic resonance imaging (Rudershausen et al. 2002) (Fig. 1.17).

1.4.5.3 Magnetic Fluids: Ferrofluids

Ferrofluid is the only liquid that is magnetic, all other magnetic materials are solid.
When there’s no magnet around, ferrofluid is a thick fluid. But when a magnetic field
is nearby, ferrofluid stiffens up and behaves like a solid (Kunkel Microscopy).
Magnetic fluid is a stable colloidal system formed by the nanoscale (10 nm or
less) strong magnetic particles highly dispersed in a liquid (Scherer and Neto
26 F. Hadef

Fig. 1.17 Schematic illustration of the coercivity-size relations of small particles (Reproduced
from Akbarzadeh et al. 2012 Copyright (2012) Springer)

2005). Ferrofluid was invented by NASA in the 1960s as a way to control liquids in
space (Andrews et al. 2010). Nowadays, it’s used in loudspeakers to dampen
vibrations, in car brakes, and in the rotary seals of computer hard drives. In the
future, ferrofluid might be used to carry medications to specific spots in the body
(Kunkel Microscopy).

1.5 Nanomaterials Synthesis Procedures

Nanostructure fabrication is a formidable challenge and the subject of many studies

(Rosei 2004). It is an interdisciplinary field covering physics, chemistry, biology,
materials science and engineering. The interaction between scientists with different
disciplines will undoubtedly lead to the production of novel materials with tailored
properties. The success of nanomanufacturing depends on the strong cooperation
between academia and industry in order to be informed about current needs and
future challenges, to design products directly transferred into the industrial sector
(Charitidis et al. 2014). The synthesis of nanomaterials and nanodevices can accom-
modate solid, liquid, and/or gaseous precursor materials. Nanoscale manufacturing
involves one of two approaches: top-down or bottom-up (Fig. 1.18). However, some
authors suggested virtual fabrication (computer simulations), as a third approach
(Bader et al. 2007).
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 27

Fig. 1.18 Illustration of the concepts of bottom-up and top-down methods (Reproduced from
Pacioni et al. 2015 Copyright (2015) Springer)

1.5.1 Bottom-Up Procedures

Bottom-up methods mimic nature by starting at the atomic or molecular level and
building up through nucleation and/or growth from liquid, solid, or gas precursors by
chemical reactions or physical processes (Dhingra et al. 2010). More typically, large
numbers of atoms, molecules or particles are used or created by chemical synthesis,
and then arranged through naturally occurring processes into a desired structure
(Royal society 2004). The wide variety of approaches towards achieving this goal
can be split into three categories: chemical synthesis, self-assembly, and positional
assembly (Royal society 2004). Colloidal dispersions such as microemulsions are a
good example of the bottom-up concept of nanomaterials synthesis (Yaya et al.
2012). Though the bottom-up approach is in its early development phase, it promises
sweeping changes to current methods of production (Dhingra et al. 2010).

1.5.2 Top-Down Procedures

An area of nanotechnology that has been evolving for the last 40 years is the
technique of micro- and nano-lithography and etching. These techniques are the
source of the great microelectronics revolution, sometimes called “top-down” nano-
technology (Cornell and Heally 2005). The top-down approach starts with micro-
systems and miniaturizes them, through carving or grinding methods, such as
lithography, etching, or milling (Upreti et al. 2015). This approach generally relies
on physical processes, or a combination of physical and/or chemical, electrical or
thermal processes for their production (Yaya et al. 2012). This is the most well
established of all forms of nanotechnology but it is generally believed that top-down
methods generate a lot more waste (Dhingra et al. 2010).
28 F. Hadef

1.6 Applications

Nanoscale science and technology are fueling a revolution in manufacturing and

production, creating new materials and novel processes (Murday et al. 2010). This
miniaturization of devices and systems to sizes of the elementary units below 1 μm
has revolutionized our daily life (Ihn 2010). Therefore, nanomaterials with such
excellent properties have been extensively investigated in a wide range of applica-
tions and all fields below, are expected to undergo explosive developments.

1.6.1 Energy

The world energy demand is continuously growing and according to the forecasts of
the International Energ Agency, it is expected to rise by approx. 50% until 2030.
Currently, over 80% of the primary energy demand is covered by fossil fuels (Rhiel
2008). Therefore, there is an urgent need for energy resources alternative to fossil
fuels. Such challenges have resulted in increasing attention being paid by
policymakers, researchers, and corporations to new technologies, and the application
of technologies in new ways (OECD 2013). Of these, renewable energy sources
(solar, wind, geothermal,. . .etc.) are an opinion. However, tremendous technology
breakthrough will need to occur in the next years to make the conversion of these
energy resources efficient and economically viable option (Filipponi and Sutherland
2013). Recognizing the rapid progress in nanoscience and technology, it is timely to
touch the nanoenergy theme (Lund 2009). Nanotechnology will offer huge oppor-
tunities for applications in the energy field and for the development of clean energy
systems, which will be very important in the light of the enormous challenges ahead
with the climate change and energy (Lund 2009). The most advanced nanotechnol-
ogy projects related to energy are: storage, conversion, manufacturing improvements
by reducing materials and process rates, energy saving and enhanced renewable
energy sources (Arivalagan et al. 2011).
While it is critical to develop new renewable energy generation technologies such
a solar, it will remain important to make the best use of the limited resources
currently available (Brinker and Ginger 2011). Solid state lighting, SSL, encom-
passes technology to make lighting technologies more energy efficient, longer
lasting and cheaper (Allsopp et al. 2007). The use of semiconductor-based light
emitting diodes, LEDs, for general illumination is a rapidly developing technology
that offers the potential of immense energy savings (Alivisatos et al. 2005). Quantum
dots are nanoscale semiconductor particles characterised by emitting a specific
colour based on the size of the nanoparticle. Light emission from a QD is mono-
chromatic, therefore it is very pure. As a consequence, their use in displays would
lead to images of exceptional quality. The most exciting property of QD-LEDs,
however, is that they use much less power than the currently used LCDs (Filipponi
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 29

Fig. 1.19 (a) 2-mm-thick OLED monitor and (b) Concept for a future OLED screen, which could
be rolled up like a scroll inside of a pen-sized device when not in use (Reproduced from Forrest
2004 Copyright (2004) Nature Publishing Group)

and Sutherland 2013) (Fig. 1.19). LEDs use less energy. Colored LEDs currently
used in many applications, including display signs and trafic lights (Weiss Talk).
A fuel cell is a small power generating system used for various applications,
including mobile, stationary, and portable applications (Fig. 1.20) (Abdelsalam and
Abdelaziz 2014). It is a device used for electricity generation that is composed of
electrodes that convert the energy of a chemical reaction directly into electrical
energy, heat, and water. It produces electricity from an external supply of fuel and
oxygen, rather than the limited internal energy storage capacity of the battery
(Elcock 2007). The main primary obstacle is the high cost of fabrication. Nanotech-
nology is expected to contribute through miniaturization of all components (espe-
cially diminishing the thickness of the various laminar elements), simultaneously
reducing inefficiencies and costs, and through realizing better catalysts for oxygen
reduction and fuel oxidation. A particular priority is developing fuel cells able to use
feedstocks other than hydrogen (Ramsden 2016). Carbon nanomaterials, including
fullerenes, nanotubes and graphene as well as their N-doped derivatives, have been
studied for a wide range of applications in energy conversion systems, such as fuel
cells (Dai et al. 2012).
30 F. Hadef

Fig. 1.20 A solar fuel cell (Reproduced from Gray 2009 Copyright (2009) Macmillan Publishers
Limited, part of Springer Nature)

Dreams of a hydrogen-powered future, where the only emissions from cars are
heat and water, have proven seductive to environmentalists, technophiles and pol-
iticians alike. Despite this, the reality is that today’s hydrogen cars are powered by
fossil fuels and release several times the greenhouse gas emissions of their petrol-
powered counterparts (Illuminato and Miller 2010). Because hydrogen is the
smallest element, many barriers need to be overcome for the hydrogen economy to
become a reality. It can escape from tanks and pipes more easily than conventional
fuels (Elcock 2007). There are two ways to store hydrogen in materials. One way
involves absorption of the hydrogen within the material, and the other is to store the
hydrogen in a container. The challenge for absorption is to control the diameter of
the nanotube so that the absorption energy of hydrogen on the outside and inside of
the tube is high enough to provide the desired storage capacity at an acceptable
pressure (Elcock 2007). Nanotechnology may play a role in helping to meet these
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 31

challenges. High porosity materials seem to be promising, which are able to effi-
ciently bind hydrogen in the pores through adsorption, or complex hybrids which
sore hydrogen chemically reversible in the lattice structure (Luther 2008). Single-
walled CNTs are a leading candidate for solving the storage problem for hydrogen-
fueled cars and trucks (Elcock 2007). Nanoscale titanium (Ti) additive structures are
crucial in both of these systems; to enhance the kinetics of hydrogen uptake and
release in the complex metal hydride sodium alanate (NaAlH4), and to increase the
storage capacity of carbon nanotubes (Alivisatos et al. 2005).
Solar energy production is rapidly becoming a vital source of renewable energy
being developed as an alternative to traditional fossil fuel-based sources of power
(Suresh 2013). Photovoltaics involve the engineering expertise to generate electric-
ity from light and recently it is developing into an important industrial product of the
future. The low efficiency of solar cells and the expensive capital investments for
large-scale electricity generation makes it a less popular option today (Ganguly et al.
2012). Possible avenues for nanotechnology are quantum dot structures providing an
improvement of the conversion yield by shaping the solar spectrum, the improved
use of high-tech light, optimised absorption properties (Chang et al. 2007). More-
over, nanostructured (hybrid) materials will make it possible to use very cheap
materials by minimising the transport distances in the cell and through improved
light housekeeping,. . .etc. (Roadmap Route 2013). Also, it has been reported that
nanostructured materials are used to improve the efficiency of solar cells. The
utilisation of nanostructures could allow for solar cell efficiencies of 10% in the
medium term and over 60% in the long run (Luther 2008). Semiconductor
nanocrystals are regarded as useful called third-generation solar cells. This utility
is due to the fact that their optical band can be tuned by both material selection and
quantum confinement and because advances in synthesis allow control over nano-
crystal size and shape to optimize performance (Suresh 2013).
In addition to challenges in creating highly efficient energy-production systems,
another hurdle facing the scientific community is energy storage (Liu et al. 2010).
Types of electrical power storage devices include the flywheel, supercapacitor, and
battery (Abdelsalam and Abdelaziz 2014). Supercapacitors and batteries are two
important electrochemical energy storage devices that have been extensively devel-
oped for many applications. Improved energy storage capability, power delivery
capability, and cycle life are highly desired for these devices to better satisfy the
increasing performance demands (Dai et al. 2012).
Battery technologies face issues of internal surface area, electronic and ionic
conduction, and phase-stability/reversibility that can benefit from the use of
nanostructures (Brinker and Ginger 2011). Nanotechnologies help make more
efficient, lighter and longer-lasting batteries for products such as laptops and electric
cars. The next few steps in nano-based battery improvements are expected to
increase power density over conventional lithium-ion batteries by five to ten times
(Cefic). Nanostructured materials, such as these Si nanowires used as an anode in a
Li ion battery before and after electrochemical cycling have the potential to increase
the performance of batteries by ten times or more (Chan et al. 2008). Nanoscale
capacitors made from multiwalled CNTs dramatically boost the amount of surface
32 F. Hadef

area, and thus the electrical charge, that each metal electrode in the capacitor can
possess. Smaller and more powerful capacitors may facilitate the development of
microchips having greatly increased circuit density. Such nanoscale capacitors may
also impact the development of compact and cost-effective supercapacitors (Elcock
2007).

1.6.2 Environment

In fact, environmental pollution especially toxic gases, heavy metal ions and organic
pollutants in air and water, caused by heavy industrialization, agricultural activities,
urbanization, and the changing life styles of people, severely threaten ecological
balance and human health. These problems have received extensive attention world-
wide (Lü et al. 2013).
Environmental remediation can be accomplished by means of different biochem-
ical or physicochemical processes. Recently, the use of nanomaterials has been
proposed as powerful tools that may improve the efficiency of remediation pro-
cesses, as well as decrease their costs and ecological impact (Mendoza-Gonzalez
et al. 2015). It is demonstrated that nanomaterials such as silica-titania
nanocomposites are useful to remove elemental mercury from vapors. The applica-
tion of nanomaterials in detection and removal of pathogen provides greater sensi-
tivity, lower cost, shorter turnaround time, smaller sample size, in-line and real-time
detection, higher throughput, portability in environmental remediation. They can be
remove organic pollutants and metals by reduction or oxidation of nanomaterial and
degree of removal can be enhanced through functionalization with chemical groups
that can capture selectively target pollutants in water and air media (Khin et al.
2012). Water pollution has become the most severe dilemma in the entire world.
Nanofiltration thin film composite membranes have been given tremendous attention
over last two decades relative to conventional systems in desalination of sea water,
waste water from industries and ultra pure water production (Mehwish et al. 2014)
(Fig. 1.21).
Waste generation is proportional to the world’s economic growth. Wastes,
especially synthetic polymer waste, cause negative impacts on the environment.
Materials are said to be green when they are biodegradable and renewable (Adeosun
et al. 2012). However, most of the biodegradable polymers possess poorer mechan-
ical properties and low heat distortion temperatures, which restrict their use in broad
applications (Ong et al. 2010). Therefore, CNTs could act as nano-reinforcements
for the biodegradable polymers. Another advantage offered by the green
nanocomposites is the ability to recycle the incorporated CNTs due to the degrad-
ability of the biodegradable polymer (Ong et al. 2010; Grossiord et al. 2005;
Vaudreuil et al. 2007).
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 33

Fig. 1.21 (a) Schematic diagram of 3D G/CNT/Fe nanostructures. (b) Adsorption isotherms of 3D
G/CNT/Fe nanostructures and 2D iron-decorated graphene for arsenic removal (Reproduced from
Xiao et al. 2012 Copyright (2012) American Chemical Society)

1.6.3 Nanomedicine

Changes in lifestyle, food habits, and other environmental conditions resulted in the
emergence of drug-resistant diseases. The existing health care system may not be
sufficient to provide the necessities to cure emerging diseases. Besides the rapid rise
in technological advancements, there is an urgent push toward the development of
innovative (Sen and Pathak 2017). Nanomedicine has been defined as “the moni-
toring, repair, construction, and control of human biological systems at the molec-
ular level, using engineered nanodevices and nanostructures” (Morrow et al. 2007;
Cirillo et al. 2014; Bao et al. 2016). It consists of application of nanotechnology to
the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and represents a useful instru-
ment to understand specific underlying disease molecular mechanisms (Wan and
Ying 2010; Cirillo et al. 2014). The nanomedecines are in the similar size-range as
viruses, DNA and Proteins and they have some unique chemico-physical properties,
such as ultra-small size, large surface area-to-mass ratio, and high reactivity, which
can be used to overcome some of the limitations of the traditional therapeutic and
diagnostic agents. Nanomaterials used in nanomedicine include a wide range of
organic substances (e.g. liposomes, dendrimers, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymers).
Some preparations based on inorganic materials (gold, iron oxides) have been
approved or are in trial. Several other inorganic materials (quantum dots, metal or
metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes) are currently used for medical appli-
cations (Ghiazza and Vietti 2014). Figure 1.22, shows the most important medical
applications of graphene.
Nanoparticles injected intravenously can be retained in the blood circulation for a
longer period by appropriate surface manipulation. The particle escape from the
34 F. Hadef

Fig. 1.22 Scheme of application of graphene and graphene oxide (GO) for drug delivery of various
therapeutic agents and biomolecules (Reproduced from Liu et al. 2013 Copyright (2013) Elsevier)

vasculature is mainly restricted to sites where the capillaries have open fenestration,
as in the sinus endothelium of the liver or when the integrity of the endothelial barrier
is perturbed by inflammatory processes or by tumor growth which is the result of
dysregulated angiogenesis (Schaefer 2010). The nanoparticles normally stay more in
cancer cells than the normal cell due to the enhanced permeability and retention
effect by virtue of passive intake (Kumar et al. 2017; Butler and Sadler 2013).
Nanomaterials having large surface area and tiny size may empower the easy
manipulation for definite and resolved purposes without or minimum unwanted
issues (Li et al. 2011; Salata 2004).
Cosmeceutical is defined as a product between a drug and cosmetics.
Cosmeceuticals are the fastest growing segment of the personal care industry
(Fulekar 2010; Singh 2016). Cosmetics are intended to improve the appearance of
the skin, the hair, or the teeth. Today many cosmetic products aim at hydrating the
skin, reducing or slowing the signs of aged skin, or protecting the skin against the
multitude of daily aggressions that it encounters (Schaefer 2010). Various nanotech-
nology-based cosmeceutical products are in the market used as moisturizer, cleanser,
antiwrinkle, antiaging, sunscreen manufactured by Lancôme, Kara Vita, Nano-
Infinity Nanotech, L’Oreal companies (Lohani et al. 2014; Singh 2016). Liposomes
are used in a variety of cosmeceuticals because they are biocompatible,
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 35

biodegradable, nontoxic, flexible vesicles and can encapsulate active ingredients

easily and liposomes can protect the encapsulated drug from external environment
(Singh 2016). Liposomes can encapsulate water-soluble ingredients in their polar
cavity and oil-soluble ingredients in their hydrophobic cavity (Schaefer 2010). These
structures are useful in delivering incorporated components onto the skin surface and
even transporting the drugs across it; in modifying the intercellular lipid lamellae by
acting as penetration enhancers; or by controlling the release by creating a depot of
active ingredients. Quite a few active components like vitamins A, E, K, including
antioxidants such as Carotenoids, lycopene, and CoQ10 have been incorporated into
liposomes, which amplified their physical and chemical stability when dispersed in
water (Aparajita and Ravinkumar 2014; Lasic 1998).

1.6.4 Sensors

The quantitative and qualitative detection of chemical and biological molecules with
high sensitivity and selectivity is crucial for a range of practical applications
including determining and monitoring air/water/soil quality, medical diagnosis and
chemical synthesis (Shearer et al. 2014; He et al. 2012). There is an ever increasing
need for the development of miniaturized portable sensors. CNTs and graphene hold
great promise for the development of such systems because of their high surface area
(e.g. greater interaction zone), electrical properties (e.g. faster electron transfer),
mechanical properties (e.g. robustness, flexibility) and their greater modulation of
properties upon interaction with analytes (e.g. capacitance, resistance) (He et al.
2012; Ting et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2012a, b).
The CNTs-filled polymer composites used as an implantable sensor that is
capable of transmitting information extracorporeally. Such a sensor made real time
daterelated to the physiological relevant parameters such as pH, O2 concentration,
and glucose level available. In addition, the good biocompatibility with high elec-
trical and electrochemical sensitivity assisted implantable biosensor applications
(Qi et al. 2013a, b). The early research found that CNTs-filled polymer composites
are able to detect serum proteins, as well as disease markers, autoantibodies, and
antibodies (Julkapli et al. 2015; Grabowski et al. 2014). Functionalized graphene
nanocomposites have shown promise for environmental applications, from environ-
mental sensing and monitoring to remediation. Graphene and graphene
nanocomposites can be used as general platforms for sensing inorganic ions, bio-
molecules and organisms (Wang 2006; Wang et al. 2013) and also as platforms for
the removal of hazardous species in the environment (Chang and Wu 2013).
Sensing the biological responses has assumed great significance in the current
scenario of ever dynamic environmental developments and corresponding altered
homeostatic happenings occurring at both in vivo as well as ex vivo levels (Malik
et al. 2013). Nanomaterials can be wonderful incumbents in this dimension as they
have high surface area to volume ratios which allow the surface to be used in a better
and far more diversely functional manner (Malik et al. 2013). The sensitivity and
36 F. Hadef

performance of biosensors are being improved by using nanomaterials for their

construction (Mendoza-Madrigal et al. 2015). Advances in nanotechnology have
led to the development of nanoscale biosensors that have exquisite sensitivity and
versatility (Touhami 2014). The most widely accepted definition of a biosensor is:
“an analytical device which incorporates a biologically active element with an
appropriate physical transducer to generate a measurable signal proportional to the
concentration of chemical species in any type of sample” (Wilson 2005; Wilson and
Gifford 2005; Warriner et al. 2014; Touhami 2014). The potential benefit of this
emerging technology is receiving growing interest because nanotechnology-based
sensors can rapidly detect pathogens, gases, aromas, freshness of processed product,
flavour and food contaminants or toxins, and thereby reduce health risks and
frequency of food-borne illness. The nanomaterial used in biosensor, such as
magnetic nanoparticle, carbon nanotube, nanorods, quantum dots, nanowires,
nanochannels, etc., have high capacity for charge transfer, large surface-to-volume
ratio for immobilization of bioaffinity agents, high quantum yield and resistance to
photo-degradation, i.e., excellent optical properties. All these tuneable properties of
nanomaterial contribute to the improved performance of biosensors, making them
suitable to reach lower detection limits and higher sensitivity values (Purkayastha
and Manhar 2016). The ultimate goal of nanobiosensors is to detect any biochemical
and biophysical signal associated with a specific disease at the level of a single
molecule or cell. They can be integrated into other technologies such as lab-on-a-
chip to facilitate molecular diagnostics (Touhami 2014). Biosensors encountered in
the food sector are derived from those devices initially fabricated to meet the health
care needs. Appropriately, the use of biosensors in food pathogen detection has been
continuously growing in the last decade, with Salmonella, Escherichia coli and
Listeria monocytogenes among the most studied microbial contaminants
(Purkayastha and Manhar 2016).

1.6.5 Nanoelectronics

Microcomputers, microprocessors, mobile phones and MP3 players with a USB

connection are available to the general public. For several decades now, this
technology has been largely submicronic, and the idea of nanoelectronics was
created in the laboratories (Nouailhat 2008). Nanoelectronics is defined as the ability
to manipulate matter on a scale of less than 100 nm to create structures with many
useful electronic properties. Nanoelectronics is a rapidly developing technological
field with potential impact across a broad industry range (Anwar 2013). It is an
interdisciplinary division which talks about the use of nanotechnology in electronic
components. It targets to enable the use of new approaches and materials to build
electronic devices with feature sizes at the nanoscale level. The materials and devices
used in nanoelectronics are so small that the interatomic contacts and quantum
mechanical properties of such materials need to be considered comprehensively.
Even though much of this work has a long term explanation in the search for novel
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 37

devices, most of the results are having scientific significance instead of engineering
(Pandey et al. 2016). Other developments such as the scanning tunneling microscope
also helped further nanoelectronic technology. This equipment gave researchers the
ability to see and control atoms and be able to work on the nanoscale. Researcher
Don Eigler in 1989 took advantage of this technology and was able to using the
microscope to arrange 35 xenon atoms to spell out the IBM logo (Karkare 2008).
Another major historical event in nanoelectronics is the discovery of self-assembly
nanomaterials such as electrostatic self-assembly (Karkare 2008). This technology
was found to produce thin film materials with nanoscale-level molecular uniformity
(Dahman et al. 2017). Integrating actuators and sensors based on nanomaterials
device into existing control environments creates great demands on nanoelectronics.
Nanodevices will not be used in isolation, but in systems of networks that may
encompass tens of thousands of individual devices. The systems science alone in
making such networks achievable is a challenge in itself, but there are also practical
problems of energy supply and the dissipation of waste heat from nanodevice
networks, as well as in the communications bandwidth required between thousands
of networked devices. Large nanodevice networks will need to be self-organizing,
managing their activity and communications to best effect and optimal energy
consumption, without outside control and intervention (Ngô and Van de Voorde
2014).
As we mentioned earlier, miniaturization of microelectronics is limited. If we
want the trend to continue, we must find something else. This is the field of
nanoelectronics coupled with molecular and quantum computers. The field of
molecular and biomolecular computers is currently booming. Simultaneously,
some imagine using particles bigger than molecules of nanometric size: quantum
dots. In this field, nanoparticles have specific electronic properties, Quantum dots
could be used as single electron memory elements (Wu et al. 2016). There are many
nanoscale electronic devices available now: Junctions with dimensions as low as
5 nm can be manufactured in a reproducible manner with e-beam lithography, and
nanojunctions down to 2 nm have been obtained by electromigration (Technology
Roadmap, Cholet et al. 1999). Devices with negative differential electrically
configurable switches; carbon nanotube transistor; and single molecular transistor;
ultra high density nanowires lattices and circuits with metal and semiconductor
nanowires. . .etc. (Pokropivny et al. 2007). Devices have also been connected
together to form circuits capable of performing single functions such as basic
memory and logic function (Cao and Wang 2011). Hybrid molecular electronics
holds the promise of self-assembly of circuits, both on a massive scale and cheaply,
using chemical or biological reactions and to match the ultimate densities of CMOS
(Technology Roadmap).
Graphene could be used in future nanoelectronic devices, taking advantage of its
extremely high carrier mobilities and ambipolar behaviour. The absence of an energy
gap in graphene, however, is problematic for logic applications, which require a
sufficiently large ratio between the off and on-state current of the transistors. Such
applications would thus require the use of other 2D materials, with complementary
properties. Among these materials, semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides
38 F. Hadef

Nutraccutical & nutrient

delivery Nanoencapsulation of
Mineral and vitamin flavours
fortification Gelation &
water purification thickening agent
Sensory for supplement Nanoemulsion
characteristics Anticaking
Processing

Nano
Nutrition Product
Foods

Novel pesticides Agriculture

Targeted genetic UV protections
engineering Antimicrobials
Agrochemical delivery High barrier plastic
Sensor to monitor soil Contaminant sensors
condition

Fig. 1.23 Pictorial representation for some of the major applications of nanotechnology in different
sectors of food and agriculture (Reproduced from Ranjan et al. 2014 Copyright (2014) Springer)

are gaining a lot of interest, due to the possibility to tune their energy band gap
through their thickness, composition and applied mechanical strain (Houssa et al.
2016). On the other hand, nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are devices at the
nanoscale that integrate both electrical and mechanical functionality. Typically
NEMS assimilate transistor-like nanoelectronics with mechanical actuators, pumps,
or motors to form physical, biological and chemical sensors (Jasulaneca et al. 2018).

1.6.6 Food Industry

Food industries are always searching for new cheaper methods to produce and to
preserve food and with this need we enter into the realm of nanotechnology (Ranjan
et al. 2014) (Fig. 1.23). Understanding fundamentals of food nanotechnology rep-
resents a huge challenge for universities, industries and the public sector. The
complex mechanisms involved in the research, development, production and legis-
lation of food nanoproducts are studied under multi- and inter-disciplinary scopes
(Ranjan et al. 2014).
Nanotechnology has revolutionized the entire food industry, from production to
processing, storage, and development of materials, products, and innovative
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 39

applications (Cano-Sarmiento et al. 2015). The application of nanotechnology in the

food sector has generated innovation in macroscale features of foods, such as
texture, flavor, color, workmanship, safety, security, stability as well as reduction
in the use of preservatives, salt, fat, and surfactants in food products (Cano-
Sarmiento et al. 2015; Rajendran and Sen 2017). Moreover, nanotechnology may
also improve food packaging, storing boxes, cooking equipment, crockery, coatings
of machines and surfaces, or nano-sieves/membranes. The most important type of
nanotechnology application in the food area for the near future is considered the
incorporation of nanomaterials in packaging materials or storage containers in order
to increase the storage time while keeping the products fresh (Donatella et al. 2013;
Ramachandraiah et al. 2015; Silvestre and Cimmino 2013; Peters et al. 2016). Foods
are nanostructured materials composed of hundreds of thousands of nanosized
particles and molecules assembled in characteristic forms of the living organism.
However, these arrangements are not considered within the nanofield unless the
isolated materials and particles perform independently as nanomaterials by
exhibiting characteristic properties that do not possess at the microscale
(Hernández-Sánchez and Gutiérrez-López 2015). Nanofoods are differentiated
from regular food products when the use of nanoparticles or nanotechnology tech-
niques and tools are used during the cultivation, production, processing, or packag-
ing of the products. It does not refer to food products that have been atomically
modified or produced by nanomachines, as both of these ambitious options do not
appear to be feasible for the the foreseeable future (Chauhan and Prasad 2017).
Within the last years, foods enriched with bioactive compounds such as
nutraceuticals and nutrients have emerged with great strength in the markets world-
wide. The application of nanotechnology includes the use of systems such as
micelles, liposomes, nanotubes and nanoparticles for efficient bioactive compounds
delivery and improved bioavailability (Kaya-Celiker and Mallikarjunan 2012;
López-López et al. 2015). Important applications of nanotechnology in food and
nutrition refer to the design and development of “novel functional food ingredients”
with improved water solubility, thermal stability, oral bioavailability, sensory attri-
butes, and physiological performance (Kakkar et al. 2016). Functional ingredients
such as drugs, vitamins, and preservatives are essential aspects in many different
products ranging from pharmaceuticals and health care products to food and cos-
metics. The importance in these functional ingredients lies in their different charac-
teristics including their polarity, physical states, and weights (Chauhan and Prasad
2017). Nanostructures of inorganic materials have also been studied as coating
material to provide moisture or oxygen barrier (e.g.silicon dioxide (E551), magne-
sium oxide (E530), titanium dioxide (E171), and antibacterial ‘active’ coating,
especially silver) (Chaudhry and Groves 2010; Dasgupta et al. 2015). Different
products have been developed based on Nanoclusters™ system, such as Slim
Shake Chocolate, which incorporates silica nanoparticles that are coated with
cocoa to enhance the chocolate flavour (Dasgupta et al. 2015).
Approximately 500 nanopackaging products are in commercial use and in the
near future, approximately 25% of all food packaging will be made of nanomaterials
(Miller and Senjen 2008; Preuss et al. 2017). Recent trends in food packaging related
40 F. Hadef

with nanoreinforcement, nanocomposite active packaging and nanocomposite smart

packaging (Kuswandi 2016). Nanoreinforcement is mainly used to give extra tensile
strength of food packets by different reinforcement method using nanoclays, cellu-
lose.. etc. (Ranjan et al. 2014). Polymer nanocomposites integrated with metal or
metal oxide nanoparticles such as silver, gold, zinc oxide, silica, titanium dioxide,
and iron oxides have been developed for active packaging (Chaudhry et al. 2008;
Rajendran and Sen 2017). Novel active packaging includes metallic nanoparticles
with antimicrobial or oxygen scavenging properties (Momin et al. 2013). Intelligent,
or smart, food packaging incorporates a nanobiosensor for sensing and signaling
microbial and biochemical changes, release of antimicrobials, antioxidants,
enzymes, flavors, and nutraceuticals to extend the shelf life of food and dairy
products (Kalia and Parshad 2015; Rajendran and Sen 2017). Nanopackaging pro-
vides longer shelf life of food products by reducing gas and moisture exchange and
UV light exposure (Sorrentino et al. 2007; Rajendran and Sen 2017).

1.6.7 Textile Industry

The textile industry is one of the most important consumer goods industries world-
wide. Its mostly small and medium-sized enterprises produce textiles for various
uses such as clothing, home textiles (such as bed and table linen, kitchen towels and
cleaning rags), household textiles (such as curtains, furniture fabrics, textile floor
coverings) and technical textiles (such as protective clothing, vehicle seat covers,
tarps, tire fabrics, filter materials) (Appel et al. 2013). Textile industry is concerned
with the design and production of textile fibres such as yarn, cotton, wool and silk.
This industry plays a crucial part in providing the society with basic needs. It is also
important in the economic perspective, providing employment and high industrial
output (Senthil Kumar et al. 2017). The textile industry has already impacted by
nanotechnology. Research involving nanotechnology to improve performances or to
create unprecedented functions of textile materials are flourishing (Nelson 2013).
Nanotechnology offers many advantages as compared to the conventional process in
term of economy, energy saving, eco-friendliness, control release of substances,
packaging, separating and storing materials on a microscopic scale for later use and
release under control condition (David 2002; Singh 2016). Nanotechnology can
provide durable solutions to the textile industry. The textile fabrics provide best
suitable substrates where a large surface area is present for a given weight or a given
volume of fabric. The synergy between nanotechnology and textile industry uses this
property of large interfacial area and a drastic change in energetic is experienced by
various macromolecules or super molecules in the vicinity of a fibre when changing
from wet state to a dry state (Patra and Gouda 2013). The most significant early
development of nano-finishes for textiles came through the research of Dr. David
Soane. After almost 20 years at the University of California, Berkeley, Dr. Soane left
academe and, using his garage as a lab, began devising ways of using nanotechnol-
ogy to add unusual properties to natural and synthetic textiles, without changing a
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 41

Fig. 1.24 Photographs of: (a) Untreated cotton fabric, the samples of blank cotton fabric and
Ag/Cotton fabrics with different Ag loadings, prepared by argon glow discharge: (b) Ag/Cotton-1,
(c) Ag/Cotton-2, (d) Ag/Cotton-5 and (e) Ag/Cotton-10. The formation of Ag NPs on cotton fabrics
is visibly evident as the color is changed from colorless to yellow. Besides, the color of Ag/Cotton
fabrics is light yellow at a low level of Ag loading (b). With the increase of loading amount, the
color changes to dark yellow, brownish yellow and even to black, (c–e) indicating the coverage of
Ag NPs expands since more Ag NPs are formed on cotton fabrics (Reproduced from Li et al. 2017
Copyright (2017) Elsevier)

fabric’s look or feel. He floated the first nanotechnology-based company, Nano-Tex,

in 1998, specifically catering to the textile industry (Gulrajani 2013).
Nanomaterials are expected to either improve the existing properties or bring new
functionalities to textiles such as dirt and water repellence, breathability, UV pro-
tection, conductive and antistatic properties, wear and wrinkle resistance or resis-
tance to stains, bacteria or fungi (Empa and TSV Textilverb and Schweiz 2011;
Empa 2015). Nanoparticles can provide high durability for treated fabrics as they
posses large surface area and high surface energy that ensure better affinity for
fabrics and led to an increase in durability of the desired textile function (Singh
2016). The nanomaterials that are and soon will be used most frequently in textiles
are: Silver, silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, aluminum (hydr)oxides,
nanoclay (primarily montmorillo-nite), carbon nanotubes, carbon black. Copper,
gold, iron (hydr)oxides, polypyrrol, and polyani-line are of secondary priority
(Som et al. 2010; Appel et al. 2013). As exemples, some researchers employed
nano-titanium dioxide and nano-silica to improve the wrinkle resistance of cotton
and silk. Nano-titanium dioxide is used with carboxylic acid as a catalyst under UV
irradiation to catalyse the cross-linking reaction between the cellulose molecule and
the acid while nano-silica is used with maleic anhydride as a catalyst to improve the
wrinkle resistance (Song et al. 2001; Wong et al. 2006). Silver nanoparticles are used
in socks and sports clothing because of their ability to kill bacteria and inhibit
unwanted odors (Medero 2013; Singh 2016) (Fig. 1.24).
Nanomaterials can be added to the textiles either during the fibre production or
during the finishing, meaning being directly applied to the fibre surface or incorpo-
rated into fibre coatings (e.g. polymers). They can be applied as single, agglomerated
(weakly bound) or aggregated (strongly bound) nanoparticles of different shapes or
as part of a coating. It is also possible to produce nanotextiles without nanomaterials
by creating nano-sized porosity in the textile’s structure. New methods of application
42 F. Hadef

of nanoparticles by nano-coating, electro-spraying, layer-by-layer deposition, chem-

ical vapour deposition, sol-gel deposition and polymer film roughening are being
researched and commercially exploited to impart super-hydrophobicity to textile
substrates (Xue et al. 2010; Gulrajani 2013).

1.6.8 Agriculture

Agriculture is the basic activity by which humans live and survive on the Earth
(Reddy 2015; Shalaby et al. 2016). Currently, the major challenges faced by world
agriculture include changing climate, urbanization, sustainable use of natural
resources and environmental issues like runoff and accumulation of pesticides and
fertilizers. These problems are further intensified by an alarming increase in food
demand that will be needed to feed an estimated population of six to nine billion by
2050 (Chen and Yada 2011; Dasgupta et al. 2016). Thus, implementation of new
technology in agriculture sector is of extreme importance, particularly to deal with
population growth, climate change, pest management and limited availability of
nutrient (Chowdhury et al. 2016). There are many more important factors, with
single aim to solve: how to increase crop production? Nanotechnology may play an
effective role for this purpose. Already, there are many important developments on
this aspect like enhancement of nutrients absorption by plants, protection of plants,
nano-formulated food ingredients and water treatment processes (Chowdhury et al.
2016).
Uncontrolled and longer time application of different conventional fertilizers
would be dangerous for the agriculture sector and will raise environmental issue
near future. It has been reported that heavy use of phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizer
raising the eutrophication problem into surface water bodies world-wide (Conley
et al. 2009), provide nutrition to phototrophic microorganism and help them into
developments of algal bloom (Chhipa and Joshi 2016). Application of nanotechnol-
ogy has enhanced the delivery of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and plant growth
regulators with the help of nanoscale carriers (Dasgupta et al. 2016). Reduction of
chemical fertilizer and pesticide will be helpful in maintaining natural eco-balance of
Geo-biological cycles, which have been destroyed or imbalanced by the use of
synthetic chemicals (Alexander 1973; Chhipa and Joshi 2016). Cai et al. (2014),
developed nanoclays which can be added to traditional fertilizer to improve the
retention capacity of nitrogen. Thus, nitrogen loss is reduced and sufficient nutrition
is provided to crops (Dasgupta et al. 2016). In fact, the use of nanoparticles as
carriers of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture increased the effectiveness of the
active materials and reduce their volatilization. It also decreased the contamination
of underground water resources (Aouada and de Moura 2015; Perez-de-Luque and
Hermosín 2013; Chowdhury et al. 2016). One of the major advantages of
nanoparticles is the gradual and controlled release of agrochemicals. The controlled
release systems allow controlled delivery of active ingredients for a desired period in
1 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 43

Fig. 1.25 Application of

nanotechnology in
agriculture: nanotechnology
applies in the form of nano-
fertilizer, nano-pesticide,
nanoherbicide and nano-
sensor for controlling
nutrition, pest detection and
management (Reproduced
from Chhipa and Joshi
2016. Copyright (2016)
Springer International
Publishing Switzerland)

the vicinity of the roots or the vegetative parts (Aouada and de Moura 2015;
Chowdhury et al. 2016) (Fig. 1.25).
The soil characteristics can be improved by enhancing the water infiltration,
aeration, availability of nutrients specially the liquid agrochemical and reducing
the shear strength (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2009). Nanotechnology sector has contrib-
uted towards the soil improvement by way of producing nanomaterial products like
zeolites and nano-clays which help in retention of liquid agrochemicals or water in
the soil and allow slow release to the plants (Chowdhury et al. 2016). Biosensor,
quantum dots, nanostructured platforms, nanoimaging and nanopore DNA sequenc-
ing tools have the potential to raise sensitivity, specificity and speed of the pathogen
detection, facilitate high-throughput analysis, and can be used for high-quality
monitoring and crop protection (Khiyami et al. 2014). Furthermore, nanodiagnostic
kit equipments can easily and quickly detect potential plant pathogens, allowing
experts to help farmers in the prevention of epidemic diseases (Kashyap et al. 2016).
Nanoscience and nanotechnologies have vast applications in water quality
managementas heavy metal removal, nano-bioremediation through
nanolignodynamic metals, desalination, disinfecting process and the sensors to
check the quality (Dasgupta et al. 2016).

1.7 Conclusion

Nanotechnology can be defined as the the understanding, control and manipulation

of materials, having dimensions roughly within the 1–100 nm range, where conven-
tional physics breaks down. Scientists view nanotechnology as the revolutionary
technology of the twenty-first century. Nanomaterials refer to natural, incidental or
manufactured materials containing particles in unbound or agglomerated/aggregated
states. They are materials with basic structural units, grains, particles, fibers or other
constituent components smaller than 100 nm in at least one dimension. The produc-
tion of nanomaterials are achieved mainly through two approaches identified as
44 F. Hadef

top-down and bottom-up methods. The first way, stands for breaking down the bulk
material into smaller and smaller dimensions whereas the second one is based on
consolidating the small clusters.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology have the potential to address many of the
global challenges facing society today and improving the quality of life. The
application of nanotechnology continues to make significant contributions to inno-
vative and beneficial products across broad areas. Indeed, nanotechnology aims to
design new functional smart materials and devices with a wide range of applications
and it is important to emphasize the emergence of new topics such as nanoenergy,
nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, nanofood . . .etc.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de

la Recherche Scientifique, Algeria.

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