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EASA Part 147 Approved Courses

EL 147.0007

Part 66 Syllabus
Module 16 - Piston Engine

MANUAL CODE: BM1_16


ISSUE VERSION: Initial Issue
ISSUE DATE: 15.04.2010
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Part 66 Training Syllabus
Module 16 - Piston Engine

Table of Contents

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Module 16 - Piston Engine

PISTON ENGINE THEORY


Combustion engines may be classed as External Combustion Engines (rare but used on some ground based
applications) and Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). They all rely on the principle of burning fuel and using
a reciprocating piston and cylinder arrangement with the piston connected to a crank shaft to produce rotary
movement.

In general, a mixture of air and fuel is induced or forced into the cylinder of the engine, and it is compressed
by a piston. It is then ignited which causes combustion and a rapid expansion of the burning mixture. This
rapid expansion pushes the piston down, the motion of which is converted into rotary motion by a connecting
rod and crankshaft.

An ICEs may be classed as gasoline engines (either 2 or 4 stroke) or Diesel engines (Rudolf Diesel German
engineer 1858-1913). The most common ICE used with piston engined aircraft is the 4 stroke gasoline
engine but the Diesel engine is starting to be used more as (currently) Diesel fuel is considerably cheaper
than aviation gasoline and the Diesel engine is more efficient.

ICEs convert chemical energy consisting of an air-fuel mix into useful work and have to meet criteria
specified by world aviation authorities - the Civil Aviation Authority in the UK (EASA Certificate Specification
23 - CS23). The engine must have a good power/mass ratio (high power for low weight), be compact and
able to operate under various operating conditions.

The ICE may run on almost any fuel in a liquid, gas or powder form, but the
most common fuels are liquid - these being either petroleum (gasoline) and Diesel oil.

The pilot must be aware of the engine's limitations and have some knowledge of how it works. Cockpit
indications of engine performance include engine speed, cylinder temperatures, fuel-air mixture, oil pressure
and temperature and others.

A set of cockpit controls allows the pilot to make engine adjustments to meet the changing conditions
encountered during flight. The main one of these is the throttle (rpm), but other controls might include
propeller pitch angle change control, fuel/air mixture control, ignition control etc.

The first part of this book deals with the theory of the internal combustion engine, and the second part deals
with the construction. You should have a good knowledge of the basic theory and construction of a piston
engine, and be able to relate it to an actual aircraft engine on which you have knowledge of.

The internal combustion engine is an air breathing engine which uses the oxygen in the air to allow
combustion to occur of the combustible fuels put into the engine.

Because it needs air to work it will be affected by any change in the atmosphere which occurs with a change
in altitude. For this reason you shorn have some knowledge of the properties of the atmosphere and how
they change with altitude.

THE ATMOSPHERE
The air in which we fly varies considerably both with height and location around the world. It is made up of
approximately 21% oxygen (62) the remainder being nitrogen with minor traces of other gases. The ratios of
the gases vary little with height although the moisture content drops.

It is the O2 content that allows combustion but with increasing altitude this gets less (nitrogen also gets less
but their ratios stay the same). This means that with increasing altitude the performance of the ICE
decreases.

Because of the variations in temperature, pressure, and density around the world and to allow
standardisation for the calibration of instruments and engines etc a Standard Atmosphere has been devised.
This Standard Atmosphere lays down the values of the temperature, pressure, and density as a standard
value around the world, and it specifies their values with change in
height.

In very general terms the standard ICAO atmosphere at sea level is considered to be at a:

 Pressure of 1013.25 millibars (14.7psi or 29.9in Hg or 101.3kPa).


 Temperature of 15°C.

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With increasing altitude the pressure falls at a non constant rate (non-linier) losing most of its pressure at the
lower altitudes. The temperature falls at a constant rate of 1.98°C per 1000ft up to an altitude of 36,000ft
(11km) where, remains constant with increasing altitude at -56°C.
3
The density (mass per unit volume) of the air at sea level is 1,2kg/m and this falls with an increase in
altitude at a similar rate to that of pressure - ie, at a non-linear rate.

Humidity can vary considerable at sea level (from close to zero to 100% -relative humidity). The amount of
moisture in the air falls with altitude.

THE TWO STROKE ENGINE


Probably the simplest of the ICEs as it usually consists of a piston, cylinder, spark plug and crank
arrangement with no cams and no inlet and exhaust valves.

It is called a 2 stroke engine because it completes a full working cycle in 2 strokes of the piston (360° of the
crank). With reference to figure 1 the sequence of events are:

1. Initial Charge Induction Stroke. As the piston rises a reduction in pressure in the crankcase causes
the air/fuel mix to be drawn into the crankcase via the induction port. The correct air/fuel mix being
obtained using a carburettor. The fuel specified usually has an amount of engine lubricating oil
added to provide lubrication for the moving parts in the crankcase.
This upward stroke of the piston is also the compression stroke for the previous charge. In other words it is
really the Compression Stroke.

2. Charge Transfer Stroke. As the piston moves down on the Power Stroke so the inlet port is covered
and the charge gets compressed in the crankcase until the transfer port is uncovered by the piston
which allows the charge to move rapidly into the cylinder.

3. Compression Stroke. As the crank continues to turn so the piston rises in the cylinder, closes the
transfer and exhaust ports and compresses the charge (also doing item 1. above).

4. Power Stroke. Near the top of the stroke the spark from the spark plug ignites the air/fuel mixture
and rapid burning causes the pressure to rise forcing the piston down.

Fig. 1 THE TWO STROKE ENGINE

As the piston descends so the exhaust port is uncovered and the pressure in the cylinder forces the
combustion gases out. A fraction of a second later the transfer port is uncovered and a new charge
is directed into the cylinder from the crankcase.

The charge from the crankcase is under pressure and the design of the piston head helps to ensure
that the incoming charge is directed up into the cylinder which helps to scavenge the cylinder of the
exhaust gases. This is known as Cross Flow Scavenging.

As the crank continues to rotate so the next compression stroke is started.

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The engine is not very efficient mainly because the combustion gasses cannot be completely scavenged
from the cylinder and on each power stroke at least some of the charge is un-burnable gas from the previous
power stroke. Also some of each new charge escapes through the exhaust port.

Variations in the design have made some improvements (but not much). These include a double cylinder
arrangement and a single valve system. There is also
the problem of exhaust pollution due to the combustion of the lubricating oil element of the charge.

The engine, however, is simple, cheap and reliable. Figure 2 shows the timing diagramme.

Fig. 2 TWO STROKE TIMING DIAGRAMME

THE FOUR STROKE ENGINE


Sometimes called the Otto Cycle (Nikolaus August Otto 1832-1891 German engineer), the four-stroke cycle
is so called because it takes 4 strokes of the piston to complete one working cycle (720° - two rotations - of
the crank).

The Otto Cycle

The cycle involves four operations in two revolutions of the crankshaft, namely:

1. Induction Stroke. As the piston descends in the cylinder a charge of air/fuel mixture is drawn into the
cylinder. Inlet valve open -exhaust valve closed.

2. Compression Stroke. The piston rises and compresses the induced charge. Both valves closed.
Compression ratio is between 8:1 and 12:1. If it is too high then the charge spontaneously combusts
before the correct ignition timing and detonation occurs. This detonation is sometimes called
knocking or pinking.

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Fig. 3 THE FOUR STROKE ENGINE

3. Expansion or Power Stroke. The charge is ignited by a spark plug and burns rapidly. It expands,
forcing the piston down the cylinder. Both valves closed.

4. Exhaust Stroke. The waste products of combustion are expelled from the cylinder by the rising piston
to make room for a new charge from the inlet manifold and thus completing the cycle. Exhaust valve
open - inlet valve closed.

5. Note that the spark plug is shown on the side of the cylinder in figure 3. In the majority of engines it
is fitted to the top of the cylinder where the inlet and exhaust valves are to give a more even
combustion rate across the area of the piston. It is shown on the side in figure 3 for clarity.

Fig. 4 TIMING DIAGRAMME - OTTO CYCLE

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Fig. 5 PRESSURE/VOLUME (P/V) DIAGRAMME - OTTO CYCLE

With reference to figures 3, 4 and 5 and in more detail the four strokes are:

Induction. (A to B on the Pressure/Volume [PV] diagramme). The first downstroke. Inlet valve open exhaust
valve closed. Piston moves down the cylinder (TDC to BDC). The connecting rod causes the crankshaft to
rotate which by suitable gearing causes the cams to rotate and move the inlet/exhaust valves. Spark ignition
timing is also achieved from the crankshaft which is also the main power transmission shaft to the propeller.
Fuel/air mixture is drawn into the cylinder.

Compression. (B to C on the PV diagramme). The piston moves through BDC with both valves closed. The
piston moves up the cylinder and compresses the fuel/air mixture into the top of the cylinder (clearance
volume). It is an adiabatic compression so the charge gets hot.

Power. (C to D on the PV diagramme). Spark occurs - usually just before TDC. Both valves are closed.
Rapid burning and expansion of gases causes a pressure rise in the cylinder. The piston is forced down the
cylinder from TDC to BDC.

Exhaust. (D to A on the PV diagramme). Piston moves through BDC to start to move up the cylinder.
Exhaust valve opens. Exhaust gases are released to atmosphere by pressure and upward movement of the
piston. Piston moves up the cylinder ready for the next cycle.

In the Four Stroke Cycle there is one power stroke in two sets of revolutions of the crankshaft, and three idle
strokes.

In order that the engine may drive itself over the three idle strokes, the crankshaft and other rotating parts
store up energy produced from the power stroke and thus continues to rotate the crankshaft when the engine
is turning through the exhaust, induction, and compression strokes.

Therefore, the greater the number of cylinders fitted, the greater the number of power strokes to every two
revolutions of the crankshaft.

More cylinders, more power strokes, more power means a smoother running engine.
In practice the Otto Cycle has to be modified to give the best power output.

THE DIESEL ENGINE


Technically called a Compression Ignition Engine (CIE) and sometimes called an Oil Engine (because the
fuel is very oily compared with gasoline). It is not too unlike the Otto cycle except that:
1. Induction Stroke. As the piston moves down the cylinder so a
charge of air (only) is induced into the cylinder. A to B in the PV diagramme (figure 7).

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Fig. 6 THE DIESEL ENGINE

2. Compression Stroke. The air is compressed (compression ratio 14:1 to 25:1) to a high temperature.
Often considered to be an adiabatic compression which means there is no heat lost to the
surroundings during compression and the air gets hot. In reality it is not possible to have a true
adiabatic compression - some heat is always lost. This is shown as B to C in the PV diagramme with
injection commencing at D.

The air temperatures can get as high as 600°C and the injected fuel will burn easily at this temperature
(ignition temperature about 340°C). As the injection period is very short, the combustion is quick and
approximates closely to an explosion.

If the ambient air temperature is low then compression temperatures may not get high enough to cause
combustion so glow plugs are fitted to some engines to ensure a high enough cylinder temperature.

3. Expansion or Power Stroke. Diesel fuel (sometimes called Diesel oil) is injected into the cylinder.
Spontaneous combustion occurs forcing the piston down. Peak combustion pressure is about
12MPa (1700psi) which is about double that of a gasoline engine. Shown as C to B in the PV
diagramme.

4. Exhaust Stroke. This is the same as item 4 on the Otto cycle and is shown as B to A in the PV
diagramme.

Note that the injector is shown on the side of the cylinder in figure 6 for clarity. Normally it would be fitted to
the cylinder head for better fuel distribution within the cylinder.

In general the higher the compression ration (for any ICE) the more efficient the engine. This means that in
general terms the Diesel engine is about 25 to 40% more efficient than the gasoline engine - though it tends
to be heavier (to cope with the higher compression ratios).

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Fig. 7 PV DIAGRAMME FOR A DIESEL ENGINE

The main problem associated with the Diesel engine is the instant mixing of tjr\ fuel with the air as it enters
the cylinder. Ideally all the fuel particles should mix instantly with all the air to combust together, this means
that the fuel injector is critical to the efficient running of the engine.

In very general terms, fuel is pumped under pressure to each injector and the injector is operated at the
correct timing during the compression stroke. The injector is designed to put a controlled quantity of finely
atomised fuel spray into the cylinder.

The ejector can be mechanically operated by a cam driven by the engine or electrically operated under the
control of an electronic unit or computer.

Abbreviations and Terms Used

The following abbreviations and terms should be committed to memory:

ICE. Internal Combustion Engine.

TDC. Top Dead Centre. When the piston is at the top of its stroke in the cylinder and the piston, connecting
rod and crankweb are all in line.

BDC. Bottom Dead Centre. When the piston is at the bottom of its stroke
under the same conditions as for TDC.

Stroke. The linear distance through which the piston moves when it travels from TDC to BDC. Sometimes
called the Swept Volume.

Ineffective Crank Angle. The relatively small linier movement of the piston around BDC and TDC compared
to the amount of crank angular movement.

Four Stroke Cycle (Otto Cycle). A cycle of operations which needs four strokes-of the piston to complete the
cycle. The crank-pin travels from 0° to 720° and there are two revolutions of the crankshaft in this cycle.

Two Stroke Cycle. A cycle of operations which needs two strokes of the piston to complete the cycle. The
crank-pin travels from 0° to 360° and there is thus one revolution of the crankshaft in this cycle.

BHP. Brake Horse Power. The power which is delivered by the engine to the propeller shaft or clutch shaft
(helicopter) and which is then convertible into useful work.

IHP. Indicated Horse Power. The horse power calculated from the actual mean pressures in the cylinder, as
measured by an indicator instrument.

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FHP. Friction Horse Power. The horse power lost in overcoming friction between moving parts inside the
engine. Accounts for about 5% of the total power.

SHP. Supercharge Horse Power. The horse power lost to the super charger.

MEP. Mean Effective Pressure. The average pressure obtained within the cylinder during a cycle of
operations.

IMEP. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure. The average pressure developed in the cylinder during the power
stroke.

FMEP. Friction Mean Effective Pressure. That portion of the IMEP which overcomes the mechanical friction
of the moving parts.

BMEP. Brake Mean Effective Pressure. That portion of the IMEP which produces BHP.

STP. Standard Temperature and Pressure. 15°C and 1013.25mb (14.7psi) at sea level.

Mechanical Efficiency. The mechanical efficiency is a measure of IHP as compared with the BHP. It can be
expressed as :

BHP x 100
IHP

Bore. The internal diameter of the cylinder.

Swept Volume. The volume between BDC and TDC which is swept by the piston = AREA OF PISTON x
STROKE.

Clearance Volume. The remaining volume which is above the piston at TDC. Total Volume. Swept volume +
clearance volume.

Compression Ratio. This is a measure of the amount of compression given to the induced charge. The
volume swept by the piston from BDC to TDC is compressed into the clearance volume at TDC.
Compression ratio is the ratio between the total volume the gases can occupy and the volume which they
are compressed into.

.•. Compression Ratio = Total Volume


Clearance Volume

= Swept Volume + Clearance Volume


Clearance Volume

CR = SV + CV
CV

Specific Fuel Consumption. The amount of fuel burnt per unit time to producr 1 unit of power. For example,
the number of pounds weight of fuel burnt per hour to produce one brake horse power - sometimes called
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption. Allows for comparison of the efficiencies of different engines.

Weight per Horse Power. The comparison of the mass of the engine to the power produced. Early engines
had a weight to power ratio of 15:1 which meant that for each 15 pounds of engine mass they produced one
pound of power. Modern ICEs have a ratio in the region of nearly 1:1.

Volumetric Efficiency

The power output of an ICE depends on the pressure in the cylinders and the pressure itself depends on the
mass of charge which can be induced or forced into the cylinders during the induction stroke.

The mass of the charge in the cylinders at the end of the induction stroke is expressed as a comparison with
that mass of charge which would occupy the cylinders under standard conditions and this ratio is termed the
Volumetric Efficiency. Thus:

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Volumetric = __________Mass of charge induced x 100%___________


Efficiency Mass of charge which would occupy the cylinder at STP

When this efficiency is high there is a heavy mass of mixture being fed into the cylinders and (subject to
pressure and temperature limitations) the engine power output will be high.

Factors Affecting Volumetric Efficiency

Pressure in the cylinders at the end of the Induction Stroke. The pressure in A the cylinders is obviously
dependent on the pressure in the Induction Manifold""'' during the period when the inlet valve is open.

Any restrictions to air and fuel flow to the cylinders will decrease the effective pressure and the main
restrictions found in a normal engine are:

(a) Throttle butterfly valve - this restriction is intentional for control of engine power output (gasoline
engines).

(b) Any restrictions on the air supply duct such as length, choke tube, fuel nozzles, sharp bends, air
filters
in air/charge supply ducting, valves etc. Injectors for Diesel engines.

(c) Icing in the air intake.

NB: Note that the resistance to flow increases with increase in rpm.

(d) As the aircraft climbs so the density of the atmosphere decreases and this reduces the pressure in
the induction manifold.

The chief factors which increase the pressure in the induction manifold are:

(a) Supercharging/turbocharging. A compressor compresses the air/charge prior to being fed into the
cylinder. See the book in this series on supercharging.

(b) Ram effect. Having a forward facing air scoop into the airflow to the induction manifold will produce
"ram effect". Ram effect is increased when flying faster and if the air is colder (more dense).

Valve timing has a marked effect on the pressure obtained in the cylinders and this is discussed later.

Temperature of the charge at the end of the Induction Stroke. Variations in the temperature of the charge will
vary the mass of the charge being fed into the cylinders. The temperature is affected by:

(a) Ambient air temperature.


(b) Use of "hot air".
(c) Supercharging - temperature rise due to compression.
(d) A hot engine.
(e) Residual exhaust gases, due to incomplete scavenging, will raise the temperature of the incoming
charge.
(f) Mixture strength and water/methanol injection - see the book in this series on combustion and
carburation.

Efficiency of Scavenging. If completely scavenge of all the waste gases of | combustion from the cylinders
during the exhaust stroke can be achieved then a full charge can be obtained during the following induction
stroke.

Complete scavenging depends on:

(a) Valve timing.

(b) Resistance to flow of the exhaust gases from the cylinders by the valves and the pressure on the
exhaust gases from the surrounding atmosphere. This latter factor is known as exhaust back pressure.

Condition of the Engine. Worn valves, piston rings, carbon deposits etc, will all reduce volumetric efficiency.
Refinements to improve Volumetric Efficiency
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Induction Stroke. Certain modifications are included to improve the efficiency of ICEs. These include:

1. Valve Lead. The early opening, before TDC of the inlet valve and before BDC of the exhaust valve.

2. Valve Lag. The late closing, after BDC of the inlet valve and after TDC of the exhaust valve.

3. Valve Overlap. The period around TDC, when the inlet and exhaust valves are both open.

4. Variable Ignition Timing/Injection Timing. Variation of the timing of the spark/fuel injection at the to
ensure complete combustion at the correct point in the cycle of operation.

The Induction Stroke


The charge being fed into the cylinder has mass and, therefore, inertia and lags behind the fast moving
piston. Thus at BDC the cylinder is not completely filled. The pressure in the cylinder is less than that in the
induction manifold and the charge is still flowing into the cylinder so the inlet valve is left open after BDC.
This allows the charge to continue to flow in due to this lower pressure in the cylinder which is now assisted
by charge momentum.

At this part of the stroke the upward displacement of the piston is small for a large angular movement of the
crankshaft (ineffective crank angle) and consequently, the angle of inlet valve lag may be considerable. On
the Leonides, for example, the inlet valve lag is 57°.

The Exhaust Stroke


Pressure Scavenging. If the exhaust valve was opened at BDC the pressure of the expanded gases of
combustion remaining in the cylinder would act against the upward movement of the piston. To relieve this
pressure before BDC the exhaust valve is opened early (Leonides 58° early) and the pressure of the gases
commences the first stage of scavenging on the exhaust stroke.

Physical Scavenging. This is the swept volume of the cylinder being scavenged by the upward movement of
the piston from BDC to TDC.

Scavenging by "Momentum". Momentum is given to the exhaust gases by a combination of the above and
the unswept portion of the cylinder is partially scavenged by the momentum of the outgoing gases.

The exhaust valve is left open for a period after TDC (Leonides 42° late) to permit the exhaust gases to
scavenge the cylinder as completely as possible by their momentum.

Valve Overlap
At this part of the cycle of operations the inlet valve is opened before TDC (Leonides 33° early) so that the
outgoing exhaust gases, leaving behind a region of low pressure in the cylinder, start the initial movement of
the new charge into the cylinder.

Valve lead, lag and overlap vary with individual engine design, as does the timing of the spark/injection and
all are designed to give the best results under most running conditions.

Ignition Timing/Injection Timing


To obtain complete combustion by 10° to 15° after TDC the spark must occur
some time before TDC (about 6°) due to the time taken for the charge to burn through and the speed of
rotation of the engine. The flame propagation rate under normal conditions remains almost constant but the
range of engine speed varies considerably, thus at low engine speed it is necessary to retard the ignition to
prevent the maximum pressure being exerted on the piston before it reaches TDC.

The flame propagation rate does, however, increase as the pressure increases in the cylinder, as would
occur with high boost pressure. The increased flame rate shortens the time of combustion and requires, on
some engines, the ignition to be retarded again when high boost pressure settings are used.

Thus on some high powered engines, at slow running, the ignition is fully retarded (but the spark still occurs
before TDC), then it is progressively advanced to a maximum, which is usually at the max cruise position.

Any further increase in boost pressure often entails either the ignition again being retarded, or, alternatively,
no further advance is made.

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For Diesel injection systems the injection of the fuel is commenced at about 15° before TDC to finish just
after TDC. This starts the combustion process causing a rapid rise in pressure peaking at about 10° after
TDC. The combustion process is said to occur in three phases. Phase 1 where ignition is being initiated at
the end of the flame, phase 2 is where the flame develops rapidly and phase 3 is where the flame has
reached back to the actual injector.

POWER CALCULATION AND MEASUREMENT

Indicated Power
The power developed in an engine cylinder can be calculated from the cylinder dimensions and the average
pressure on the piston during the power stroke. The force exerted on the piston will be the average pressure
multiplied by the area of the piston, and the work done (force x distance) will be this force multiplied by the
length of the stroke. The power developed in the cylinder can then be calculated by multiplying the work
done by the number of power strokes (N) per unit time. In the case of a single cylinder engine, "N" will be the
crankshaft rotational speed divided by 2, and in the case of a multi cylinder engine "N" will be:

the crankshaft rotational speed x number of cylinders


2
When using Imperial units, power is usually quoted in horsepower (hp) and when using SI units, power is
quoted in watts or kilowatts (kW) (1 hp = 0.746 kW).

Thus the Indicated Power of an engine can be calculated from the formula:

PLANK PLANK
or
33,000 HP 60,000 kW

where P= Pressure on piston (psi or Pa)


L= Length of stroke (ft or m)
2 2
A= Area of piston (in or m )
N= Number of power strokes/min
K= Number of cylinders

For any particular engine the cylinder capacity is fixed, so that a constant (k) could be used to replace all the
invariable quantities in the formula for Indicated Power, which could then be simplified to :

P x rpm
k
where k is:

33.000 hp or 60.000 kW
½ LxAxK ½ LxAxK

It can then be seen that Indicated Power for a particular engine varies directly as the cylinder pressure and
the engine speed, an increase in either giving an increase in Indicated Power.

Brake Power
The Brake Power, or Shaft Power, or Brake Horse Power of an engine is the power actually delivered to the
propeller, and represents the Indicated Power minus the power required to overcome friction and to drive the
engine accessories. Power used internally is known as Friction Power, and the relationship between Brake
Power and Indicated Power, expressed as a percentage, is known as the Mechanical Efficiency of the
engine.

The output of an engine is best obtained by measuring the torque of the output shaft (propeller shaft or
power shaft). For many engines this torque, which is the best indication of the available power of the engine,
is measured and indicated to the pilot by a torque meter calibrated in Nm or ft Ibs. (See the book in this
series on Engine Instruments).

When calculating the work done on the piston, the work was taken as force x distance (in a straight line).
When measuring the work done by the propeller shaft, the torque can be thought of as a force "F" acting at a
distance "d" from the axis of the shaft.

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If the system rotates once, the force can be regarded as having travelled one circumference of a circle of
radius r, ie, work done per revolution = F x 2nr or, as torque = Fd then work = torque x 2n (Fd = Fr). Brake
Power can then be calculated if the speed of rotation is known. Using Imperial units the Brake

Power becomes:

torque (Ibf) x 2n x rpm hp


33,000
when using SI units:
torque (Nm) x 2n x rpm kW
60,000

Fig. 8 TORQUE

Again, using a constant (C) for the invariable quantities, Brake Power becomes
torque x rpm
and it can be seen that it varies directly with torque and engine rpm.

Mean Effective Pressure


The average pressure exerted on the piston during the power stroke is known as the Mean Effective
Pressure (MEP). The actual pressures can be measured, and can be shown on an Indicator Diagram similar
to figure 9.

Areas of the graph can be calculated where work is done on the piston whilst other areas can show that the
piston produces useful work.

The sum of the work done on the piston areas, less the sum of the work done && the piston areas,
represents the net useful work, and when this area is confined to the power stroke, the pressure co-ordinate
becomes the Indicated MEP (IMEP), and may be used for calculating Indicated Power.
IMEP, therefore, has a definite relationship to Indicated Power, and, in a similar way, is composed of
components representing Friction Power and Brake Power.

These components are known as Friction MEP (FMEP) and Brake MEP (BMEP), and can be used for
calculating Friction Power and Brake Power respectively. Similarly, if Indicated power and rpm are known,
IMEP can be calculated:

IMEP = k x Indicated Power


rpm

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Fig. 9 GRAPH OF CRANKSHAFT ANGLE AGAINST PRESSUREGASOLENE ENGINE

If Brake Power and rpm are known, then BMEP can be calculated:

BMEP = k x Brake Power


rpm

Power Control
Engine operation must be confined within cylinder pressure and crankshaft speed limitations, which are
determined by the manufacturer. Various combinations of these parameters could be used to produce any
particular power output, and the most economical would be the use of low rpm to minimise friction and high
cylinder pressures to produce the power required.

Since cylinder pressure is related to manifold pressure, adequate control is provided by operating within the
manifold pressure and rpm limitations, but on large engines where economy is important, closer control of
cylinder pressure becomes necessary.

IMEP is related directly to peak cylinder pressure and to Indicated Power, so that control of IMEP would
ensure operating at safe cylinder pressures, however, Indicated Power is difficult to measure and other
means are used.

FMEP varies according to peak cylinder pressure and internal power requirements (different supercharger
ratios, etc), and can be measured throughout the engine speed range.

The relationship between BMEP and IMEP can, therefore, be determined for any operating conditions, and
since Brake Power can easily be measured by fitting a torque meter to the engine, operation at safe cylinder
pressures can be achieved by imposing BMEP limitations for the various operating conditions.

Manufacturers conduct tests to ascertain the BMEP which is equivalent to the maximum safe cylinder
pressure for any set of operating conditions, and also provide sets of tables showing the range of BMEP and
rpm settings which will give particular power outputs. The pilot may then select the power settings for the
power output he/she requires, ensuring that the BMEP is within the limit prescribed for the particular
operating conditions. Alternatively, using the formula:

BMEP = k x Brake Power


rpm

The pilot may calculate the rpm necessary to achieve the power he/she requires at maximum permissible
BMEP.

Thermal Efficiency
From the point of view of fuel economy it is important that the thermal efficiency is as high as possible and it
is, to some extent, under the control of the pilot.

Enrichment of the mixture causes the efficiency to decrease whereas weak mixture causes it to increase. If
the power necessary for any flight condition can be obtained by using weak mixture then it is economic to do
so. Other factors affecting thermal efficiency will be dealt with later.

The heat produced by the burning 1 gallon of gasoline is capable of producing about 120,000,000 foot
pounds (162.7 MJ) of work if none is wasted.
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In practice, during the combustion process, a considerable amount of the work available is lost in the form of
heat to the cylinder walls and piston etc.

The exhaust gases also remove some potential work as their temperature is stt»/ ' high when expelled from
the cylinder during the exhaust stroke.

Additional work is absorbed in overcoming friction, pumping the charge into the cylinders, and in driving the
superchargers (where fitted) and other ancillaries.

In general the total heat energy available is distributed as follows:

5% Friction losses.
20% Cooling losses.
30% Useful work.
45% Exhaust losses.

That is, under the best conditions of economical cruising, about 30% of the heat value of the fuel is
converted into useful work at the propeller shaft/roto^^ t shaft.
(Motorcar engines are similar by the way. 70 % of the fuel put into the tank is wasted).

The ratio :

Heat converted into useful work x 100%


Heat energy available in the fuel used gives the thermal efficiency of an engine.

The Charge
The charge fed into the cylinders of a gasoline engine consists of a mixture of petrol vapour (85% carbon,
15% hydrogen by weight) and air (21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen and other inert gases). Of the air, only
oxygen takes an active part in the combustion but the nitrogen and other inert gases play an important part
in that they form the bulk of gas which is heated and expanded to create pressure energy.

Oxygen and petrol alone would cause the combustion to become an explosion with far too rapid a
temperature and pressure rise to be harnessed to do useful work. The presence of the bulk of nitrogen slows
down the rate of combustion to within practical limited rates.

For chemical combustion, the ratio of air to petrol required should be approximately 15:1 by weight. With
these proportions all of the petrol is burned and all of the oxygen is consumed.

Combustion
When normal combustion takes place in the gasoline engine, the compressed charge in the cylinder is
ignited by the spark and burns rapidly but steadily, at a flame rate of about 70 ft/sec giving a steady and
smooth temperature and pressure rise which exerts a strong push on the piston.

It is emphasized that normal combustion is not an explosion. Combustion should be completed by 10° - 15°
after TDC, so that the pressure has the maximum effect on the piston.

Detonation (in gasoline engines)

Under certain conditions of temperature and pressure, the combustion process becomes unstable and a
phenomenon known as detonation occurs. In this case combustion starts normally with the ignition of the
charge by the spark from the sparking plug, and the charge begins to burn, with a consequent raising of the
temperature and pressure in the cylinder.

Some "pockets" of gas, as yet unburnt, are heated by compression by the expanding gases and by radiation
from the advancing "flame front", until the temperature of these pockets of gas is raised to such an extent
that spontaneous combustion (or self ignition) takes place.

This is accompanied by a high flame propagation rate of approximately 1000 ft/sec and a rapid pressure rise
which cannot be accommodated by movement of the piston and, in consequence, the pressure energy
developed is wasted and dissipated as heat to the cylinder head and piston.

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Detonation can be likened to an explosion and is familiar to motorists as "pinking" but in aero-engines is
usually inaudible due to other noises caused by open exhausts and the propeller etc.

The direct effects of detonation are:

(a) Loss of power - the energy generated is dissipated in the form of heat.

(b) Overheating - due to the erratic occurrence of the "knock" which may occur in some cylinders in
greater intensity than others or may occur in differing degrees of intensity and time in the same
cylinder.

(c) Mechanical defects - burning of the piston crown and valves, loosening of valve seats, burning of the
oil film, which causes gumming up of piston rings and blow-by of hot gases.

As detonation often occurs under conditions of high boost pressure and bearing loads, the extra loads
imposed will, if permitted to continue, bring about rapid mechanical failure.

Causes of Detonation
Apart from engine design features over which the pilot has no control, such as the shape of combustion
chambers, position of plugs etc, detonation may be caused by:

a) Combination of high temperature and pressure at the time the spark occurs, contributory factors
being high engine temperature, use of "hot air" shutters and high boost at low rpm settings.

b) Incorrect mixture strength. Resistance to detonation can usually be increased by the use of a richer
mixture. This richer mixture does not, fl in itself, produce more power, but it does permit the use of
higher power^ settings. The extra fuel supplied in the richer mixture acts as a coolant
in the cylinder.

NOTE : Different fuels have a varying response to the use of rich mixture, known as the mixture response of
the fuel.

c) Grade of fuel. Detonation will occur eventually with any grade of fuel but some fuels have a greater
resistance to detonation than others. In fact, the degree of resistance to detonation is one of the
most important properties of any fuel intended for use in a gasoline engine.

Pre-Ignition (gasoline engines)


Pre-ignition is often confused with detonation but whereas when detonation occurs combustion commences
with the spark as already described. Pre-ignition is the igniting of the charge before the spark occurs. This is
usually brought about by a local hot spot in the combustion chamber, such as particles of incandescent
carbon or plug points, with consequent rough running of the engine which becomes worse as rpm is
increased.

Knock Rating of Fuels


All fuels intended for use in spark-ignition engines are given a "knock rating" which is an indication of their
resistance to detonation. There are three methods of determining this knock-rating in current use in Britain
and each of these deals with a distinct range of knock ratings.

Octane Rating (Weak Mixture up to 100 Octane). This rating is obtained by a comparison of the fuel under
test with a mixture of two pure standard or index fuels, for example, iso-octane - which has a high resistance
to detonation and is given a knock rating of 100 and normal heptane - which has a very poor resistance and
given a rating of zero.

The fuel on test is run at a weak mixture strength in a single cylinder test
engine, with variable compression ratio, at a set rpm. The compression ratio is increased until regular
detonation, as measured by a bouncing pin and knock meter, takes place. The engine is then switched over
to a varying mixture of the two index fuels until a mixture is found which gives the same degree of detonation
at the same conditions of compression ratio and rpm as the fuel under test.

Octane rating of the fuel under test is then given as the percentage of iso-octane with normal heptane found
in the mixture which gave the same degree of detonation.

Ratings over 100 Octane (Weak Mixture)


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Since the evolution of the above system for the determination of octane ratings pure fuels with greater
resistance to detonation than iso octane have been produced.

Weak mixture ratings from such fuels are determined from an extension of the octane scale made possible
by the addition of 1.54 millilitres of tetra-ethyl lead per imperial gallon to the index fuels. The process is
similar to that described above and the octane scale can be extended up to 120 by this method.

Rich Mixture Performance Figure


It has previously been stated that high grade fuels used in supercharged engines have a greatly increased
resistance to detonation when using rich mixture. Consequently these fuels are given two rating figures eg,
100/30. The first figure is an octane rating (weak mixture). The second figure is a performance rating (rich
mixture).

The performance rating is determined by the use of the mixture response curve and is obtained by running
the fuel in a supercharged engine whose power output can be absorbed by means of an electric generator
and so the load on the test engine can be varied. Detonation in this case is detected aurally.
Blending and Doping of Fuels

Blending. Fuels to meet the requirements of modern high performance aero engines have been produced by
the blending of synthetic fuels into those produced by normal distillation and cracking processes. Iso-octanes
themselves are produced by special synthesis.

Doping. Most fuels are improved by the addition of special compounds which are not in themselves pure
hydro-carbons though many of them are closely allied products.
These anti-knock compounds, or dopes, include tetre-ethyl lead, anilines (eg mono methyl aniline),
xylindenes etc, of which the most common is tetra-ethyl lead.

Non of these anti-knock compounds are perfect in their behaviour. For example, tetra-ethyl lead during
combustion forms lead oxide which is not volatile at that temperature and has a tendency, especially at low
rpm settings to become deposited on sparking plugs and valves. In order to obviate this le. fouling, a
scavenger, in the form of ethylene d-bromide, is added to the fuel. This changes the reaction during
combustion to form lead bromide instead of lead oxide and as lead bromide is volatile, it is ejected with the
exhaust gases.

Unfortunately the presence of lead bromide leads to corrosion which must be offset by the use of stainless
steels for valves and exhausts. The boiling point of the two compounds varies considerably and distribution
difficulties are experienced.

Pilots will find requirements about "clearing engines" in various Pilot's Notes and these must always be
complied with.

The Advantages of High Knock Ratings


In general, the higher the knock rating of the fuel the better. There are two reasons:

a) Increase in knock rating means the possibility of increased compression ratios and hence increased
thermal efficiency, with a resulting gain in economy and slightly increased power. (In a given engine
the thermal efficiency is dependent on the compression ratio only, all other things being equal, the
higher the compression ratio the higher the thermal efficiency).

b) Increase in knock ratings means the possibility of increased boost pressure and hence increased
power from a given engine. The power output of an engine is almost directly proportional to the
weight of air burned in unit time. Increased boost pressure increases this weight (mass).

PISTON ENGINE CONSTRUCTION


The purpose of the piston engine is to convert chemical energy (fuel) into mechanical energy (on aircraft - to
turn a propeller or a set of rotor blades). The engine does this by first converting the chemical energy into
heat energy and then making it do useful work against a piston.

Remember, in the SI system the unit of energy is the Joule (J). Energy is the ability to do work and can be
defined in mechanical terms as:
1 Newton (N) force pushing a distance of 1m = 1J

If this task is carried out in one second then we have the definition of power (in watts), ie
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1 Watt (W) = U per sec

Note. The SI units of energy and power are the same whether it is mechanical or electrical.

Example - to give you some idea of how small the watt is, the average family car in the UK has an engine
size of about 65 kW (65,000 watts).

The Basic Engine


The basic engine (figure 10) consists of a cylinder and piston arrangement with the piston rotating a crank
via a connecting rod. The cylinder is cooled by ambient air (the air stream) or by a liquid (water and anti-
freeze) cooling system.

The piston slides up and down within the cylinder and is connected to the small end of the connecting rod via
a Gudgeon Pin. The gudgeon pin is held in place within the piston by circlips.
The connecting rod is connected to the crank at its big end by a split-bearing bolted together around the
crank pin. The movement of the piston rotates the crankshaft to rotate the propeller/rotor and moves a set of
gears that operates the valve mechanisms; the spark timing device and the gearbox. Connected to the
gearbox will be services such as generators, pneumatic compressors, hydraulic pumps etc and the starter.

The valves in figure 10 are shown being operated by tappets and push rods. In some engines they are
operated by overhead cams operated by rubber toothed drive belts or timing chains.
Springs are fitted to the valves to ensure their proper closure.

The actual engine layout depends on the number of cylinders cylinders are arranged, eg:
and how the

1. Inline All the cylinders are in line. There may be 2 and up to 8 cylinders arranged
in line from front to rear either above the crank or below it. The cylinders are
numbered (from the anti-propeller end 1, 2, 3, 4, etc) from rear to front with
the highest number cylinder at the propeller end.

2. V-Inline The cylinders are arranged in a V arrangement as seen when viewing the
engine from the front. A V8 engine, for example, has a total of eight
cylinders arranged in two inline blocks of 4.

3. Radial The cylinders are arranged radially around


the crankshaft. May be a single row of cylinders or a double row and may
have a total of 20 or more cylinders per engine. The cylinders are numbered
from number 1 (at the 12 o'clock position) in the direction of rotation of the
engine.

4. Horizontally opposed The two in-line rows of cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite each
other. The cylinders are numbered from rear to front the same as the inline
engine. The right hand cylinders could be numbered 1, 3, 5, 7, etc and the
left hand cylinders numbered 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. On the other hand they could be
numbered (for the right hand side) 1R, 2R, 3R, etc, and (for the left hand
side) 1L, 2L, 3L, etc.

5. H-arrangement The cylinders are arranged in the form of an


H when viewed from the front.

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Fig. 10 THE BASIC ENGINE

Cylinders that are arranged in-line (1, 2, 4 and 5 above) present the least frontal area - so keeping drag
down, but if air cooled, have cooling problems with the cylinders at the rear of the engine (their cooling air
has already taken on some heat from the cylinders "up front"). Radial engines tend to have large frontal
areas but all cylinders are cooled equally (normally radial engines are air cooled).

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Fig. 11 TYPES OF ENGINES

The Crankcase
This houses the crankshaft and forms the backbone of the engine. It is usually made of aluminium alloy
3 3
which has a good strength/weight ratio and a low density (2700 kg/m as opposed to steel at 7800 kg/m ). It
is a good conductor of heat and may be made as a single piece or constructed in more than one section.
If the engine is an inverted inline engine the crankcase will be at the top. If it is not inverted it will be at the
bottom.

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Fig. 12 CRANKCASE & TOP COVER

As the main backbone of the engine it:

(a) Houses the main bearings.


(b) Supports the crankshaft.
(c) Forms the supports for the cylinders.
(d) Allows the attachment of engine mountings.
(e) Allows for the attachment of the cylinder head, cylinders etc.
(f) Provides for oilways, attachment of components, bearing support for shafts etc.

Top Cover
If the engine is not inverted this may be called a sump cover. It is made of a light alloy construction and its
main task is to keep the oil in. It is fitted to the crank case with a sealing gasket and bolts.

Crankshaft
These are forged (stamped out by heavy metal presses) then machined, ground and nitrided (a hardening
process). They are made of nickel chromium molybdenum steel.

The purpose of the crankshaft is to convert the linear thrust of the connecting rod to rotary motion. The
connecting rod is pushed down by the piston which causes a turning moment (torque) on the crankshaft.

The crankshaft is usually hollow. This reduces its mass and allows oilways for lubrication and cooling
purposes.

The connecting rod is connected at its big end to the crank-pin. The crank-pin is given a "throw" by being
connected away from the centre line of the crankshaft by webs. (Two throws = one piston stroke).

For inline engines each piston has a throw and therefore the crank shaft is long (and heavy). This is also true
of horizontally opposed engines. All crankshafts are supported in bearings front and rear and many have
intermediate bearings giving more stability to the crankshaft. V engines have reduced the mass of the
crankshaft by having two pistons per throw and radial engines have reduced the mass still further by having
one throw for all the pistons.

The crankshaft has drillings to allow for lubrication and sludge plugs are fitted to each crank pin to trap any
sludge present in the oil. The sludge is trapped by centrifugal force and is removed on engine overhaul.

The whole crankshaft is supported by the journal bearings and is statically and dynamically balanced.

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Fig. 13 THE CRANKSHAFT - 1

Static balancing is the balancing of the crank shaft in one plane only. This means that if each end of the shaft
was to be placed on a knife edge and the shaft allowed to rotate along the knife edges then the shaft would
come to rest with no "heavy spot". (If a bicycle wheel is allowed to rotate freely it will normally come to rest
with the heavy spot at the bottom - usually the inflatior valve.)

Fig. 14 THE CRANKSHAFT - 2

Dynamic balancing of the shaft entails balancing in a plane at right angles to the static balancing plane.

With static balance any imbalance will show up as a heavy spot when the shaft is rotated on the knife edges.
Any imbalance as far as dynamic balancing is concerned will only show up when the assembly is rotating
fast.

In very general terms, to statically balance a rotating object a mass is fitted to the object at 180° to the heavy
spot - anywhere'along the shaft will do as long as it is at the 180° position. The added mass should be the
same weight as the heavy spot.

For dynamic balancing it is important that the added mass is placed at the 180° position but it is also
important that it is placed at the correct position along the shaft. This means that any out-of-balance
moments are not set up at high rpm.

Fig. 15 STATIC BALANCING


Dynamic Damping
As each cylinder fires so it transmits a pulse of energy onto the crankshaft. At certain speeds the frequency
of these 'pulses' from the connecting rods is the same as the natural resonant vibration frequency of the
crankshaft.

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At these speeds the combined effect of these two Vibrations' could be serious enough to cause damage to
the engine. To help to prevent this Dynamic Dampers are fitted within the crankshaft counterweights.

These dampers are small weights fitted in holes within the counterweight of the crankshaft. They are fitted as
a loose fit within the hole and are allowed some freedom of movement. The centrifugal forces push the
weights to the outside of the hole and as power pulses cause the crankshaft to pulse in a particular direction
(usually in the direction of rotation) so the weights, due to their inertia, tend to move in the opposite direction.

This movement absorbs the pulse energy and prevents excessive vibration.

Fig. 16 DAMPING MASSES


Connecting Rods
These are made of an 'H' section alloy steel forging. The *H' beam section has a good strength/weight ratio
and is the best section to resist bending and compression loads.

The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft with the Big End attached to the crankshaft and the
Small End connected to the piston (via a gudgeon pin). The big end is fitted with an End Cap to facilitate the
removal of the connecting rod from the crankshaft.

The big end is also fitted with a white metal split bearing.

For radial engines there is one master connecting rod attached to one piston and all the other pistons are
connected to the master rod by articulated rods or link rods. They are attached by knuckle or wrist pins.

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Fig. 17 CONNECTING ROD

The master rod takes the side thrust of the articulated rods and provides the main steady for the whole
assembly. Oil holes within the connecting rods allow for lubrication.

Fig. 18 RADIAL ENGINE PISTON ARRANGEMENT

Gudgeon Pin
Sometimes called a Piston Pin or Wrist Pin it connects the connecting rod small end to the piston. It is hollow
and made of case hardened steel. It usually has a fully floating end movement limited either by spring circlips
in the gudgeon pin housing (in the piston) or bronze or aluminium plugs in the gudgeon pin - all designed to
prevent scoring of the cylinder bore.

The Piston

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This is forged, then machined, from light alloy. This gives a good strength/ weight ratio with good heat
dissipation.

The piston must have as little mass as possible as in one revolution of the crank the piston goes through four
accelerations - and these all take energy.

1. From TDC piston accelerates from rest to crank angle 90°. At this position it is at its maximum
velocity.
2. It experiences negative acceleration from crank angle 90° to BDC where it comes to rest.
3. It accelerates once again to maximum velocity at crank angle 270°.
4. It then goes through negative acceleration from 270° to TDC where it comes to rest.

Each acceleration uses energy as from Newton's second law F = ma (Force = mass times acceleration).

To allow for expansion, and as the crown gets hotter than the skirt, the piston is tapered - with the crown
being very slightly smaller in diameter than the skirt. Thus at normal working temperature the piston diameter
is constant down its length.

The piston, together with its sealing rings, forms a gas tight chamber with the
cylinder. It transmits the force of the burning charge to the connecting rod.

The piston is machined to form:

 Piston ring grooves - for the fitment of piston rings.


 Oil drain holes.
 Gudgeon pin bore and circlip locating grooves.
 Lands and skirt.
 The crown - flat, domed or cupped, or specially shaped in some cases to give clearance to inlet and
exhaust valves and sometimes designed with a cupped mixing area to assist in instantaneous
combustion in
 Diesel engines.
 Thrust face.

During routine maintenance the piston should be inspected for damage, corrosion, cracks and scuffing using
an intrascope through the spark plug hole/injector hole.

During major overhaul the piston should be inspected for the above plus:
a) Wear in the areas of the sides of the piston and gudgeon pin bore. Check by measurement using a
vernier or micrometer.
b) Clear oil holes.

Oil leakage past the rings onto the thrust faces of the piston (and wear in the piston generally) will be
indicated by burnt carbon on the crown of the piston and excessive oil consumption. Rough running may
also indicate general wear.

Fig. 19 THE PISTON

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Piston Rings
Piston rings may be:

 Grey cast iron for cylinders that are chromium plated or


nitrided. Thus the cast iron will 'seat' and form a seal with the cylinder wall.

 Chromium plated for cylinders with plain steel walls. Some


engines however use chrome rings in nitrided cylinders (see book 6 in this series).

Cast iron is used because it retains its springiness at high temperatures and has a low coefficient of linear
expansion. 11 per K as compared to, for example, steel at 16 per K (K is the SI unit of temperature, short for
Kelvin).

Piston rings are usually classed as:

a) Compression - Maintains a gas seal between piston and cylinder.


b) Oil Control - Fitted lower down on the piston to prevent oil (sticking to the cylinder wall) getting into
the combustion zone and being burnt - wasteful and a pollutant. Some oil control rings may have
expanders fitted behind them.
c) Scrapper or Wiper - Fitted at the very bottom of the piston to move the oil on the cylinder wall either
away from or towards the piston depending on the engine.

The cross section of the piston ring may be:

a) Rectangular.
b) Tapered.
c) Wedge.
d) Single piece oil control (slotted oil control).
e) Two piece oil control.

The types of gap are:

 Butt (pegged)
 Scarf (common)
 Stepped (oil control)

Fig. 20 PISTON RINGS

When fitting piston rings always:

a) Use the correct ring in the right position the correct way up.
b) Use a piston ring compression tool - when fitting the piston into the cylinder.
c) Make sure the gaps in the rings are not aligned with each other. In other words they are radially
equally spaced.
d) Check groove and piston ring for damage before fitting.
e) After fitting check ring gap size and ring clearance - using the compression tool and feeler gauges.

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CYLINDERS/CYLINDER BLOCKS
The ICE produces heat, most of which it cannot convert to mechanical energy. In general 60% of the original
energy in the fuel is wasted and most of this must be got rid of to the surrounding air. If the heat is not
dissipated then the engine would get too hot and seize up.

Most of the heat is removed in the exhaust gasses but some of it is removed by air cooling or liquid (water)
cooling. For air cooling the cylinders are usually made individually with fins and cooled by slipstream air. For
liquid cooling the cylinders may be made as part of a cylinder block without fins and with no provision for
slipstream cooling.

Cylinders
These are normally made in two parts - the barrel and the head. The cylinder head may be attached using a
screw thread machined into the head and barrel. It may be attached by fitting the cylinder head onto the
cylinder block by studs and nuts. The cylinder head usually contains the valve lifting mechanism, valves and
spark plugs/injectors.

Cylinder Barrels
Made from high strength chrome molybdenum steel machined with a skirt to fit to the crankcase and threads
for the attachment of the head - if the head is thread attached. Fins are provided to allow air cooling - if an
air-cooled engine.

There is a flange on the barrel to allow for bolt or stud attachment to the crankcase.

The internal bore is machined with a certain degree of taper or "choke", which means that the top of the
cylinder is slightly smaller in diameter than the bottom. As the top of the cylinder gets hotter than the bottom
so it expands more - with the diameter increasing. When the cylinder reaches its normal working
temperature the internal diameter of the cylinder should be the same all the way down.

To provide a hard wearing surface the cylinder bore may be:

a) Chromium plated. This is an electro-chemical produced deposit which is hard wearing and corrosion
resistant.
b) Nitrided. This is a case hardening process using ammonia gas. It is a surface conversion process
which hardens the surface of the existing metal. Nitrided surfaces tend to be prone to corrosion -thus
they must always be coated with oil when not in use. When engines are not in use they must be
inhibited as per the AMM.

Cylinder Heads
These are cast and made of aluminium alloy. Cooling fins are cast into the outside surface for air cooled
engines and holes are machined to accept bushes, inserts etc.

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Fig. 21 CYLINDER HEAD & BARREL

Fig. 22 CYLINDER HEAD - AIR COOLED ENGINE

The holes for the spark plugs are bushed with bronze or steel bushes screwed and/or shrunk into position.
Stainless steel wire thread inserts may be used.

Valve guides made of bronze, cast iron or steel are shrunk into place.

Valve seats (hardened alloy steel) are shrunk into place to provide a hard wearing surface for the inlet and
exhaust valves.

The cylinder barrel is shrunk (cooled) and screwed into the cylinder head (heated) or located as an
interference fit.

NOTE. An interference fit is defined as the male part of a male and female assembly, being bigger than the
female part (the shaft larger than the hole). It produces a permanent joint between two parts.

One way of achieving this type of fit is to heat the hole to expand it (cylinder
(head) and cool the shaft to contract it (cylinder barrel). The parts can then be assembled and when they
attain the same temperature an interference fit is formed.

Cylinder Blocks
These are used on some water cooled engines. They are made of cast aluminium alloy, ported and suitably
machined to allow coolant to flow and allow for oilways.

The block is bolted to the crank case and the cylinder bores are lined with chromium plated steel liners.

A cylinder head is bolted to the top and houses bushes/inserts for valve guides and spark plugs.

NOTES

1. When fitting a cylinder the piston must be at TDC.


2. Do not remove spark plugs from a hot engine.
3. Ensure all seals and gaskets are fitted correctly.
4. When carrying out work on any multi-bolted item, always tighten bolts to the correct torque in the
correct sequence (refer to the manual). With some assemblies the bolts are tightened to the correct
value (or half the correct value) - slackened - then re-tightened.
5. Before tightening a nut and bolt assembly, check the manual whether the threads should be
lubricated or kept dry.
6. Lock all threaded items in accordance with the manual.
7. Always carry out a functional check after assembly.
8. Valves

To control the flow of the air or air/fuel mixture and the exhaust gases into and out of the cylinder.

The inlet valves, operating at lower temperatures than the exhaust valves are usually made of chrome nickel
or tungsten steel. Exhaust valves are usually made of inconel, silicon chromium or cobalt chromium alloys.

The face of the valve is ground to a specific angle (30°, 45° or 60°). The valve faces may be hardened by the
addition of a hard layer called Stellite. This thin layer is welded on and ground to an accurate face.

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The valve tip is usually waisted to allow for the fitment of split collets - these hold the valve springs in position
(partially compressed when the valve is closed and nearly fully compressed when the valve is open. The
valve tip may be hardened.

The stem of the exhaust valve may be filled with metallic sodium. This melts at just over 302°C (200°F) and
the motion of the valve causes the liquid to circulate up and down thus removing heat from the valve head to
the valve stem.

Fig. 23 POPPET VALVES

The heads of the valves may either be flat, tulip or mushroom shaped and may contain a groove similar to a
screw-driver slot. The valve is held in position by valve guides.

During overhaul the valves are hand ground to their valve seats using a special grinding paste. The paste is
spread evenly around the contact faces between the valve and valve seat and the valve is rotated forward
and back about half a turn many times. Both seats should be ground perfectly flat to each other. The paste
should not be allowed to come into contact with any other surfaces and all traces should be removed after
grinding is complete. If a screwdriver slot is provided then a screwdriver may be used for grinding - if not
then a tool with ^ suction pad on the end is used.

Inlet and exhaust valves are not interchangeable.

Valve Springs and Retainers


The valves are kept shut by the action of the compressed springs acting against the special washer and
collets. The valves are opened by the action of a rocker arm, or an overhead cam or valve lifter pushing on
the valve stem. The rocker arm has a hardened steel pad formed at the end which actuates the valve.

There may be 2 or 3 springs per valve - placed one inside the other around the valve stem. These add to the
closing force on the valve and increases the reliability of the system. It also gets round the problems of
resonance.

At a certain engine rpm a single spring will be operating at its resonant frequency - at this frequency the
spring becomes ineffective and the valve will 'float'. To overcome this problem 2 or 3 springs are used - each
of different design - each with a different resonant frequency.

The engine can now operate at any rpm (within its normal range) and when one spring is at resonant
frequency the other/s are not and the valve is operated correctly.

To fit the springs a spring compression tool is used. The springs are compressed with the valve in position
and the springs passing over the valve stem. The special washer is placed over the valve stem and the two
collets are fitted. The valve spring compression tool is allowed to open slowly and allows the springs to
extend to trap and hold the collets in place.

Caution. The compression of the springs must be done carefully as they are powerful and damage/injury can
result if they are released inadvertently.

When two or more springs are fitted they are wound in opposite directions to prevent the possibility of
interlocking.

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Fig. 24 VALVE MECHANISM FOR AN INLINE ENGINE

The springs are made from spring vanadium steel and in some cases are designed as a progressive rate
spring.

Progressive rate springs are designed to give a progressive rate of closure, with an unevenly spaced pitch of
the coils. When fitting this type of spring the closest wound end of the coil is fitted nearest the valve head.

When inspecting the springs check for:

a) Corrosion, cracks and wear.


b) Free length. The spring is removed from the engine and a
micrometer or vernier is used on the unloaded spring. The correct dimension is stated in the engine manual.
Replace if under the minimum length.
c) Correct seating on the special washer and engine face.

Valve Guides
These bronze or cast iron guides are pressed into place and then reamed to the correct size. They allow the
valves to move freely up and down whilst being a close enough fit to prevent the passage of lubricating oil
through them (from the valve operating mechanism to the cylinder on the induction stroke) or exhaust
gasses through them on the exhaust stroke. They may be fitted with seals.

Valve Seats
These are made of aluminium bronze or steel about 0.010" (0.25mm) larger in diameter than the hole into
which they are to fit. The cylinder head is heated in an oven to about 315°C (600°F), the hole expands and
the valve seat is fitted. As the head cools so an interference fit is created.

The seat face is then ground using a high speed pilot that is fed through the valve guide. This ensures that
the seat face is absolutely concentric with the guide.

THE VALVE OPERATING MECHANISM


The valves must be operated in the correct sequence and at the correct times. The mechanism to perform
this function is operated by the engine and its design will vary depending on the type of engine.

The valves may be cam operated from the crank end of the engine (using push rods) or cam operated by
cams fitted above the valves. On radial engines the valves are moved by push rods operated by a cam ring.

As the push rods get hot so their length increases and, therefore, they must be set up, when cold, with a
clearance between them and the rocker arm. This clearance is not needed when hydraulic tappets are used.

Radial Engines
On these engines the valves are operated by a rotating cam plate or cam ring. This is geared to the
crankshaft and as each lobe on the plate comes into contact with each tappet roller so the roller is forced
outwards to operate the push rod and rocker arm.

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Fig. 25 VALVE MECHANISM FOR A RADIAL ENGINE

The valve clearance between the valve stem and the rocker arm is critical. This is the clearance when the
valve is not being operated. It should be sufficient to allow for any expansion, but open the valve fully when
operated. The clearance should not be too excessive otherwise pounding will cause wear.

Fig. 26 CAMSHAFT

When the cam plate is timed to the engine the valves of number 1 cylinder an adjusted hot. Then the cam is
timed to the crankshaft, then all the valves are adjusted for correct clearance cold.

On some large radial engines the valves have so much clearance that they are called floating cams'.

In-line Engines
The valves are lifted in a similar way to radial engines - by a push rod and rocker arm - but the push rod is
caused to operate by a camshaft. Resting on the camshaft lobe is a tappet or follower.

The cam is rotated by the engine via gears at half the engine speed. The cam lobe rotates against the
hardened steel tappet. This in turn pushes the push rod to operate the rocker arm. A hardened pad, normally
referred to as the rocker pad, is incorporated into the rocker arm that actuates the valve. This hardened pad
helps prevent wear of the rocker arm at the point of contact with the valve stem.

Some engines have overhead cams which operate the valves directly. These may be belt driven (toothed
belts) and dispense with the push rods.
In many aircraft engines the mechanical tappet described above is replaced by a hydraulic tappet.

The Hydraulic Tappet


This consists of a plunger fitted, as a close tolerance sliding fit, into a cylinder and the cylinder is fitted into
the tappet body - also as a close tolerance sliding fit. A spring keeps the cylinder at the bottom of the cylinder
and the plunger ^jfe M the top.

A ball check valve or non-return valve allows oil to enter the oil pressure chamber but will not allow it to flow
out.
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On engine start up, oil is pumped into the oil supply chamber via ports and drillings and the oil flows via the
check valve to the oil pressure chamber.

When the cam rotates and pushes against the tappet body - which in turn pushes against the cylinder, the oil
in the pressure chamber is trapped. This forms a hydraulic lock and the whole assembly acts as a solid
mechanism pushing the plunger up and the push rod and the valve opens.

While the engine valve is being held open a very small amount of oil is allowed to leak past the plunger.

This means that when the valve is closed this oil loss will be made up in the pressure chamber by the spring
pushing the plunger assembly down - allowing oil to flow through the check valve. This provides a regular 'oil
change and top-up' in the system.

Hydraulic tappets are more expensive but have the following advantages:
 Reduced wear as there is no clearance between rocker arm and valve stem.
 Reduced maintenance, as clearances do not have to be adjusted (normally a fairly regular job).

The oil supply in this area lubricates the tappet moving surfaces, push rod contact areas and rocker arm
mechanisms (via the oil way in the push rod).

Fig. 27 HYDRAULIC TAPPET

Pushrods
These are hollow steel rods, usually ball shaped at the tappet end and cup shaped at the rocker arm end.

Rocker Arms
These transmit the movement of the pushrod to the valve. May have a ball end adjusting screw screwed into
the rocker arm and seated into the top of the push rod. This is for adjusting the valve clearances.

Valve Clearances
These are adjusted on engines with ordinary tappets by the adjuster on the rocker arm.

They are adjusted either hot or cold - check the engine manual - when the tappet is resting on the dwell area
of the cam. This is usually indicated by one of the other valves being raised to its highest position.

Propeller Attachment
The propeller may be attached directly to the end of the crankshaft and rotate at the same speed. On high-
powered engines, however, this would mean the propeller going too fast - thus causing the tip to approach
the speed of sound with a consequent loss of efficiency. Thus with these types of engines the propeller is
powered via a reduction gear.

The attachment of the propeller to the shaft may be by:


 A tapered shaft and single nut - low powered engines.
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 A splined shaft and single nut.


 Being bolted to a flange forged or welded onto the end of the engine crankshaft.

In some cases the propeller may be attached to its drive shaft via a quill drive. This is designed to absorb
some of the torsional vibrations.

VP (Variable Pitch) propellers require an oil supply from the engine to operate the variable pitch mechanism.
This is fed to the propeller via the hollow prop shaft using suitable seals to prevent leakage.

Some propellers are fitted with brush gear for the supply of electricity to the leading edges and spinner for
anti-icing purposes.

Others may be fitted with a slinger ring, to which is fed anti-icing fluid, which is then distributed to the leading
edges of the propeller by centrifugal action via small open-ended pipes, which terminate at the leading edge
root end.

Sealing
The various engine parts must be sealed to prevent the movement of exhausted gasses, lubricating oils and
coolants into areas into which they should not go. On static metal to metal faces gaskets are commonly used
and on exhaust systems sometimes just metal to metal contact is used (with a special sealing compound).

Oil sealed parts may use rubber seals (around crankshafts etc) or gaskets (around the crankcase halves and
oil sump to engine interfaces). Sumps may be sealed using cork or composite gaskets.

O ring seals may be used on parts such as valve seals (at the top of the valve guide).

Fig. 28 SUMP GASKET

Bearings
The crankshaft rotates in steel backed lead alloy or other low friction alloy bearings. Each one is fitted with a
tang or similar device that locates with the crankcase so as to prevent rotation.

Thrust loads are taken by either a separate thrust washer or by a thrust surface on one of the bearings.
Some radial engines use deep grooved ball bearings as thrust bearings. Other drive shafts in the engine
(ignition, auxiliary etc) use ball or roller bearings.

The camshaft normally rotates in machined recesses in the engine case.

AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
Certain auxiliary equipment is connected to the engine via an accessory drive gearbox. This equipment may
include:
 Magnetos.
 Oil pump.
 Starter.
 Tachogenerator Drive.
 Generator.
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 Supercharger.
 Pumps - hydraulic
- pneumatic (pressure and/or vacuum)

The various items of equipment are driven at their respective correct speeds and therefore the gear ratios
are so arranged as to increase or reduce the gear ratio.

Fig. 29 ACCESSORY DRIVE GEARS

PROPELLER GEAR BOXES


Some propellers may be bolted straight on to the engine crankshaft. This means that the propeller rpm is the
same as the engine rpm, but for many aircraft this is not a practical proposition.

In general terms the higher the rpm of an engine the greater power it delivers but if a propeller goes too fast
then the blade tips will start to feel compressibility effects (they will start to travel at the speed of sound).

A reduction gear will keep the propeller within its speed range without reducing the peak performance of the
engine. For example, the Leonides 126 propeller rotates at about half engine speed.

The Spur Gear


Used on in-line engines with the driver gear (the small gear) being driven by the crankshaft. The amount of
rpm reduction will depend on the gear ratio eg,
10 teeth on the driver 30 teeth on the driven
Gear ration 30 = 3:1 10

The engine will rotate three times faster than the propeller.

Fig. 30 SPUR GEAR FOR PROPELLER DRIVE

This system is used on engines like the Continental G-0-300. The propeller is normally designed to rotate in
the opposite direction to the engine. On smaller power units, however, this is not the case. In both types the
crankcase must be strong enough to withstand the precessional (gyroscopic) forces of the propeller - which
can be considerable.

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The propeller is mounted above the crankshaft, which can reduce forward vision. One way to help this
problem is to use an externally toothed driver with an internally toothed driven spur gear arrangement.

The rotational vibration problems of a piston engine are compounded when gearing is introduced. In
addition to counterweights on the crankshaft some engines use a quLl drive shaft.

Quill Drive
This is a short drive shaft splined at one end to fit into the end of the crankshaft. On the other end of the quill
is machined the spur gear teeth of the driver for the reduction gear.

This quill shaft is allowed to flex and in so doing absorbs some of the vibrational loads of the crankshaft and
helps reduce vibration.

Epicyclic Gears
These are sometimes called Planetary Gears. This is because the planetary or pinion gears rotate around a
central 'sun' gear and behave like planets.

There are two basic types of epicyclic gears: one in which the sun gear is driven by the crankshaft and the
ring gear is fixed. The other type of gear arrangement is where the ring gear is driven by the crankshaft and
the sun fj gear is fixed.

Fig. 31 SUN DRIVEN EPICYCLIC GEAR

Fig. 32 RING DRIVEN EPICYCLIC GEAR

The operation of the rotating sun type of epicyclic gear is described below and the operation of the other type
of gear is similar.

When the crankshaft rotates (figures 31 and 33) the sun gear's teeth mesh with the teeth of the planetary
gears (pinion wheels) so causing them to rotate. As their teeth also mesh with the fixed ring gear so they are
constrained to rotate in the same direction as the sun gear but at a lower speed.

The planetary gears - usually three, but can be more - are fixed in a cage (pinion carrier) which in turn is
connected to the propeller. The propeller shaft passes out of the gearbox through the centre of the fixed
gear.

The gear reduction ratio can be calculated from the number of teeth from the formulas:

Driven sun gear


Gear ratio = Teeth on sun gear + Teeth on ring gear
Teeth on sun gear

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M Driven ring gear


Gear ratio = Teeth on ring gear + Teeth on sun gear
Teeth on ring gear

This gear system produces an inline drive and allows for the transmission of high torque values. The
propeller rotates in the same direction as the engine.

Fig. 33 SIMPLIFIED EPICYCLIC REDUCTION GEAR

The propeller shaft is made of a high tensile steel forging with three spokes (stub arms) at 120° each
supporting a pinion wheel.

Figure 33 shows a simplified cut-away drawing of an epicyclic reduction. Note that it shows only one planet
gear - there would normally be three. The propeller shaft shown in figure 34 has splines for the fitment of the
propeller and has a centring cone to keep the shaft central on fitment to the gearbox housing.

Fig. 34 CUT-AWAY OF AN ACTUAL EPICYCLIC PROPELLER REDUCTION GEAR

The front of the shaft is supported in a ball race which also takes the axial loading and a white metal bearing
in the bore of the front section of the crankshaft.

Mounted on each stub arm is a lead bronzed lined planet gear with a ball thrust bearing to withstand the end
loads.

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The aluminium alloy casing has a flange for the fitment of a CSU and passages are drilled for oil to operate
the VP propeller.

Book 2
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK
You should have a good understanding of fuel and how it is mixed with the air and how it is delivered to the
cylinder/s of the engine.

Internal combustion engines may be:


 Two-stroke gasoline normal carburetion.
 Two-stroke gasoline fuel injected.
 Four-stroke gasoline normal carburetion.
 Four-stroke gasoline fuel injected.
 Four-stroke Diesel fuel injected.

For normally aspirated gasoline engines this involves carburetion using either:

 A simple float type carburettor


 A pressure carburettor, or
 A cylinder injection system.

You should have a sound knowledge of all these systems including the supercharging/turbocharging of the
charge air.

Note. The spellings: carburettor; carburetter; carburetor; carburetion and carburation may all be found in
various dictionaries and books.

CARBURATION
The function of a carburation system is to supply the engine with an air/fuel mixture ready for combustion
under all operating conditions. These will vary depending on:

 Engine speed.
 Ambient pressure, temperature, density and humidity.
 Engine attitude.

FUELS
The fuel supplied for use in aircraft piston engines is specially designed for use in aero engines and contains
about 85% carbon and 14% hydrogen (by weight). When mixed with the correct amount of air (02 and N)
and burnt it will release energy as heat. This rapid burning causes a rise in the pressure which pushes the
piston down. This is converted to rotary motion by the crankshaft.

The burning process also produces pollutants such as CO (which is toxic), lead, other gasses and heat
(wasted heat given up to the atmosphere).

The most important qualities of a fuel designed for a piston engine are:

Anti-knock Rating. Gasoline fuels may be prone to detonation. This is caused by the
combustion of the fuel prior to the time when ignition occurs. This detonation is caused by
high compression ratios and high compression ratios are used to obtain greater power from
the same quantity of fuel burnt.

So fuels are given an anti-knock additive to help prevent detonation.

Fuel Calorific Value. This is a measure of the amount of heat energy that is released per unit
volume of fuel burnt. In general the higher the value the better (less fuel burnt for the same
power).

Volatility. The ability of a fuel to vaporise. High volatility is needed to ensure an adequate
and even distribution in the inlet manifold for combustion purposes.
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Low volatility is needed for storage purposes - we don't want it to vaporise from tanks and
pipelines as this would cause fuel loss and air locks in the pipelines. So the actual volatility
of the fuel is a compromise.

Gasoline is more volatile than Diesel fuel.

Corrosive Effect. Of course, the fuel should not cause corrosion, or affect or be affected by
system components.

Self-CleaninR & Lubricating. Ideally it should be self-cleaning and lubricate the parts that it
comes into contact with. This applies more so to two stroke fuel where extra oil is added to
the fuel to lubricate the crankshaft journals and big-ends.

The Fuel to Use


The fuel to be used is that laid down by the engine manufacturer. The only problem here is that the
manufacturer often only recommends the properties of the fuel to be used and not a particular type of fuel.
In the UK most gasoline engines use AVGAS (Aviation Gasoline) but some engines are allowed to run on
petrol obtained from a filling station forecourt (t British Standards 4040:1988). This is called MOGAS (Motor
Gasoline) (CAP 747 GC 2 - was AN 98 - refers).

All engines that are allowed to use MOGAS are listed in CAP 747 GC 3 (was AN 98A). GC 4 (was AN 98B)
refers to microlights and GC 5 (was AN 98C) refers to unleaded MOGAS in certain light aircraft.

Besides laying down various precautions to be applied when using MOGAS, GC 2 also states the limitations
and precautions to be observed. Limitations exclude public transport or aerial work aircraft and restricted to
single engined aircraft not exceeding 2630kg.

Diesel engines use Diesel fuel to EN 590 standard without additives or with specified additives and can also
run on JET A-l (ASTM 1655) fuel. Diesel fuel takes less refining - hence it is cheaper than AVGAS. Calorific
values are:

1 gallon (3.81) Energy (joules)


6
AVGAS 132 x 10
6
Diesel 155 x 10
6
JetAl 128 xlO

Mixture Requirements
For complete combustion in a gasoline engine an air/fuel mix of 15:1 (by weight) is required. This is the
chemically correct ratio, which produces the highest temperature. It is technically called the stoichiometric
mixture. If the mixture is richer (more fuel) or leaner (less fuel), then less heat will be produced and hence
less power will be available.

Because perfect conditions cannot be obtained within the engine the mixture is normally allowed to run at
12.5:1 (richer). If the mixture is allowed to run richer, that this increases the fuel consumption but has few
other adverse effects. If the engine is allowed to run lean, however, then rapid power loss will result.

For economical cruise a mixture as lean as 18:1 may be used with an advance in ignition timing to allow for
the slower burning rate.

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Fig. 1 GRAPH OF FUEL CONSUMPTION AGAINST AIR/FUEL RATIO - GASOLINE ENGINE

The fuel is supplied to the gasoline engine in liquid form and must therefore be mixed with the air (at the
correct ratio) before it is delivered to the cylinder. This mixing is usually carried out in a carburettor, or for
injected engines via an injector.

The Carburettor
Many carburettors work on the venturi principle. This means that air being drawn into the cylinder during the
induction stroke passes through a venturi.

As it passes through the venturi the air speeds up and the; pressure di ops (Bernoulli). This drop in pressure
causes a suction effect on the fuel supply jet. This jets fuel into the airstream ready for combustion.

The carburetion system of an engine can be:


 A float type carburettor.
 An injection type carburettor.
 A direct injection system.

FLOAT TYPE CARBURETTOR (figure 2)


This is the simplest of them all. It is similar to those fitted to petrol driven motor vehicles. It is prone to icing
and can be affected by aircraft attitude and altitude.

Fuel is supplied by gravity (or a pump) from the aircraft's tank to the carburettor float valve.

The float valve arrangement allows for the fuel level to be kept at the level of fe the main jet. Should this
fuel level go down (when the engine is running) then the float will lower and let more fuel into the chamber.

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Fig. 2 SIMPLE FLOAT TYPE CARBURETTOR

When the fuel reaches the correct level the float will rise and the float valve will shut off the supply. This
means that the fuel is always at the correct height in the main jet so the venturi effect of the air draws the fuel
up into the airflow. When the cockpit thrust lever (throttle) is pushed forward the throttle valve (or butterfly
valve) opens, more air is drawn in, the venturi effect is greater - and more fuel is drawn in. Simple really, but
there are modifications.

The thrust lever in the cockpit is connected to the throttle valve by a push/pull rod system or a
Bowdon/Teleflex control cable system, and on fully electronically (FADEC) controlled engines the connection
is via an electrical cable and a computer. The FADEC system will have a transducer fitted to the thrust
control lever in the cockpit with connections to the computer, and the computer will have an electrical
connection to a motor (or similar) connected to the throttle valve (FADEC = Full Authority Digital Engine
Control).

Over Fuelling
As the engine rpm increases so the mixture would get progressively richer (more fuel to air). This is to do
with the different characteristics of the flow of the fuel and the air. To allow for this a diffuser is sometimes
fitted to the supply tube of the main jet.

As fuel is drawn up through the main jet so the fuel level in the chamber goes down - this will uncover some
of the diffuser holes and allow air to enter the tube. This prevents the mixture becoming too rich and also
aids in vaporising the fuel.

On engines without a diffuser an airbleed is allowed into the main jet from the induction manifold.
Idling

At idling rpm there is insufficient airflow through the induction duct to create the right conditions to draw fuel
from the main jet. Thus a slow running or idling jet is provided downstream of the throttling valve. This is
connected to a bleed air port and a fuel supply and allows the engine to idle or slow-run.

An adjusting screw allows the engine slow running to be altered. A cut-off valve may be fitted in this ducting
to shut down the engine.

Mixture Control
Mixture control is used to lean the mixture off for cruising and to weaken the mixture to prevent over rich
operation at altitude.

On some engines this may be done automatically - on others it is done manually.

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With the needle type mixture control (as shown in figure 3) the needle valve is connected to a lever in the
cockpit and pushing the valve down will weaken the mixture, raising it will make it richer.

It can be used to stop the engine by moving the cockpit lever to the engine-off position and the valve shuts
completely.

Fig. 3 NEEDLE VALVE MIXTURE CONTROL

Another form of mixture control is shown in figure 4. This is carried out by controlling the air pressure in the
float chamber thus varying the pressure differential acting on the surface of the fuel.

The air bleed between the venturi and the float chamber reduces the air pressure above the fuel and the
Cockpit Control Valve (CCV) controls the flow of air into the chamber.

When the CCV is fully open the air pressure is at its greatest and the mixture is fully rich (more fuel being
forced into the main jet). As the valve is moved towards the closed position so the pressure decreases and
the mixture becomes weaker.

Movement of the valve to connect the suction line to the chamber draws the level up, reducing the level in
the main jet and slowing or stopping the engine.

Altitude Compensation
2
The air pressure drop in the venturi is related to the formula pV where:

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3
p = density of air (1.2kg/m at sea level)
(p = rho - pronounced row)
V = velocity of the air
2
But the fuel flow rate is proportional to pfVf where:

pf = density of fuel
Vf = velocity of the fuel

As the density of the fuel remains fairly constant with altitude and the density of the air reduces with altitude
so the air fuel mixture gets progressively richer as the aircraft climbs.

The mixture can be altered (made leaner) by manual adjustment (see previous paragraphs) or it may be
adjusted automatically.

Fig. 4 AIRBLEED MIXTURE CONTROL

Automatic Mixture Control


This is usually achieved by using an aneroid capsule (a sealed capsule), which increases in length with an
increase in altitude.

As it changes length so it will operate a valve to allow engine oil pressure to o side or the other of a piston.
Movement of the piston will:

 Move the summing lever to cancel the valve selection (negative feed-back).
 Move the mixture control valve to weaken or increase the strength of the mixture.

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Fig. 5 AUTOMATIC MIXTURE CONTROL

Example - aircraft in a climb (figure 5).


1) The decrease in atmospheric pressure causes the capsule to increase in length.
2) This moves the piston valve down and allows oil pressure to the bottom of the servo piston.
3) The servo piston moves up and opens the mixture control valve via the summing lever and at the
same time raises the aneroid capsule stack to re-select the piston valve to neutral. Thus stopping the
servo valve from moving too far (negative feed-back).
4) The opening of the mixture control valve allows more air to the main jet thus weakening the mixture.

Notes
a) When the piston valve is selected, pressure is allowed to one side of the servo piston - whilst the
other side is connected to the oil scavenge (or return) line via the piston valve.

b) The example given is for an aircraft in climb mode - the reverse happens during descent.

c) The mixture control arm can be operated manually from the cockpit to allow the mixture to be
weakened for more economical cruising. The sleeve is rotated with the lever moving to or from the
reader.

Operation of the arm rotates the sleeve and allows a different set of holes to align with the supply holes to
the servo piston. In the weak setting the servo piston has to move higher up in the cylinder to align the holes
in the control piston thus causing the mixture control valve to move to a weaker position.

d) When full power is applied the mixture lever is automatically moved to the rich setting.

Fuel Enrichment
For acceleration and high power settings the normal fuel/air ratio is enriched to allow for the extra power
required. If it is enriched too far, loss of power will result and exhaust gasses will be black leaving black
deposits in exhaust systems. Enrichment may be carried out in different ways using:

a) A power jet.
b) An acceleration pump.

Power Jet. This is an additional jet fitted in the float chamber, which opens at high throttle settings (figure 6).

Acceleration Pump. This pump is connected to the throttle linkage and is so designed that when the throttle
is opened slowly it has no effect on the carburettor system.

When the throttle is opened quickly the acceleration pump pushes the plunger down and forces extra fuel
into the engine via the delivery tube (figure 7).
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Fig. 6 POWER JET

Fig. 7 ACCELERATION PUMP

FUEL INJECTION
The float type carburettor is not very suited to aero engines because of varying aircraft attitudes and
changes in gravity and inertia loadings.

During the second-world war the problems of the float type chamber carburettor became more acute with the
additional problem of vaporisation of the fuel at high altitudes. So the need for an injection system was
realised.

The injection system injects a calculated amount of fuel into the induction /nanifold, which is precisely the
correct amount dependant on the mass of the air being consumed by the engine at that point in time.

In general there are two types of injection systems:

 Injection carburettors.
 Direct injection.

THE INJECTION CARBURETTOR


Sometimes called a Pressure Carburettor and is similar to an ordinary carburettor but the fuel is injected into
the manifold downstream of the throttling valve. The system usually consists of a:
 Fuel pump.
 Pressure regulator valve. Fuel control unit (FCU).
 Automatic mixture control.
 Accelerator pump and discharge nozzle.

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 Throttle valve.

Except for the fuel pump the items listed above can all be housed in the carburettor.

Figure 8 shows a simplified schematic of the carburettor and figure 9 shows a (slightly) simplified cut-away of
the same carburettor.

Fig. 8 SIMPLIFIED CARBURETTOR INJECTION SYSTEM

Fuel Pump
This is usually a positive displacement type engine driven pump. It is backed up by an electrically operated
pump - in case of failure of the engine driven pump and for use during starting. With many aircraft this is
supplied from a tank fuel pump.

Pressure Regulator
This is usually attached to the throttle valve body and is supplied with fuel from the fuel pump via a filter. It
has two air pressure chambers, which control a poppet valve and the position of this valve allows fuel at a
particular pressure to the fuel control valve.

The chambers are separately connected to:

 Air intake pressure (induction manifold).


 Air venturi pressure (induction manifold).
 Fuel supply pressure.

The pressure in these chambers all act on the fuel valve and together position it so that it supplies the
correct pressure of fuel dependant on the mass of the air then being drawn into the engine.

Fuel Control Valve


This is supplied with fuel at the correct pressure from the Pressure Regulator. It contains all the metering
valves and orifices which are used to adjust for:

 Idle cut-off.
 Auto lean setting.
 Auto rich setting.

The amount of fuel supplied from the valve depends on which jets are in operation (lean, rich, shut-off) and
the pressure of fuel supplied by the Regulator.

Accelerator Pump
This is automatic in operation and allows more fuel into the manifold during rapid acceleration.

Discharge Nozzle
This is a spring load valve which opens automatically when fuel pressure is enough to overcome the spring
pressure.

Throttle Valve
Connected to the pilot's thrust control lever and is located up stream of the fuel discharge nozzle.

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Figure 9 shows a typical Pressure Carburettor. There is no need to commit the details to memory but in
general when the throttle valve is opened, fuel pressure via the fuel control valve moves the discharge
nozzle valve to allow more fuel into the induction air. The fuel pressure is regulated by the pressure regulator
valve according to impact (Pitot) pressure (high) and carburettor venturi pressure (low).

Fig. 9
PRESSURE CARBURETTOR BASED ON THE BENDIX PS SERIES

THE DIRECT FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM


This system is a low-pressure continuous flow type operating throughout the induction stroke, unlike the
systems used on Diesel engines which injects fuel into the cylinders at high pressure at a particular instance
during the operating cycle (power stroke).

There are several different types of system available with different operating principles and one such system
is described below.

In this system the amount of fuel passing to the Fuel Manifold Valve (FMV) is controlled by the Fuel Control
Unit (FCU) and the supply pressure is related to engine speed.

The mixture strength is varied manually by operation of the mixture control level which adjusts the fuel
pressure for varying operating conditions and/or for varying altitudes.

No special idling arrangements are required as the engine will idle using the system as shown (figure 10).

The main components include:

 Fuel pumps - main and boost.


 Fuel air control unit comprising:
a) The induction intake.
b) The fuel control unit (FCU).
 Fuel manifold valve.
 Injector nozzle.

The Fuel Pump


This is a positive displacement vane type pump which is engine driven via a gear train from the crankshaft.
This means that pump output is proportional to engine speed.

The pump delivers more fuel than the engine requires and a re-circulation pipe-line is provided. A relief valve
is provided should pressure become excessive. Any vapour in the fuel is returned to the tank.
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In an emergency, and to allow for starting, fuel under pressure from the electrically operated boost pump by-
passes the engine driven pump.

The boost pump has two selections - low pressure for normal back up use and high pressure for
emergencies.

Fig. 1O DIRECT FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Fuel Control Unit


This is mounted on the intake manifold and consists of three control elements.

a) The charge air throttle valve which is connected to the pilot's throttle.
b) The fuel control unit. This has two levers one is connected to the throttle valve and provides for the
correct fuel supply depending on the position of the throttle valve - and hence the amount of air
entering the engine. The other lever provides for changing the air/fuel ratio to suit varying conditions.
It is operated by the pilot.

Fuel Manifold Valve


This valve is located on the engine crankcase and distributes metered fuel to all the injection nozzles (one
per cylinder). It is supplied with fuel from the FCU and has a pressure gauge connected to the line to indicate
fuel supply pressure to the pilot.

As the engine speeds up so fuel pressure increases and opens a spring-loaded valve in the manifold valve.
This allows fuel to all the injectors. When the engine is shut down fuel pressure drops, the valve closes and
the fuel is cut-off from the injectors.

Injectors
Fitted to each cylinder head. The injector has a calibrated orifice which allows the correct amount of fuel to
be directed through the central bore and into the cylinder.

Radial holes around the injector allow air to be drawn in (from outside the cylinder) via a filter to be mixed
with the fuel.

The air being drawn in is at ambient pressure on normally aspirated engines or at manifold pressure on
supercharged piston engines.

The Fuel Pressure Gauge


On some engines this is a Bourdon tube type gauge fitted in the cockpit with a fuel line between it and the
fuel manifold valve. Alternatively it could be an electrically operated gauge operating on the moving coil, dc
or ac ratiometer principle with an electrical transducer fitted to the fuel line and the electrical signal sent to
the cockpit gauge. On more modern aircraft the transducer could send pressure data to a computer which
would assist in the electronic management of the engine. Data could also be sent to a symbol generator
(another computer) to generate symbols to be displayed on CRTs or flat panel displays in the cockpit.
(Check the book in this series entitled Engine
Instruments).

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Fig. 11 FUEL PRESSURE GAUGE

The gauge is used by the pilot to allow him/her to adjust the fuel settings - and hence the power settings for
take-off, climb and cruise. The fuel pressure is adjusted by means of the mixture control lever and, during
take-off, is set so the gauge reads take-off power and the pointer is pointing to the airfield altitude above sea
level.

During cruise the gauge is set initially to the 'cruise' highest value and once it has warmed up is adjusted to
the minimum value.

For turbo-charged engines the fuel flow at a particular power setting remains constant so in this case the
gauge is calibrated in units of pressure or flow only.

DIESEL INJECTION SYSTEMS


Figure 12 shows a schematic drawing of a fuel injection system and figure 13 shows the components of the
same system. Note that in figure 13 the combined unit houses the spur gear pump, governor and the throttle
valve.

The injection principle is similar to the one described for gasoline engines except that the injection period in a
Diesel engine is of a short duration and occurs at a specific time during the compression/power stroke.

Fuel is pumped from the tank to the governor by an engine driven spur gear pump. The governor controls
the fluid flow to control maximum and idling speeds. It is of the rotating twin bob-weight type which move a
spool valve axially to cover/un-cover various fluid ports. Bob-weight rpm is directly proportional to engine rpm
(being driven by the engine via the auxiliary gearbox).

At maximum speed setting of the throttle valve, if the torque of the propeller is increased this would have the
effect of reducing the engine ipm. At the same time the bob-weights in the governor would slow and the
spring within the valve body would move the spool valve towards the bob-weight end allowing more fuel to
the engine, thus increasing its torque and restoring the rpm.

Another thing that helps restore engine rpm is the fact that the injector will I stay open for a slightly longer
period allowing more fuel into the cylinder.

Engine speed control is affected via the throttle valve.

Fuel pressure from the gear type pump is about 250psi (1.7MPa) so the action of the mechanically operated
injector boosts the injection pressure to well over that which is required for atomisation in the cylinder - about
lO.OOOpsi (70MPa).

The shut-off valve is used to stop the engine and may be mechanically, pneumatically, or electrically
operated.

The injector is mechanically operated, not too unlike the push rod and rocker arm mechanism of the inlet and
exhaust valves. In some systems the injector may be operated by pressure from a central pressure control
valve or be electrically operated.

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Fig. 12 SIMPLIFIED DIESEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Fig. 13 COMPONENTS OF AN INJECTION SYSTEM

As the valve spindle moves up so a quantity of fuel transfers through the metering orifice to the ejector cup.
On downward movement this transfer port is closed, the fuel is trapped in the ejector cup and forced out into
the cylinder under considerable pressure.

There is a small amount of circulating fuel through the injector back to the tank. This keeps the injector cool
and provides some warmth to the tank helping to prevent the formation of wax (which can occur in cold
ambient conditions).

Figure 14 shows a another typical Diesel engine fuel system.

The fuel is pumped from the tank using an engine driven pump. It goes via a Sedimentor which removes any
sediment from the fuel and via a filter. Any excess fuel delivery is returned to the tank.

The fuel is delivered to the Injector pump and Distribution valve using a vane type pump with fuel feed-back
to the Regulator Valve to automatically regulate the fuel supply pressure. The Distribution Valve distributes
high pressure fuel (about 27MPa - 4000psi) to the injectors at the correct times and in the correct quantities.

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Fig. 14 TYPICAL SINGLE POINT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Figure 15 shows a system schematic based on the Thielert Centurion 1.7 aircraft engine fuel system.

As part of the airframe fuel system, fuel is pumped from the selected fuel tank by an electrically operated fuel
pump through a fuel filter module to the engine.

Because Diesel fuel suffers from the cold the filter is heated by return hot fuel from the Fuel Rail. When the
supply fuel temperature reaches 60°C the fuel automatically goes direct to the fuel selector and back to the
tank. This ensures the fuel tank temperature does not get too low.

On the engine the fuel is pumped by the feed pump to the high pressure pump where the pressure is raised
to about 500 Bar (SOMPa or 7250psi) (at 70°C). The actual pressure will vary depending on the running
conditions (rpm etc) and maximum pressures can reach as high as 1350 Bar (134MPa or 19500psi).

The high pressure fuel is supplied to the fuel rail that runs along the top of the engine. At each cylinder
position a pipeline coupling connects the fuel rail to the injector.

The injector is operated electrically from the FADEC computer. The FADEC computer is controlled by the
pilot's throttle lever and commands are modified by other inputs such as rpm, rail pressure, barometric
pressure etc.

Pig. 15 SYSTEM SCHEMATIC BASED ON THE CENTURION AIRCRAFT DIESEL ENGINE

Injectors

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A very precise quantity of fuel should be injected into the cylinder at high speed to reach as much of the Oa
as possible so that there is as much instantaneous combustion within the available charge mass as possible.
This precise quantity of fuel should be injected into the cylinder over a small and exact time frame. This
means high fuel pressures, carefully designed injectors and, sometimes, swirl areas within the cylinder
head/piston crown to promote thorough mixing of Oa and fuel.

Injection may be either:


 Direct Injection or Open Chamber Injection. This is where the fuel is injected into the cylinder itself as
shown in figures 12 and 16. In many cases the piston crown is so designed as to promote swirl and
mixing of the air and the fuel. Also the position of the injector in the cylinder may be so as to promote
mixing, ie it may be off-set. With this type of injection no auxiliary starting systems are required and
compression ratios are low (for Diesel engines) - in the region of 14:1.
 Pre-combustion Chamber. The injection is made into a small chamber above the piston which is
about 40% of the clearance volume (not in proportion in the drawing). The initial burning takes place
in this chamber and as the piston descends so the burning progresses into the cylinder. This system
needs a higher compression ratio than the open chamber system and the cylinder needs pre-heating
for cold starts. However, the progressive nature of the burn makes the engine run smoother and
there is less "knocking". The air/fuel mixture is comparatively rich and this type of engine usually
requires more frequent oil changes - due to 'blow-by' passed the piston rings. Figure 17 shows one
form of a pre-combustion system - there are many others.

Fig. 16 DIRECT INJECTION SYSTEM

Fig. 17 PRE-COMBUSTION CHAMBER INJECTION SYSTEM

Pre-heaters
Some Diesel engines require pre-heating prior to start-up. This entails preheating the cylinders for a few
seconds before the engine is cranked. The pre-heaters are small electric coils fitted into the cylinder head
and fed with dc.

ENGINE ICING
For icing to occur - either on the engine or airframe of the aircraft - the temperature must be correct (low) and
there must be moisture present. The moisture may be in the form of rain, mist, cloud, snow or even humidity
in the air itself.

Ice will form at temperatures between + 25°C to - 15°C. At 25°C local cooling may occur due to air pressure
reduction or the surface of the component may be particularly cold. At below - 15°C icing rarely occurs as the
atmosphere is usually too dry for the ice to stick to the surfaces.

Impingement Icing
Occurs at temperatures between 0 and - 7°C and is caused by water droplets impinging on surfaces such as
carburettor intakes. This can upset the airflow and result in an incorrect air/fuel mix. If icing is severe it can
result in engine stoppage. To prevent this form of icing a course wire mesh may be fitted in front of the intake
or an alternative intake may be provided protected from the direct airflow.
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Carburettor Icing
This can occur at temperatures below + 25°C. This is because, as the air is drawn through the venturi the
velocity increases; the pressure drops; and so does the temperature (Boyle's Law). If the right conditions
exist the temperature could drop below freezing and any moisture in the air (or fuel) freeze in the carburettor.
Carburettor icing may be classed as Vaporisation icing or Rime icing.

Vaporisation Icing
If water held in suspension in the fuel (more common in MOGAS than in AVGAS) freezes out in the induction
system, it is usually deposited near elbows formed by bends in the induction piping. This narrows the
effective area of the induction piping and has a similar effect on power output (rpm or manifold pressure) to
closing the throttle.

Fig. 18 VAPORISATION ICING


Rime Icing
Rime icing, consisting of humidity from the atmosphere turned to ice by the temperature drop within the
induction system is generally deposited on the walls of the venturi (choke) tube and on or close to the throttle
butterfly.

This ice in the venturi has the effect of narrowing the effective area of the tube, reducing the pressure still
further and drawing excess fuel from the float chamber, so enriching the mixture and causing rough-running.

The ice forming on and around the butterfly has a similar effect to closing the throttle and reduces engine
power output - lower rpm on fixed pitch propeller installations and lower manifold pressure on constant
speed propeller aircraft.

Fig. 19 CARBURETTOR RIME ICING

To try and prevent carburettor icing the carburettor may be:

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a) Heated with hot air from the exhaust muff. In other words, the air drawn into the engine is pre-heated
before being drawn into the carburettor. This should not be used above 80% power or for long
periods as it may cause detonation.
b) The carburettor being heated by oil from the engine. This method is not used a lot these days.

Engine Exhaust Muff System


With reference to figure 20. The engine normally draws air from the intake facing into the airflow, through the
air filter and into the carburettor (or injection system). When the carburettor heat control is selected from cold
to hot the heated air control flap is moved to cut-off this flow and the engine draws air from another inlet,
inside the engine cowling or nacelle. This air flows via the exhaust heat exchanger on its way to the
carburettor.

Fig. 20 EXHAUST MUFF HEATER

In some systems there may be only one air intake and the heated air control flap allows air direct to the
carburettor or via the heat exchanger.

It is important to note that the exhaust gasses do not mix with the induction charge air as any (internal) leaks
could be dangerous as well as there is the possibility of exhaust gasses being drawn back into the cylinder
via the induction valve. This would severely reduce the efficiency of the engine.

Note. It is better to have ram air (with the least obstruction) to the carburettor as this increases the volumetric
efficiency of the engine when the aircraft is flying. Also heated air is less dense which means there will be a
reduction in engine rpm when the air control is moved from cold to hot.

OTHER COMPONENTS Air Filters


Debris in the atmosphere can cause damage to the engine by entering the engine through the air intake and
being drawn into the cylinders, causing excessive wear to cylinder walls and pistons. This could also collect
in the carburettor and upset the air/fuel mixture by clogging air and fuel passages.

To prevent this, most engines have an air filter in the air intake, through which all air is drawn during normal
operation. Air drawn in through the alternative air intake in icing conditions may not be filtered, but because
of the sheltered position on the intake, the air is less likely to be dirty.

On some older aircraft the normal engine air intake has no filter, so that full advantage may be taken of ram
effect of the Pitot air to increase engine power.
In these cases a separate filtered intake may be provided and is used during flight at low altitude.

A flap in the intake duct controls the source of air and is operated by a control in the cockpit.

Priming System
To avoid excessive cranking when starting a cold engine, (on some engines), a quantity of neat fuel is
supplied to the induction manifold so that rich fuel/air mixture is drawn into the cylinders as soon as the
engine begins to rotate. The fuel may be supplied in a number of ways, depending on the type of carburettor.

Some carburettors are fitted with a manually-operated plunger, which presses • down on the float. This
allows the fuel level to rise and results in fuel flowing from the discharge nozzle into the induction manifold.

On carburettors which are fitted with a throttle-operated accelerator pump the action of opening the throttle
will result in fuel being sprayed into the induction manifold, thus priming the engine.
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In some cases a separate priming system is fitted. This comprises a priming pump (hand or electrically
operated), which draws fuel from one of the fuel tanks and discharges it through a system of priming pipes
and nozzles to a number of points in the induction manifold.

With fuel injection systems no separate priming system is usually requiied. By switching on the fuel booster
pump fuel is sprayed into the cylinder inlet ports as soon as the mixture lever is moved out of the cut-off
position.

In order to avoid flooding an engine with too much fuel, a drain is fitted in the lowest point in the induction
manifold or supercharger casing, to drain off surplus fuel.

Fuel Filters
Because Diesel fuel passes through an injector which is machined to close tolerances then additional
components may be fitted in the fuel supply system to ensure a clean supply of fuel. These can include
micronic filters, chip detectors etc.

INSPECTION 85 MAINTENANCE OF INDUCTION/INJECTION SYSTEMS


The induction/carburetion/injection/exhaust system on the engine must be inspected in accordance with the
AMM and at the frequencies laid down in maintenance schedule. This could be a Light Aircraft Maintenance
Programm (LAMP) (was called Light Aircraft Maintenance Schedules - LAMS), which is a standard schedule
adaptable to suit the (smaller) aircraft or it could be a maintenance schedule designed by the operator and
approved by the CAA.

Maintenance to the carburettor/injection system is normally limited to


inspection and adjustment. This
includes adjusting for:
 Idling speed.
 Idling mixture strength.
 Fuel pressure.
 Control rods and cable lengths to obtain the correct sense and range.

Individual components may be changed, filters cleaned and sometimes diaphragms may be changed.

More sophisticated servicing/adjustments usually require the use of special test equipment and therefore will
normally require that the carburettor/ component be sent to a maintenance overhaul depot or the
manufacturer for attention.

The routine checks stated in the AMM and the Maintenance Schedule will normally include:
a) Check carburettor or injector components for corrosion, damage, fuel leakage and security.

b) Check all fuel connections for security, corrosion, damage and freedom from leaks.

c) Check inlet manifold for security, leaks, corrosion and damage.

d) Check intake duct seals for condition and fit, and air control valves for fit, wear, security and
operation.

e) Check air intake duct for damage, cracks, corrosion and security.

f) Check exhaust systems, muffs etc for security, damage and leaks. If leakage suspected, pressure
test muff and/or exhaust system to 2psi in a safety cage using special pressure-tight bungs with
system submerged in water.

g) Check all engine controls for full and free movement, locking, security and correct operation.

h) Remove float chamber drain plug and flush out sediment by operation of the booster pump or by
gravity feed.

i) Check intake/supercharger drains are clear,

j) Remove and clean air filters and refit.

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k) Remove and clean fuel filters in the carburettor, fuel pump and feed lines and refit.

l) Drain off a quantity of fuel at the engine location into a glass jar
and inspect for water and sediment. If free water is found, then the fuel tanks should be checked for
excessive water content.

If found they must be drained and refilled with fuel known to be free - or relatively so - of water. A check
should be made for any microbiological growth in the tanks and if found should be cleaned. The tanks should
be inspected for internal damage and changed/repaired as necessary. A special check should be carried out
on all filters for contamination.

A check should be made of the local bulk fuel storage and/or suppliers to ascertain the water content.

m) Check all electrical cables for security, damage, signs of over heating and contamination.

n) Carry out any BIT (Built In Test) checks. On many aircraft this facility is not available but it is
normally fitted to those aircraft with FADEC or other electronically controlled engine management
systems.

With the Press to Test systems the fault warning might be a red light that comes on to indicate that
something is wrong.
r
On more sophisticated computer controlled systems fault codes a displayed to indicate the actual fault (fault
codes are checked against listings in the AMM).

On other systems data may be down-loaded via a floppy or cd and the data displayed on the office
computer.

o) Carry out an engine run. During the run check the following:

 Priming pump operation.


 Ease of starting.
 Smoothness of engine running.
 Acceleration times.
 Slow running - adjust idling mixture.
 Correct operation of engine instruments.
 Operation of any ancillary controls - VP propeller, hot air controls, mixture controls etc.
 Ease of engine stopping.

After the engine run visually inspect the carburettor/injector system and associated systems for leaks and
security. Record the engine run details in the engine log book and the aircraft log book.

Cleaning of Filters
Dry Air Filters. The filter element should be removed and shaken to remove all loose debris. The casing
should be cleaned by wiping with a lint-free cloth moistened in solvent and should be dried before refitting
the element. If damaged the filter element should be renewed.

Oil-wetted Air Filters. This type should be washed in solvent to remove oil and debris, and then checked for
condition. When dry, the filter should be < .
immersed for a few minutes in oil of the recommended grade, and then allowed to drain before refitting to the
engine.

Fuel Filters. Fuel filters in the carburettor and fuel pump lines should be cleaned by flushing in a solvent, and
then dried with dry compressed air. Brushes and rags should not be used for cleaning.

Idling Adjustment
Because of small changes in compression and ignition, which may affect engine operation, the idling mixture
and speed may occasionally require adjustment. This adjustment is also important to operation outside the
idling range, since fuel may still be drawn through the idling jet at power settings in the cruising range.

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An excessively rich idling mixture will result in sooting of the plugs, whilst an excessively weak idling mixture
will prevent satisfactory acceleration. Most carburettors are adjusted to provide an idling mixture which is
slightly richer than the *best power' mixture, but some injector systems are adjusted to the *best power'
mixture or slightly weaker.

Check the AMM but in general the procedure for a normal float type carburettor is:

1. Run engine until it reaches normal running temperature (coolant and oil).
2. Ensure ignition is operating correctly and at the correct setting.
3. Set propeller to fine pitch - if appropriate.
4. Set mixture to fully rich.
5. Turn idling mixture screw to make the mixture rich - this will cause the engine to run roughly.
6. Turn the idling mixture screw in the opposite direction to lean the mixture off - this will also cause the
engine to run roughly. (The correct setting is somewhere between these two settings).
7. From the lean position, slowly move the screw towards the rich position. The engine will begin to run
smoothly (and faster). Keep turning the screw until the engine speed is at its maximum. Now turn the
screw a further half-turn.
8. Adjust the throttle stop to obtain the correct idling rpm.
9. If necessary repeat operations 5 to 8 above.
10. Reset mixture control and ensure all adjusters are locked.
11. After engine shut down record all settings in the engine log book and carry out any duplicate
inspections as required.

On a carburettor fitted with a mixture control and cut-off lever, a different method of adjustment may be used.

With the engine idling at the correct speed, the mixture lever should be moved smoothly into the idle cut-off
position. With the correct idling mixture, an initial increase in engine speed (5 to 60rpm) and a decrease in
manifold pressure (approximately %in Hg) will occur as the mixture becomes leaner, before the engine
stops.

A larger rpm increase indicates that the mixture is too rich and a smaller increase, or no increase, indicates
that the mixture is too lean. The mixture lever is returned to the fully-rich position as soon as engine speed
starts to fall.

As with the float-chamber carburettor, a number of adjustments may be necessary before the correct mixture
strength is obtained and it will usually be necessary to re-adjust the idling speed.

With an injection system the idling mixture is altered by adjusting the length of the linkage between the air
throttle valve and the metering valve.

Idling speed should be set first and then the mixture should be adjusted as previously described for the
normal float type carburettor.

Note. Always ensure that all filters are clean; there is no play in any of the linkages and that all joints and
gaskets are leak proof.

General
Always check that all locking is re-established, all cowlings are refitted and that the work is recorded in the
engine log book and that work on the aircraft is cleared in the aircraft logbook.

Carburettor Removal
It may be necessary to change the carburettor because it is worn or will not function correctly. Remember
before doing so always consult the AMM. In general, however, the following applies:

1. Make all appropriate electrical circuits safe - by removing fuses/tripping CBs.


2. Shut-off fuel, and if necessary, drain into a suitable container.
3. Make sure no debris gets into engine via the carburettor connection by fitting correct blanks.
4. Place a warning sign on cockpit controls.
5. Disconnect all linkages.
6. Disconnect all fuel lines and blank off using correct blanks.
7. Remove ducting.
8. Disconnect any electrical connections.
9. Disconnect any oil connections (anti-icing) and blank.
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10. Remove nuts, washers or studs connecting carburettor to engine.


11. Fit blanks to all carburettor connections.
12. Fix an identification label to the carburettor and place in a suitable box.
13. Remember - record the fact that you have removed the carburettor in the engine log book and sign
for the work done in the airframe log book - unless you are going to replace it immediately - then
carry out the appropriate recording. Details to record include: Date, Time, Reasons for change,
Description of component including part number and serial numbers. Record hours run for the
removed item and any hours run for the "new" item.

Carburettor Installation
Again this should be carried out in accordance with the AMM and in general it is the reversal of removal ie:

1. Check the 'new' carburettor to verify that:

a) It is of the correct make and type.


b) It has the correct part number.
c) These details are correct according to the Release Document/EASA form 1 that came with it and
the Release Document/EASA form 1 is correctly authenticated and from an Approved Supplier.

2. Carry out a visual examination of the carburettor checking for damage, corrosion and correct fitting
of blanks.
3. Remove all blanks from engine and carburettor.
4. Inspect engine flanges and induction passages for debris, damage and corrosion.
5. Fit new gaskets.
6. Carefully place carburettor in position and tighten all bolts evenly. Torque load as necessary and
lock. Ensure that there is clearance between the carburettor body and any engine parts /airframe
parts.
7. Connect any electrical connections and connect any oil (anti-icing} connections.
8. Reconnect all ducting.
9. Connect fuel lines (any oil used on connections should be fuel soluble).
10. Connect throttle and other linkages. Check for full and free movement and check that all controls
operate in the correct sense (ie cockpit throttle forward - carburettor throttle valve open).
11. Flush the carburettor with fuel by operating the boost pumps. Some carburettors with diaphragms
must stand for 8 hours before an engine run in order to soak the diaphragm and make it more
flexible (may be completed prior to fitting).
12. Lock all controls and connections.
13. Carry out an engine run and adjust the carburettor - as described above - but at any rate in
accordance with the AMM.
14. A Duplicate Inspection is to be carried out and the work recorded and sign for.

QUESTION What is a Duplicate Inspection? (5 mins)

ANSWER It is an inspection carried out by a qualified person who has had nothing to do with the work. It
is required by the CAA/EASA and must be carried out on all vital points/control systems that control aircraft
power and attitude that have been disturbed, adjusted, changed etc. Some companies require Duplicate
Inspections on v additional (specified) systems as well.

A record must be made in the Engine Log Book and in the Airframe Log Book. All work must be recorded
and must include part numbers and serial numbers of the removed item and the replaced item. Running
times must be recorded.

Setting Up the Control Systems


If the control system is disturbed or any part replaced it will have to be rigged so that it works correctly. This,
of course, is carried out in accordance with the AMM but in general the following Doints should be taken into
consideration:

Throttle

1. After re-connection check for correct sense of operation (throttle lever forward - power increase).
2. Check for freedom of movement - check clearance on cable runs -check cable tensions - check
freedom of pulleys, push/pull rods etc.
3. Check range of movement. Set the stops at the engine end and check that the cockpit throttle lever
5
does not contact its stops (sometimes called 'spring back ). On long control runs the throttle control
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system may be set to neutral (by rigging pins placed at various positions along the run) and the
range of movement checked either side of this position.
4. All connections should be locked.
5. A Duplicate Inspection should be carried out and signed for.

Mixture Controls
These are usually similar to set up to the throttle control system.

Idling Cut-Out Controls


These, again, are similar to throttle control systems but in some cases they may be fitted with a spring to
move them automatically to the 'running' position. This should be checked for correct operation and the cable
adjusted to allow some movement of the cockpit lever before the cut-out starts to operate.

Super-Charger Control
en changing a carburettor the controls to the super-charger are not normally altered, but if they are, or part of
the control has been changed or adjusted then the control system should be set up as per the AMM.

Changing System Components


In general, components such as injectors, turbo-chargers, fuel pumps, priming pumps, pipelines, accelerator
pumps, control cables, electrical cables, computers and printed circuit boards (PCBs) etc may be changed. A
very general procedure is not too unlike the changing of a carburettor - but at any rate check the AMM.

Engine Test Run


After any adjustment/component replacement the engine must be given a ground run. Check the AMM for
the correct procedure and check all log books/work cards to verify completion of (any) outstanding work. In
general:

1. Move aircraft to engine running area.


2. Obtain permission from Air Traffic Control (ATC) for aircraft movement and (in some cases) for
engine run.
3. Ensure the person doing the run is qualified to do so.
4. Have the correct fire extinguishers available.
5. Have a look-out man' to see that all is clear - particularly around and behind the propeller.
6. "Look-out man' and 'engine running man' should be in communication at all times (visual contact or
radio contact).
7. The airframe and engine should be inspected as per the AMM prior to the engine run. Check fuel,
coolant (if liquid cooled) and oil fc, states. Carry out any BIT checks.
8. Face aircraft into wind and chock/tie down as necessary.
9. Check engine for correct starting - cold and hot.
10. At normal running temperature check idling rprn.
11. Check acceleration/deceleration times.
12. Check for smooth running at all times.
13. Carry out a full power check.
14. Check that all controls operate smoothly and correctly.
15. Check the operation and correct reading of all instruments.
16. Check operation of VP prop.
17. Check operation of all appropriate systems - such as de-icing systems, generator output, etc. Note.
When selecting carburettor air from cold to hot there should be a drop in engine rpm.
18. Check correct stopping of engine.
19. Record engine running times in Engine and Airframe Log Books and sign for all the checks carried
out.

Remember - keep engine runs as short as possible - saves wear, tear and money. For more details of
engine running see the book in this series part titled Maintenance and Storage.

Storage of Carburettors
New carburettors should be kept in their original containers and issued from stores on the first in - first out
basis'. When putting an old carburettor in store:

1. Check carburettor manufacturer's information re storage details.


2. Drain all fuel unless otherwise stated.

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3. Inhibit all chambers/passage ways with preservative oil - make sure all surfaces are coated by hand
rotating the carburettor in several directions. Some carburettors may be filled with oil by pumping it in
- but check manual and never exceed stated maximum pressure.
4. Drain all surplus oil and fit blanks to all connections/orifices.
5. Lock all moving links.
6. Clean outside of carburettor and wrap in greaseproof paper.
7. Pack in a suitable container and label - giving all details.
8. Place on a shelf in a room which is dry and free from extremes of temperature.
9. If in long-term storage inspect the carburettor from time to time for signs of deterioration.
10. Keep an inspection record together with any manufacturer's log cards, etc.

SUPERCHARGERS /TURBOCHARGERS
In general the greater the weight (mass) of the mixture that can be burnt in the cylinder at any one time the
more power is developed (greater volumetric efficiency).

If the charge air can be compressed into the induction manifold then the charge will enter the cylinder faster
and with a higher density when the inlet valve opens and a greater mass of charge will be taken in.

This increased pressure (and hence mass) is usually achieved by the use of turbochargers / superchargers.

On normally aspirated engines the pressure in the induction manifold when ^he inlet valve opens (induction
stroke) is slightly less than ambient. As altitude increases so both ambient and induction manifold pressures
decrease.

So building up the pressure in the induction manifold has two advantages:

1. The power of the engine can be increased (increased power/weight ratio).


2. This increased power can be maintained at high altitudes.

The disadvantages of such a system include:

1. Slower response times. The charger takes time to get to the correct rpm when the throttle altered.
2. Increased cost and complexity.

Where a supercharger is used to increase power at sea level (as opposed to maintaining power at altitude)
then the engine must be strengthened to withstand the higher induction pressures. Where superchargers are
used to maintain power at altitude then provision is made to prevent excessive pressure build up at low
altitudes.

The pressure is normally achieved using a centrifugal compressor. This may be driven by:

 The engine crankshaft through appropriate gearing (to increase its rpm). Called a Supercharger
(figure 24).
 A turbine which is driven by the exhaust gases leaving the engine. Called a Turbocharger (figure 25).

The supercharger/turbocharger consists of a centrifugal compressor driven as described above. A centrifugal


type compressor is used because it is:
 Light.
 Robust.
 Easily balanced (dynamically on a test bench).
 Cheap, reliable, and will handle large quantities of air.

Operation. Figure 22. As the compressor (sometimes called an impeller) is rotated at high speed so air is
drawn in via the eye of the compressor and flung outwards by centrifugal force. As the duct narrows so the
pressure rises and some of the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy.

As the air (now called Charge Air) leaves the impeller it has considerable tangential and radial velocity and is
passed into the stationary diffuser. The diffuser is housed in the compressor casing and consists of a
number of guide vanes which form divergent passages thus reducing the velocity and increasing the
pressure still further (Bernoulli).

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Fig. 21 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

With pressure increase so the temperature rises. This temperature rise looses some of the density which
may be recovered on some engines by the use of:

 A heat exchanger (intercooler) to cool the charge air. Common.


 Fuel spray into the impeller eye to produce vaporisation - which reduces the temperature.
In general with an increase in impeller speed there is an increase in the pressure ratio. But at normal running
speed the pressure ratio is usually between 1.5:1 to 3:1).

Fig. 22 COMPRESSOR/IMPELLER OPERATION

The impeller (or impeller and turbine) is/are on a common shaft supported in bearings and is lubricated from
the engine oil system.

SUPERCHARGER SYSTEMS
May be fitted to medium and high powered engines down-stream of the throttle valve / carburettor.

Some older engines may have two speed superchargers, and in some cases may have two superchargers
fitted in series (one behind the other) to obtain even higher compression ratios.

The rpm of the supercharger is 6 to 12 times faster than the crankshaft and is capable of maintaining sea
level pressure in the manifold up to about 10,000ft depending on the gear ratio (6:1 to 12:1), at Rated Power
settings.

Remember:

Rated Power = Continuous maximum power setting.


Take-Off Power = Higher than Rated Power but has time limitations.
Climbing Power = Similar to Take-Off Power.

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Fig. 23 GRAPH OF POWER AGAINST ALTITUDE

The graph shows the power developed by the engine - with and without supercharging - related to altitude.
As can be seen, the increased power from a supercharged engine at altitude is significant.

At sea level the power developed by a normally aspirated engine is greater than that of a supercharged
engine. This is because the supercharger requires a certain amount of power from the engine. But well
before 2,000ft it is "paying its way".

Fig. 24 SUPERCHARGER - GENERAL LAYOUT

Fig. 25 TURBOCHARGER - GENERAL LAYOUT

With altitude a further slight increase in efficiency is obtained because of the reduced atmospheric pressure
(reduced exhaust back-pressure) allowing better scavenging of the cylinders on the exhaust stroke.

At sea level the throttle valve may be partly closed to prevent excessive manifold pressure, but as altitude
increases so the valve is progressively opened (manually or automatically) to maintain manifold pressure.

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When the height is reached where the throttle valve is fully opened - known as Full Throttle Height - from this
height as aircraft increases altitude so the power will fall off.

Full Throttle Height is known as Rated Altitude.

Drives
The supercharger is driven by a shaft, splined into the rear of the crankshaft. The drive system may
incorporate a centrifugal clutch to allow the engine to be started without the additional load of the
supercharger on the starter.

When the engine starts the clutch engages - automatically - and the engine is supercharged.

Controls
These are designed to restrict throttle opening at altitudes below Full Throttle Height and this may be done
by the pilot or automatically.

Fig. 26 PRESSURE CONTROL (FIXED DATUM)

The controls consist of a:

 Servo unit - controlled by an aneroid capsule.


 Carburettor. Throttle Valve.

Fixed Datum Control (Figure 26)


The aneroid capsule (a sealed capsule) controls the manifold pressure. It senses the pressure of the
manifold down-stream of the supercharger.

When it moves it moves it will cause the engine oil pressure to be directed to one side, or the other, of the
servo piston. This will move the links a and b up or down. This will effectively shortening or lengthening the
total length of the link system and move the throttle valve in the appropriate direction.

Movement of the throttle valve will increase or decrease the amount of air/fuel mixture allowed to the
supercharger and hence control the manifold pressure. Thus Rated Power pressure is not exceeded.

The pilot, of course, can change the throttle setting directly by operation of the
throttle lever in the cockpit.

Engine Running
When the engine is started the throttle valve is only slightly open and manifold
pressure is low. When the throttle is opened the throttle valve opens causing:

1. A rise in manifold pressure.


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2. The capsule to contract.


3. The lifting of the piston valve.
4. Fluid pressure supply to the bottom of the servo piston. This will raise links a and b.
5. And hold the throttle valve in a position corresponding to Rated Power.

Should the throttle lever be moved still further:

1. Manifold pressure increases further.


2. Capsule contracts further.
3. More fluid is directed to the bottom of the servo piston.
4. The servo piston moves up and, via the linkage, moves the throttle valve to prevent it opening too
far.

Thus Rated Power cannot be exceeded.

During take-off, when maximum power is required, air bleed off from the capsule chamber is allowed. This is
achieved by a small valve being connected to the throttle linkage.

Variable Datum Control


This is similar to that already described except that the throttle linkage is connected, via a cam, to the
aneroid capsule.

Fig. 27 VARIABLE DATUM CONTROL

This means that when the throttle is opened, instead of the capsule trying to 'fight' the throttle setting by
trying to close the throttle valve every time the manifold pressure increases - the capsule is moved to a new
neutral -re-adjusting the servo valve and servo piston - allowing the throttle valve to stay open.

TURBOCHARGER SYSTEMS
These use the existing energy in the exhaust gases and therefore use less engine power than the
supercharger.

These are driven by the exhaust gases leaving the engine. The exhaust gases drive a turbine which in turn
drives a compressor/impeller. The turbine is of the centrifugal type while the impeller is similar in design to
the impeller of the supercharger. They are mounted on a common shaft lubricated by engine oil.

Some turbochargers are designed to maintain sea level pressure in the manifold up to high altitude -
sometimes called Altitude Turbochargers.

Others are designed to boost manifold pressure to higher than sea level pressure, and these are called
Ground Boost Turbochargers (GET).

The GBT, of course, can only be fitted to engines which are specially designed (because of the increased
pressure) while the Altitude Turbocharger can be fitted to any engine - suitably modified of course.

Operation (Figures 25 and 28)

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As the engine starts up, exhaust gases are directed, via the exhaust system, to the turbine - this will spin up
at high speed and rotate the impeller. The exhaust gases are then allowed overboard via the exhaust
system. The impellej will draw in ambient air, compress it, and direct it to the induction system of the engine.

The whole unit is separate from the engine itself and is mounted externally -while the supercharger is often
constructed within the engine.

In general, as the aircraft climbs so the turbocharger tends to rotate faster. This necessitates the need for
some form of speed control.

Control
The control of the turbocharger is achieved by varying the amount of exhaust gas that passes through the
turbine. Thus a by-pass valve is fitted (Waste Gate Valve).

Fig. 28 TURBOCHARGER WASTE GATE CONTROL

When the waste gate valve is opened more gas by-passes the turbine and it slows down - when it is closed
more gas enters the turbine and it speeds up.

The waste gate may be controlled by the pilot, but on most engines it is
automatic to prevent over-boosting the engine. This may be done using a hydro-pneumatic system or an
electronic system such as FADEC.

In an hydro-pneumatic system the waste gate is controlled by an oil controlled actuator (with spring return -
oil pressure tends to close the gate - the return spring tends to open it).

The waste gate controller controls the oil pressure in the actuator depending on the manifold pressure.

Fig. 29 SIMPLIFIED WASTE GATE CONTROL SYSTEM

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With a FADEC system the waste gate control valve is controlled by electrical signals from the FADEC
computer and the valve it-self is powered by oil pressure or pneumatic pressure.

So far so good. However, there are modifications.

Absolute Pressure Controller


In the system so far described - at low power settings the manifold pressure will cause the waste gate
controller to stop the pressure oil going to return, and hence the high oil pressure in the actuator will cause
the waste gate to close and all exhaust gas to go through the turbine.

At high power settings the reverse is true and only part of the exhaust gases go through the turbine as the
waste gate is open.

However, it is possible as the throttle is opened, that the turbine will start to run too fast. To prevent this a
capsule operated valve is fitted that monitors
turbo compressor output pressure.

When maximum pressure is reached the capsule compresses and allows oil to bleed from the actuator oil
line so opening the waste gate, reducing the gas flow through the turbine and moderating the turbine speed.
The absolute pressure controller is fitted in the oil pressure line from the actuator.

Fig. 30 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE CONTROLLER

Figure 31 shows the FADEC waste gate control system of the Centurion engine. Note the following:

1. The air filter prior to the compressor.


2. The charge air intercooler after the compressor (dropping the temperature by 100 degrees).
3. The FADEC computer with the following inputs:
 Power (not shown).
 Manifold air pressure.
 Manifold air temperature - transduced and sent as an electrical signal.
 Outside air pressure.
4. The FADEC computer control of the waste gate valve.
5. The waste gate valve powered by compressed air from the compressor.
6. The waste gate moved by compressed air.
MISSING PICTURE
Fig. 31 WASTE GATE CONTROL SYSTEM BASED ON THE CENTURION ENGINE

Variable Pressure Controller


This is similar in operation to the variable datum controller of the m supercharger, ie the throttle linkage is
connected to the capsule so that when the linkage moves it changes the datum of the capsule.

Density Controller
Some systems may also use a density controller. This is a capsule filled with dry nitrogen which is sensitive
to temperature and pressure changes.

It regulates oil pressure only at full throttle and maintains a constant density of charge air at all altitudes.

Like the other controllers it regulates oil pressure in the waste gate actuatoi.

Differential Pressure Controller

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This may be fitted to some systems and responds to the difference in pressure between the inlet manifold
and the supercharger outlet. It controls the waste gate actuator (by controlling the oil pressure) at all
positions of the throttle other than fully open.

Any changes in temperature or engine speed could cause the system to "bootstrap" or "hunt".

Hunting is a condition where a system overshoots its selected position in one direction - it is corrected only to
overshoot it in the other direction. This is prevented in the turbocharger control system by the fitting of the
differential pressure controller. Also controls pressure to the waste gate controller.

Rate Controller
Some systems are fitted with a rate controller. This also has an input into the control of the waste gate
controller. It limits the rate at which the turbocharger increases speed.

Pressure Ratio Controller


This limits turbocharger output pressure automatically to prevent detonation. It usually operates above a set
altitude (say 16,000ft) to limit the charge air/ambient air ratio to about 2.2:1.

Again it controls the oil pressure in the line from the waste gate controller.

Multi Valve Systems


On some simple systems, only one automatic control valve may be fitted. On others, up to three or four
valves may be fitted. Do check your aircraft/AMM.

Manifold Pressure Relief Valve


May be fitted in the induction manifold to relieve excessive pressure. It is a spring loaded valve that will allow
excess pressure to escape from the duct.
Caution. Because of the lag in the system due to the time it takes for the turbocharger to change speed and
then all the valves to work it will take a little time for the system to "settle down". Always, therefore, change
throttle and propeller settings slowly to allow for this.

SUPERCHARGER/TURBOCHARGER MAINTENANCE
The following notes give general information on the maintenance of superchargers and turbochargers - but
remember - do check the AMM and maintenance schedule for your aircraft/engine for the exact procedures
to be carried out.

Superchargers
These do not normally require a lot of maintenance as their operating environment is not severe and they
only use clean air. However, the following points should be noted:

1. Inspect and clean air filter.


2. Check as far as possible for, oil leaks, corrosion, damage and security of attachment of all fittings.
3. If a centrifuge is fitted (a device to remove sludge from the oil), this should be removed and cleaned
when specified.
4. Should the supercharger fail to work then it will usually necessitate an engine change.
5. Inspect all interconnecting links to control devices for security, damage, corrosion, correct locking,
correct sense and range of movement.

Turbochargers
These are subject to far more severe operating conditions and therefore require more maintenance.

However, they can be removed as a separate item should it become necessary. At the periods specified:
1. Clean/replace air intake filter. Check for damage and security of attachment.
2. Check turbocharger, ducts, mountings and heat shield blanket for security, corrosion, damage and
gas leaks (and oil leaks on the turbocharger).
3. Remove ducting to unit.
4. Inspect impeller (as far as possible) for damage, corrosion, cracks and rubbing (on casing). Clean
off any build up of dirt.
5. Check the turbine (as far as possible) for the same defects and remove any carbon build up.
6. Check free rotation of unit and check end play using DTI - Dial Test Indicator).
7. Refit ducting.
8. Check all control links for correct operation, damage, security, locking, correct sense and range of
movement. Check for play and correct clearance from other components.
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9. Check all control valves for security and damage. Check operation in accordance with the AMM.
10. Remove, clean and refit oil filter.
11. Carry out an engine run and check for correct functioning of all components in accordance with the
AMM. Listen and check for unusual noises, vibration, etc.

Bearings
Bearings can be checked by rotating the turbocharger by hand and checking for uneven running and
listening for any unusual noises. These might be caused by rotors/ shaft binding or bearing damage.

Of course, this would require the removal of the ducts, and in some cases, would require the removal of the
unit - depending on what is found.

Axial play /clearances on the shaft can be checked using a DTI (with a suitable extension), with the DTI
indicator rod/ extension placed within the eye of the turbine or impeller and resting on the rotating part. By
hand push the rotating part to each end of its axial limits and check the run-out (end-play) on the DTI.

To check the radial clearance, remove the oil drain plug (drain the oil) and, using a suitable extension, insert
the DTI indicator rod/ extension into the drain hole until it touches the turbocharger shaft. Hold the two ends
of the shaft (impeller and turbine) and move it up and down radially as far as it will go. Check the run-out on
the DTI.

The unit will have to be replaced if any readings exceed those laid down in the AMM.

Rotor Binding
This can be checked by rotating the unit by hand. It may be caused by:
a) Excessive play - the unit must be changed.
b) Corrosion deposits in the turbine ring seal area. These are caused by water vapour deposits and
occur in the early life of a turbine before combustion products have had a chance to put a seal on the
surface. These deposits may be removed by:
1) Spraying the turbine with a penetrating oil.
2) Allowing it to soak for 10 to 15 minutes.
3) Rotating by hand and at the same time lightly tapping with a soft faced hammer.
4) Repeat items 1 to 3 above if necessary.
5) Carry out an engine run after refitting all ducts.
c) Carbon deposits on the turbine and casing. Replace turbocharger.

Exhaust Gas Leaks


These are serious on any exhaust system. The gases are toxic - containing CO, (carbon monoxide) . They
have been known to kill people in aircraft.

(Some years ago a 4 seater piston engined aircraft was picked up on radar over the English Channel going
round in large circles. After attempts at radio contact a search aircraft was sent up to investigate. The pilot
saw four people apparently asleep (in fact, unconscious) inside. After circling for some time the aircraft
crashed in France - the occupants were already dead - cause - carbon monoxide poisoning. The heat
exchanger for cabin heating air was leaking.)

So exhaust gas leaks are dangerous in any engine, but they are doubly so in turbocharged engines. Firstly
the gas is under pressure and leaks, when they occur, will jet very hot air a long way - possibly onto fuel
pipes, combustible materials, etc. It is possible that the leaks might produce a flame.

So always make sure that all joints in pipework, ducting, manifolds, etc, are free from leaks and are secure. If
there is a leak it is indicated by sooty streaks/ deposits. If necessary pressure test pipes/components in a
bath of water to 2psi (in a safety cage).

COMPONENT REPLACEMENT - Remember - Always check the AMM. Turbocharger. This may be fitted:

a) To the side of the engine.


b) To an engine bay bulkhead.
c) To the exhaust/induction system.

To remove, allow to cool, remove ducts, oil supply pipes, heat shields, stays and attachment bolts. Blank all
pipework/ducts.

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When fitting a new/replacement turbocharger:

1. Check it against its stores release certificate/label/EASA form 1.


2. Check part numbers/serial numbers.
3. Inspect for damage, corrosion, and free wheeling of turbine.
4. Fit new seals/gaskets.
5. Connect all ducts/pipes/attachments.
6. Check clearance between it and any surrounding structure / equipment.
7. Carry out engine run.
8. Check for leaks.
9. Record all work done and sign paperwork.

Other Components. These include the waste gate actuator and the controller valves. The procedure is not
too different from that stated above except that there is no free wheeling of rotating parts and there are
control links to be disconnected/reconnected. After reconnection the actuator/control unit linkage will have to
be reconnected and adjusted for correct setting.

In some cases the control unit itself will have to be adjusted.

As always this must all be carried out in accordance with the AMM and an engine run completed.

All the work must be signed for including a Duplicate Inspection

Engine Run
When-ever an engine component is changed or to verify a fault on the engine, or its equipment, an engine
run must be carried out. It is always done in accordance with the AMM.

Listed below are some of the checks that relate to turbocharger/superchargers and their systems.

1. Carry out pre-run checks as stated earlier.


2. Start engine and allow to warm up. Check pressure and rpm gauges for correct reading.
3. With the propeller in fully fine position slowly open throttle and check that take-off rpm and manifold
pressure is obtained and not exceeded.
4. For some controllers a special gauge is fitted prior to the engine run. Check that these are reading
the correct pressures.
5. During all stages of the engine run, rpm and discharge/manifold pressures should be noted and
compared to those given in the AMM. Any differences must be investigated.

To test the system properly low ambient pressures are required - this means a flight test.

During the flight test:

1. The turbocharger should maintain maximum power from take-off to critical altitude.
2. Hunting or "bootstrapping" is checked for by reducing engine speed to close the waste gate - then
opening the throttle - the engine should increase rpm smoothly and hunting should not occur.
3. Temperatures and pressures at all throttle settings should be recorded and compared to those
stated in the AMM.
4. To check the manifold pressure relief valve/rate controller the throttle is opened rapidly at a specific
altitude. Pressures should not climb above those stated.
5. The differential pressure controller is checked by climbing above the altitude at which maximum
manifold pressure is permitted and noting the fall in manifold pressure with increasing height. Record
and compare to the AMM.

CONCLUSION
There is a lot of reading in this book. If you are not sure of any part - give it another read. If you are still
unsure of any point contact your tutor (FS students) - he will be only too happy to help.

Book 3
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

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You should have a good knowledge of the oils used and a sound knowledge of lubrication systems, including
their maintenance.

Likewise you should have a sound knowledge of ignition systems.

The theory of the coil (or battery) ignition is dealt with first to give the student a better understanding of spark
generation. Almost all piston engined aircraft have magneto ignition systems so you should understand the
battery ignition system but commit to memory the details of the magneto system.

For those studying for the EASA examination you should also have a sound knowledge of electronic control
of engines including FADEC. For those studying for the BCAR piston engine examination there is no need to
study the section on electronic engine control and FADEC - though it would be a good idea to read it through
as it would give a better understanding to ignition and carburetion systems in general.

FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) and electronic engine control has been around for many years
on jet engines but has only recently appeared on piston engines. The majority of piston engined aircraft have
ordinary manual engine controls and it is likely that you have not come across this on your aircraft. If it is
fitted to your aircraft great. Refer to your manual after reading this book and make sure you understand
your aircraft system. For the majority of people you will simply have to study this book more carefully.

Note that the FADEC system is an electronic engine management system and some aircraft do not have
FADEC fitted as such, but do have an electronic engine management system. Although electronic engine
control is not mentioned as such in the EASA syllabus, reading and understanding this section before going
on to FADEC will give you a better understanding of the FADEC system.
It would be advantageous to have studied (or have background knowledge of) module 3 Electrical
Fundamentals and module 5 Digital Techniques of the EASA syllabus before studying the ignition section of
this book. However, the author has tried to make this subject self standing anyway.

There is more information reference transducers in the book in this module series entitled Piston Engine
Instrumentation.

LUBRICATION
Oil is used in engines for many reasons. Its main purpose, of course, is to reduce friction by interposing a
layer of oil between the moving surfaces so the surfaces do not actually touch each other. This reduces the
friction co-efficient ju (mu) and reduces heat and wear. The oil, however, performs other functions, these
include:

a) Cooling. The rubbing surfaces produce heat - the oil picks this heat up then flows to the cooler where
the heat is transferred to ram air.
b) Sealing and cushioning. As the oil "wets' the moving parts so it forms a seal and provides a
cushioning effect between them.
c) Corrosion protection. A film of oil on the surface of bare metal will prevent the oxygen in the air from
coming into contact with the metal, preventing oxidation and corrosion.

The actual lubrication process is considered to be divided into two stages:


1. Boundary lubrication. This is the lubrication of a moving item before the oil has started to flow. It
relies on the residual oil left on the moving surfaces after the last oiling.
2. Film lubrication. This is a thicker film of oil which occurs once the oil is being pumped around the
system. For example: when the engine is started the crankshaft starts to rotate on the oil Boundary
layer and as the engine gathers speed and the oil starts to flow so the oil is pumped and produces a
thicker layer of oil - called the Film layer. If a moving part is placed under too much load then the
Film layer might break down and be reduced to a Boundary layer.

THE PROPERTIES OF A LUBRICANT


Oils have many properties - some of which are listed below.

Surface Wetting. The oil must be capable of wetting the surface it is to lubricate. The term Vetting' is the
ability to lay on the surface and actually cause wetting. An opposite example of this is when a car is polished
- when it rains the water will not Vet' the surface but rolls off as beads of water.

Viscosity. Viscosity is defined as Resistance of a Fluid to Shear Forces or in other words Resistance to Flow.
Oils must have a viscosity within a range as stated in the manual. If its viscosity is too high it will be too ^hick'

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and will not flow. If it is too low it will be 'thin' with little "body" and provide a thin and inadequate lubrication
layer.

SAE. Society of Automotive Engineers in the US. Sets standards for viscosity ratings, eg 10W-40, 20W-50
etc.
Oils are also given ratings by other standards authorities and it is important that the correct oil/viscosity is
used. Some examples are:

SAE: 30 40 50 60
Aviation: 65 80 100 120
Viscosity Rating (VR): 443 676 1124 153
Viscosity Index (VI): 116 112 108 107

Note. The higher the SAE rating the thicker the oil (higher VR and has more resistance to flow) and the lower
the VI. The higher the VI the less change there is in the viscosity with temperature change.

Oils are usually given ratings based on the SAE for example: 10W-40

10W = the ability to flow at 0°F (-18°C) as if it is a SAE 10W grade oil.
40 = the ability to flow at 210°F (99°C) with the same ability as a SAE 40 oil.

The W stands for Winter and oils with these gradings are often called multi grade or multi viscosity oils.

This multi-grade specification can be confusing. It does not mean that the oil is thinner in winter than in
summer. As an approximation it is better to read the specification so that the smaller number is an indication
of how thin the oil can get and the larger number representing how thick the oil can get.

Viscosity Index. This VI index relates the change in viscosity of an oil with the change in its temperature. The
viscosity of most oils will go down with an increase in temperature, ie they will flow more easily. Likewise the
viscosity of most oils ; ) r will go up as they get colder.

Ideally an oil's viscosity should not change with change in temperature (not possible).

API. The American Petroleum Institute sets standards in the US for oil additives. The latest standards are SJ
relating to gasoline (or spark [S]) engine performance and C relating to Diesel or compression © engine
performance (the highest rating currently being CG-4). When an oil can be used on both gasoline and Diesel
engines it will have a designation such as CG4/SJ.

Gravity API. The American Petroleum Institute rating is similar to Specific Gravity.

Colour. Oils are coloured and some standards authorities give a colour rating, eg ATSM 4.5 for SAE 50 oils.

Pour Point. The lowest temperature the oil will pour, eg -10°F (-23°C) for SAE 50.

Flash Point. The temperature of an oil at which a flame will cause it to flash but not sustain combustion, eg
515°F (268°C) for SAE 50.

Carbon Residue Rating. The amount of carbon left behind after the oil has evaporated.

TYPES OF ENGINE OIL


It is important to use the correct type of engine oil for a particular engine operating under particular
conditions. To this end you should refer to the engine manufacturer's notes and/or the AMM. For example, a
typical modern engine oil specification is Shell Helix Ultra 5W-30 synthetic API SJ/CF. The following
paragraphs give information on some of the oils available.

Mineral Based Oil


MIL-L-6028B mineral oils have been used in aero engines for many years. They tend to form sludge and will
oxidise at high temperatures or when aerated. Tends to cause the formation of carbon in the bearings of
turbochargers as the heat sink "cooks" the oil.

Ashless Dispersant Oil (ADO)

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Used widely and tends not to form carbon. It meets MIL specification L-22851 and is approved by engine
manufacturers such as Lycoming, Continental and Pratt & Whitney.

It uses dispersant additives which prevents the sludge forming materials from joining together in the oil
(which would then clog filters and oilways). It keeps the particles in suspension in the oil until they can be
removed harmlessly by the filter.

Ash dispersant oil is a good lubricant - so much so that some engine manufacturers recommend that
engines be run-in (break-in in some manuals) with mineral oil - to allow them to Toed in' better.

Once oil consumption has stabilised (say after the first 50 hours) then the oil should be changed to ADO.

Synthetic Oil
The higher operating temperatures and lower environmental temperatures of the modern engine has led to
the increasing use of synthetic oils. They are better than mineral oils (ADO and straight mineral oils).

The excellent low temperature operating characteristics of synthetic oil makes it suitable for operation at high
altitudes. Its viscosity at -40°F (-40°C) is the same as ADO at 0°F (-18°C). With certain additives in the
synthetic oil it produces less oxidation and resultant deposits than ADO.

Its wear characteristics are better than straight mineral oil and about the same as ADO.

The disadvantages of synthetic oil include its increased cost (but has extended drain-down times) and its
ability to soften rubber and other synthetic compound? and resins.

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Compatibility of Oils
Oils having the same base ie, Straight Mineral, Ashless Dispersant and Synthetic are considered to be
compatible. In other words - a synthetic oil made by one manufacturer is compatible with a synthetic oil
made by another manufacturer.

But if in doubt check the aircraft manual or the literature supplied by the oil manufacturer.

Note. If you are changing the oil from one type to another, remember to check the AMM/engine
manufacturer's notes. Remember also to flush the engine prior to filling with the new oil.

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
Lubrication systems are generally divided into four basic systems:

 Two-stroke engine fuel/oil premix system.


 Two-stroke engine oil injection system.
 Four-stroke dry sump system. Gasoline or Diesel.
 Four-stroke wet sump system. Gasoline or Diesel.

Two-stroke Engines
For some two-stroke (or 2 cycle) engines, two-stroke engine oil is premixed to the fuel in the ratio 50:1 (2%)
(or as per the manual) in the fuel tank. In other two-stroke engines the oil is injected into the engine crank-
case at the same time as the fuel is inducted.

Four-stroke Engines - Gasoline or Diesel


The dry-sump and wet-sump systems are similar in principle, with the main difference being the storage of
the oil. In a dry sump system the oil is stored in a tank whilst in a wet sump system the oil is stored in the
engine sump - similar to most road vehicles.

The actual lubrication is carried out by drillings to supply oil under pressure at about 90psi (620kPa) to
bearings etc (Pressure lubrication). Other parts of the engine, such as cylinder walls are lubricated by Splash
lubrication - the oil being squirted or splashed onto the surfaces.

For both systems the oil is pumped around the system under pressure to supply
oil to the (P = Pressure, S = Splash/Spray, D = Dip):

 Crankshaft main bearings - via drillings in the engine casing (P).


 Big end bearings - via drillings in the crankshaft (P).
 Cam bearings (P) and lobes (S) - via drillings to bearings and splash lubrication to the lobes.
 Rocker arms (S).
 Push rods - via splash and by drillings through the centre of the rod from the hydraulic tappet (P &
S).
 Hydraulic tappets - via drillings in the engine case (P).
 Gudgeon pins - splash/spray (S).
 Cylinder walls - splash/spray (S).
 VP prop - to the pitch change piston via supply ducting in propeller shaft (P).
 Gear box (S).
 Propeller shaft bearings - via drillings in the engine case (P).
 Propeller governor - via drillings in the engine case (P).
 Turbocharger - via external pipework (P).
 Supercharger - via internal drillings (P).
 Carburettor - via pipework for anti-ice (P).
 Accessory drives - via drillings and spray nozzles (P & S).
 Oil pressure gauge. On some aircraft this might be a pressure transducer connected to the oil
system and the cockpit indication would be an electrically operated gauge or a CRT/flat screen
display.

On other aircraft the cockpit gauge would be of the bourden tube with an oil pipe typeconnecting it to the
engine oil system. (Refer to the book in this series entitled Engine Instruments).

Remember, not all engines have all of these systems fitted. Those systems that need lubrication are often
called Consumer Items.

Dry Sump System (figure 1) This consists of:


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 An external tank.
 Pumps - spur gear - pressure and scavenge.
 Filters.
 Oil cooler.
 Pressure relief valve, pipelines, transducers etc.

Fig. 1 DRY SUMP SYSTEM

Oil feeds from the oil tank by gravity through a suction filter to an engine driven pressure pump. The oil is
pumped under pressure to the consumers in the engine via a pressure filter.

A pump pressure relief valve is fitted to relieve excess pressure should the system over-pressurise.
Once the oil has lubricated the consumers it is collected in various sumps and reservoirs inside the engine
where suction pipes, connected to the scavenge pump, transfer the oil (now mixed with air and debris) back
to the tank. A de-aerator fitted inside the tank (not shown) separates the air from the oil allowing the air
overboard through a breather system. The breather system also has the effect of preventing the engine
block becoming pressurised.

If this were to happen it may force oil past the valve guides and into the combustion chamber creating a blue
haze from the exhaust with increased oil consumption and spark plug fouling.

The de-aerator is normally a perforated sheet of metal fitted inside the top of the tank.

The debris is removed by the various filters - and when they become blocked (or nearly so) they are
changed.

Connections to the VP propeller pitch control system (V/P) and the lubrication system of the
supercharger/turbocharger (T/S) are shown. There will be return pipelines provided for these components.

An oil temperature transducer (TXT) and pressure transducer (TXP) are placed in the system down-stream
of the pressure pump. These will monitor the operation of the oil cooler and oil system in general. The
electrical signal generated will be sent to the cockpit to be used in a moving coil type instrument or a
ratiometer type instrument. On later aircraft these are replaced by a screen display.

Oil quantity is monitored by a float operated transducer (TXQ). Quantity could also be measured using a
capacitive gauging system.

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On older aircraft the pressure gauge might be a bourdon tube type gauge fitted in the cockpit with an oil
pipeline fitted between it and the engine system.

On newer aircraft fitted with engine management systems the various transduced parameters will be sent to
the computer for engine management purposes The conventional "clockwork" gauges shown in the drawing
may be replaced with CRT screens or flat screen displays.

The filters, sometimes called strainers, incorporate a relief or by-pass valve. If the filter element becomes
blocked then, to allow the oil to continue to flow, the relief valve will open and the oil will by-pass the element
- unfiltered. Better unfiltered than no oil at all. It is a regulatory requirement.

After the oil has been pumped around the system (drillings to crankshaft main bearings, big ends and
sometimes tappets and rockers, splash/spray to cylinder walls and valve operating mechanisms) it drains to
the sump where it is picked up by the oil scavenge pump/s.

These have a bigger capacity than the pressure pumps as the oil is aerated and has a greater volume.

The oil will then pass through an air cooled oil cooler and may be put through a de-aerator or separator.

Wet Sump System


Not too unlike the previous system described except that the oil is allowed to stay in the sump at the bottom
of the engine. It is drawn up by a spur gear pump filter for the engine consumers.

On some engines the oil may be directed, via a temperature control valve, through an oil cooler. Below a
certain temperature the oil by-passes the oil cooler - above this temperature the oil will be directed through
the cooler. The oil cooler is normally cooled by ram air (airflow).

Fig. 2 WET SUMP SYSTEM

Figure 2 shows a system with most of the details removed (for clarity). In principle it will have all the same
components and will be very similar to the dry sump system except an oil tank will not be fitted and there
may not be a scavenge pump and filter.

Figure 3 shows the oil system as fitted to the Centurion engine. Note the thermostat, the supply to the
turbocharger and the various temperature and pressures.

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The thermostat begins to open at 78°C oil temperature and is fully open at 94°C. If the oil temperature rises
to 140°C then the pilot must take action to reduce this. The supply pressure is regulated by a valve within the
pump to about 4.5bar (65psi).

Fig. 3 OIL SYSTEM BASED ON THE CENTURION ENGINE

OIL SYSTEM COMPONENTS


You should have, at least, a working knowledge of the components in an oil system. The components are
fairly straightforward and therefore reasonably simple to understand.

Pumps
These are usually of the spur gear type. These give a high volume output but at a lower pressure than the
piston type pump which is ideal for oil systems. The two gears are in mesh, one being driven by the engine
(drive gear) and the other is driven by the drive gear.

Fig. 4 OIL PUMP

As they rotate oil is trapped between the gear teeth and the casing. After nearly a complete revolution, the
teeth forced out to the pump outlet.
complete revolution, the teeth re-engage and the oil that was between them is

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As it is a constant volume (or constant displacement) pump, a pressure relief valve must be fitted in the
system to ensure pressures do not become excessive.

This is usually a simple spring-loaded valve (ball, piston or plate). It is usually adjustable (by the
manufacturer) and may be designed so as to allow the oil pressure to be higher - when it is cold, and to
reduce the oil pressure when the oil warms up when it will flow more readily.

Oil Coolers
These are usually of the surface heat exchange type where the heat energy from the oil is given up to the
outside ram air.

A relief valve may be fitted to relieve pressure in the event of the matrix becoming blocked.
It may be fitted after the scavenge pump or after the pressure pump, and may be fitted with a thermostatic
valve to prevent oil from passing through when the oil is cold.

Fig. 5 TYPICAL OIL COOLER

Oil Tank or Reservoir


Fitted to provide some oil reserve in case of a (minor) leak and also acts as a heat sink. The tank must have
sufficient capacity for the engine with an air space at the top to allow for oil expansion. It may be fitted with
an oil dilution system.

Oil Dilution System


When engines are operating in very cold weather conditions the problems of engine starting can be
considerable. This is because the oil has 'thickened', ie its viscosity has increased - related, as you know to
its viscosity index.

The engine will have difficulty in turning (cranking) during starting when it is colu so something has to be
done.

In extreme cold weather the oil is drained immediately after the last flight - while it is still warm. Before the
next engine start the oil is heated - be careful it is flammable. The engine is pre-heated using hot air blowers
and the hot oil is poured in. The engine is started straight away. The oil, which has a low viscosity, will flow
readily and the engine should crank reasonably well.

To avoid all this paraphernalia some engines are fitted with oil dilution systems.

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Fig. 6 OIL DILUTION SYSTEM

Oil Dilution System (figure 6)


Consists of a system that allows the oil to be diluted by fuel prior to engine shut down - thus ensuring that the
oil left in the engine has a lower viscosity - ready for the next (cold) start.

Before the engine is shut down the dilution switch is operated to cause the solenoid to open the fuel supply
to the oil system. This will allow fuel to enter the oil system so diluting it and reducing its viscosity.

To prevent all the oil being diluted a hotpot is fitted within the oil tank. This fills with diluted oil and the engine
is shut down after the required running period.

When the engine is started next time, it will use the diluted oil from the hot pot.

As the hot pot oil level reduces so oil will flow from the tank through the hot pot transfer holes.

As the engine warms up so the fuel in the oil system will evaporate and the oil will return to its normal
viscosity.

On engines fitted with VP propellers the oil supply to the propeller control system will be taken from the
bottom of the tank. This means that it is not diluted and ensures that, if oil levels get too low, the propeller
control system will still have enough oil for control purposes.

Oil filters
The oil must be filtered to remove debris such as solid contaminants and sludge from the oil as these will
cause damage to the moving parts of the engine.

Oil filters may be:


 Full flow.
 By-pass.

With the full flow system all the oil is passed through the filter as it is pumped around the system and with the
by-pass system only part of the oil flow is passed through the filter each time.

All filters incorporate a by-pass valve which allows fluid to by-pass the filter element should it become
blocked. There are several different types of filter elements:

a) Wire Wound Element. This is sometimes known as an edge filtration element. The oil flows from the
outside to the inside of a flat spiral wire winding. The winding is so designed as to leave a small gap
between each spiral. Any particle larger than the gap will be filtered out. Any particle getting through
the gap will not clog the filter, as the gap gets bigger the closer it gets to the centre of the filter.

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Sometimes a scraper is fitted to this type of filter element. The scraper is turned by an external handle, which
scrapes the contaminants off the outside of the element. These fall to the bottom of the filter bowl - to be
removed on a regular maintenance inspection. The element can be cleaned and re-used.

b) Felt or Depth Filter Element. This consists of a matrix of fibres closely packed to a depth of about 1"
(25mm).

The contaminants are trapped in the fibres - this element is considered to be more efficient than the wire
wound type.

c) Wire Mesh Element. Used for the removal of larger contaminants. Can be cleaned and re-used.

d) Paper or Fibre Element. This is sometimes called a Semi Depth Filtration Element and consists of
resin-impregnated fibres pressed together to form a thin long sheet. This sheet is folded - to produce
the largest surface area within the smallest overall size - to form a pleated element around a
perforated steel core. The complete assembly is fitted within a steel case suitably threaded to be
screwed to the engine block.

Fig. 7 FIBRE ELEMENT FILTER

These elements cannot be cleaned and when necessary the filter is changed complete.

Remember - when an element is changed it should be inspected for particles that may indicate wear or
breakdown of a particular part or component within the engine. With a sealed type filter it must be cut into
using a special cutting tool similar to an electric tin opener - so that an inspection of the element can be
carried out.

e) Magnetic Plugs. Screwed into the system to pick out any (magnetic) metal particles that may be in
the oil. Note that it will not show any non-magnetic material.

Filters may be scavenge filters, suction filters or pressure filters. Scavenge system filters or strainers are
filled before the appropriate scavenge pump. This will protect the scavenge pump in the event of debris in
the oil.

De-Aerator
Fitted to some systems to allow the air to separate out from the oil. (It gets aerated in the process of
lubricating the various moving parts - consumers).

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Once the oil has lubricated the consumers it collects in various sumps and reservoirs inside the cylinder
block where a suction pipe, connected to the scavenge pump, transfers the air/oil mix back to the tank. A de-
aerator would be fitted to the top of the tank in the form of a perforated metal sheet. This allows the air to
separate out from the oil allowing it overboard via a breather. The oil would drip through the holes in the de-
aerator to the tank below.

The breather also has the effect of preventing the engine block from becoming pressurised. If the block
became pressurised it may force oil through the valve guides and into the combustion chamber. This would
increase oil consumption and would show as a blue haze in the exhaust fumes. It could also lead to spark
plug fouling.

Cockpit Indications
a) Pressure
This is measured at the outlet from the pressure pump and it may be piped direct to the cockpit. Here it is fed
into a Bourdon tube type gauge. On some aircraft the pressure will be fed into a transducer (close to the
engine), which will transduce the oil pressure to an electrical signal and the gauge in the cockpit will be
electrically operated. (Check the book, in this series, on Engine Instruments).

b) Temperature
The temperature of the oil is measured before entering the engine. It may be measured electrically, by
measuring the change in resistance of a temperature probe, which will vary the current going to a moving
coil instrument/ratio type instrument in the cockpit. It could also be measured mechanically by placing a
sealed bulb in the oil. The pressure in the bulb changes in response to the change in temperature and this
pressure can be used to input into a Bourdon type instrument in the cockpit - (again, for further details refer
to the book in this series, Engine Instruments).

c) Oil level/oil quantity/low level warning


On some engines, oil quantity/low level warning systems may be fitted. The quantity indicator may be a
simple float arm operating a variable resistor. This will supply a varying dc supply to a moving coil instrument
in the cockpit. Quantity can also be indicted by a capacitive type system.

The above systems may be designed so as to provide a warning to the pilot if the oil level was to get low
(lamp, warning horn etc).

The CAA will expect you to have a good understanding of how the instruments work. Why?

The answer is - if an incorrect instrument reading is obtained - is it the instrument or is it the engine? You are
the licensed engineer and you have to decide, and act accordingly.

Non-Return Valves
Sometimes called Check Valves. They are a simple plate or ball loaded spring valve that allows oil to flow in
one direction only.

MAINTENANCE
QUESTION Can you think of what maintenance is carried out on an oil system? (10 mins)

ANSWER In general terms:

1. Checking for correct level and leaks.


2. Changing the filter/ filter element/ s.
3. Changing the oil.
4. Carrying out an analysis of any debris found in oil filter casings/chip detectors and
carrying out an analysis of the oil.
5. Checking oil consumption and exhaust colour.
6. Checking oil system components such as tanks, pipes, filters, coolers, hot pot systems for
damage, security, leaks etc.
7. Checking correct operation of instruments, VP propellers etc. M
8. Changing any components due to condition and/or as required^

QUESTION When would these tasks be carried out? (5 mins)

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ANSWER In accordance with the LAMS schedule (if applicable) or the dedicated aircraft
maintenance schedule, or as requested by the engine manufacturer, or as
requested by the CAA, or because of the condition of the component/oil.
Oil Analysis
A comprehensive maintenance programme for the oil system will involve sending a sample of oil to an
approved laboratory on a regular basis. During the run-in or break-on period of the engine high debris
readings can be expected, but after 25 or 50 hours the debris count should stabilise.

During the on-going programme should there be a sudden change in the debris count then further
investigation should be carried out. Because it can be ascertained what metal is being carried in the debris
so it should be possible to inspect the actual suspect component. This inspection can take the form of
internal inspection using remote viewing equipment or the removal of the component for direct visual
inspection/NDT inspection.

The methods can include:

Electrical Resistance Testing. Not an easy or very accurate test to carry out. A sample of oil is heated in a
container and its resistance is measured. Once obtained the value is compared to tables to ascertain what
metal is present.

Spectrometric Oil Analysis. Spectrometric oil analysis provides a quantitative indication of the relative
concentrations of metallic elements methods in the oil. Two
can be used:

 Direct Reading Emission Spectrometry. With this system a small quantity of oil is burnt and the
spectrum of the colours of the light emitted is picked up on the direct reading spectrometer. The
photo multipliers in the spectrometer convert each emitted radiation into an electrical signal to be
printed out on a chart as parts per million (ppm). Will determine up to 11 elements simultaneously.
 Atomic Absorption. When an oil is sprayed into a flame it absorbs radiation specific to the elements
in the oil. So the flame is lit up with a light emitting that radiation and when the oil is sprayed the
amount of absorption of that radiation can be measured. Only one element can be tested for at a
time.

IGNITION SYSTEMS
These systems are provided so as to produce a spark at the spark plug at exactly the right moment during
the cycle of the gasoline ICE.

QUESTION When is this? (1 min)


ANSWER Just before TDC on the compression stroke - in fact up to 30° before - but check
your manual.

QUESTION Why does it occur so early? (2 mins)

ANSWER To allow time for the mixture to burn right through and so reaching its maximum
pressure at, or just a fraction of a second after, TDC.

QUESTION Will it occur at the same part of the cycle under all engine conditioii^, If not, why? (4
mins)

ANSWER No. When the engine runs faster the ignition timing is brought
forward (advanced) to allow for the flame propagation rate - which is constant (about
2ms). So when the engine runs faster ignition has to be advanced so as to obtain
the maximum combustion pressure (about 10° after TDC).

Also when the engine runs with a lean mixture (which burns at a slower rate) then the ignition timing will
have to be advanced. When engine load is increased (high boost pressure) a richer mixture is used so the
timing is retarded.

Many engines will have a duplicate ignition system operating two spark plugs per cylinder. This arrangement
is not only for safety reasons but the two spark plugT allow for a more uniform combustion of the mixture in
the cylinder. The burn starting from two points in the cylinder instead of one.

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The ignition system will vary from engine to engine. It may be an electronically controlled system or an
electro-mechanical system such as a magneto (a form of generator), which supplies electricity via a
distributor to the spark plugs.

The system may be coil ignition with an initial power supply from the battery.

THE COIL OR BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM


This relies on a dc supply from the battery. With the ignition switch switched on (figure 8) there will be current
flow through the primary winding of the ignition coil to earth via a ballast resister (not shown) and the contact
breaker. The ignition switch is also used to crank the starter when starting the engine.

The ignition coil houses two coils: a Primary LT Coil (few turns large core wire) and a Secondary HT coil
(many turns small core wire). [LT means low tension (low voltage) and HT means high tension (high
voltage)].

With constant current flowing in the primary coil there will a constant magnet field around both coils.

When the contact breaker opens the current ceases and the magnetic field collapses. These fast collapsing
flux lines will cut the secondary coil and induce in it a very high voltage. At the same time the distributor arm
will be at the correct position to allow this voltage to the correct spark plug - and to earth - producing a spark.

The capacitor reduces the arcing as the contact breaker opens so reducing contact point erosion and helps
speed up the collapse of the primary current field.

Fig. 8 COIL OR BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM

Advancing the timing may be achieved by an engine driven centrifugal governor or the use of a vacuum
connection to the manifold.

The mechanical control of the ignition may be taken over by electronic control on more modern engines.

Because the correct operation of the system is dependant on other systems - eg the battery, aircraft ignition
systems are operated by a self-contained system called a Magneto. Also, for aircraft, there are two
independent ignition systems to allow for redundancy and provide for a more even burn in the cylinder.

THE MAGNETO SYSTEM


Not too unlike the system previously described except that a battery is not needed. The magneto is in fact a
sort of generator. It is designed to produce a ve high voltage for a short period of time. It is mechanically
driven by the engine can produce this peak many times a second. To ensure that this high voltage peak
arrives at the right spark plug at the right time a distributor (a sort of selector switch) is used.

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Fig. 9 SIMPLIFIED MAGNETO CIRCUIT

The principle of the magneto is that a magnet is rotated close to a coil (connecte to a circuit). As it rotates the
flux lines (magnetic lines offeree) of the magnet cut the coil and an emf (voltage) is induced in the coil (figure
10).

The voltage produced will depend on:

 The strength of the magnet. Made as strong as possible.


 The rate/speed of flux line cutting. Depends on rpm.
 The number of turns of the coil. As many as possible.
 How close the magnet is to the coil. As close as possible.

As a voltage is produced so a current will flow in the circuit.

The magneto may be of the rotating magnet type (with stationary coils) or the rotating coils type (within a
stationary horseshoe magnet). Described below is the rotating magnet type, which is the most common form
of magneto.

With reference to figure 10. The rotating magnet - with two North (N) and two South (S) poles - is driven by
the crankshaft and rotates within a soft iron frame.

Fig. 10 SIMPLE AC GENERATOR

As one pole (say N) passes the frame the magnetic flux lines are in one direction (say N) then, as the next
pole passes (S) the flux lines are in the reverse direction (S). The reversal in the flux field from North to
South causes the flux lines to change direction and cut the coils. In so doing they produce an alternating (ac)
voltage in the circuit - provided it is a complete circuit.

The principle is not too unlike that of a generator.

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Figure 10 shows a system with one coil. Figure 11 shows the same system but fitted with 2 coils - a primary
and a secondary. The reason for this is to increase the voltage of the output.

Not too unlike a transformer, if there are more turns on the secondary coil than the primary then the voltage
will be higher in the secondary. It is the output from the secondary coil that is used for the spark.

The two coils wound on the frame are:


a) The Primary - Usually heavy wire - with about 200 turns.
b) The Secondary - Thinner gauge wire with more turns - about 10,000.

Note. The wires in the windings (as with all generators and motors) are insulated from each other by a
special varnish.

Fig. 11 THE TWO COILS OF THE MAGNETO

Fig. 12 THE MAGNETO CIRCUIT

Both windings are connected to earth at one end. The primary winding is connected to the cam operated
breaker points, whilst the secondary winding is connected to the distributor and spark plugs. The cam is on
the same shaft as the rotating magnet and distributor.
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The voltage in the secondary is increased still further my making the flux lines move even quicker than they
are being moved solely by the rotation of the magnets. This is done by collapsing them quickly.

As the magnet is rotated so a voltage is induced into the primary winding which causes a current to flow (and
induce a voltage in the secondary). The breaker point contacts are kept closed until the current is at a
maximum - at this point they are opened by the cam. The current ceases immediately - this causes the flux
field to collapse immediately. The flux lines, as they collapse, will cut the coils of the secondary winding at a
high rate creating a very high voltage.

This causes a very high current to be sent to the distributor and on to the spark plug, which will jump the
spark plug gap to go to earth (causing a fat' spark).

The contact breaker points are then closed ready for the next spark.

Note. In some books the term "Dwell" is used. This denotes the time when the primary current is flowing, ie
when the contact breaker is closed. Dwell time may also be expressed as a percentage of the total
charge/discharge cycle.

Note that in figure 12 the magnets are not shown close to the coils. This is for clarity. In fact the magnets are
rotated as close to the coils as possible to improve the magnetic effect.

Rotating Armature Magneto


This consists of a rotating armature on which are wound the two coils. The armature rotates within a magnet.
Not as popular as the rotating magnet magneto. The disadvantages of the rotating armature magneto
include:

1. Since two sparks only are supplied during each revolution (as opposed to four for the rotating
magnet type) the magneto speed becomes too high for engines of more than 6 cylinders.
2. Centrifugal force acting on the armature will sometimes burst the windings.
3. 'Rubbing' parts are necessary to pass the secondary current to the distributor. Thus there is wear.
The 'rubbing' parts are slip rings and carbon brushes.

The Timing of the Spark


It is important that the spark occurs to start the burning process so that the maximum pressure (peak
pressure) is achieved in the cylinder just after TDC - at the Peak Pressure Point.

On most engines the ignition timing is varied to cope with the varying rpm and the varying mixture strengths.
It can be varied in several ways, such as:

 BTH Automatic Timing. Used to vary the ignition timing in respect to engine speed.
 Variable Drive Automatic Timing. Used to vary the ignition timing in respect to mixture
strength/manifold pressure.

BTH Automatic Timing (figure 13)


This is a magneto drive coupling that varies the timing depending on engine rpm. As the engine speed
increases so the timing is advanced.

The Driving Flange is driven by the engine. Mounted on it is the Driven Quadrant, which is free to move
forward or backward with its position governed by cams. The driven quadrant drives the magneto.

Also attached to/the driving flange are two counterweights, these are caused to
move outwards under the influence of centrifugal force against the force of a spring. (The faster the engine
rotates the more they are thrown outwards).

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Fig. 13 BTH AUTOMATIC TIMING DEVICE

This outward movement of the counterweights causes a roller to follow the cam profile (on the underside of
the driving flange), and this causes the driven quadrant to move in a circular movement relative to the driving
flange. With an increase in engine speed the driven quadrant is moved against the spring (advance), and
with a decrease in speed the spring causes the quadrant to move to the retarded position.

Variable Drive Automatic Timing (figure 14


This allows for varying mixture strength and manifold pressure.

The engine drives a sliding shaft via an external spur gear and a male and female internal spur gear drive
assembly. The sliding shaft can be moved forwards or backwards along its axis by the operation of the
throttle lever.

The sliding shaft has fixed to it a spur gear and a helical gear.

When the sliding shaft is moved forward or backwards it will move the helical gear within its female helical
gear coupling. The axial movement will cause the output shaft to the magneto to vary in its angular
relationship to the input shaft - though they are both going round at the same rpm.

As the throttle is opened so the sliding shaft is caused to move (say forward). Remember, however, that it is
also rotating - driven by the engine.

Fig. 14 VARIABLE DRIVE

As the helical gear moves forward so the female helical gears are caused to rotate axially from their present
position ie, for a fraction of a second the output shaft will have a slight increase in rpm until it reaches its new
timing position.

In this way the timing can be varied according to the position of the throttle lever.

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The output drive can go direct to the magneto, or it can go via the BTH Timing Device so that the timing can
also be adjusted for variations in rpm. The Components

The Armature. This is not used very often and has wound on it the primary and secondary windings.

The Contact Breaker. Mechanically operated by a cam, which is driven by the same shaft that rotates the
distributor.

The Condenser. The condenser (or capacitor) helps to prevent arcing at the contact breaker points. It tends
to absorb the voltage which causes the spark just as the points begin to open. It also allows the magnetic
field to collapse quickly (ensuring a good spark) and gives a. long life to the contact breaker points.

The Magnet. This is a powerful permanent magnet made of an aluminium, nickel


and cobalt alloy.

The Distributor. This is usually an integral part of the magneto with the rotor being driven by the main
magneto drive shaft. On some engines it may be a separate item driven by the cam shaft or a gear train.

The distributor rotor rotates past a series of segments - each one connected to a spark plug. As the rotor
passes a segment so the primary coil circuit is interrupted by the contact breaker - the rapid collapse of the
magnetic field causes a massive voltage to occur in the secondary winding and a heavy current to be sent to
the rotor arm. This current passes to a specific segment and thencf to the spark plug.

This process will cause sparking between the rotor and the segments so the distributor casing is vented to
atmosphere to prevent the formation of water droplets, which will provide a path for the high voltage current
to track to earth causing mis-firing.

The vent will also ensure that corrosive gasses produced by normal arcing are vented away. The vent is
fitted with a wire mesh screen to prevent combustion of any inflammable gases around the engine.

The rotor is driven at half engine rpm.

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The Impulse Magneto


During the engine start sequence the ordinary magneto is rotating slowly. This means that it is producing a
weak spark (remember it is the rate at which the flux lines are cut that matters).

To produce a stronger spark some magnetos are fitted with an impulse device. This may vary but in general
the magneto is driven via a spring device from the drive shaft.

This means that the armature is 'flicked' through the position at which the spark occurs. This means that it is
travelling faster at this point which produces a higher voltage and a better spark.

Once the engine has started, centrifugal force will cause weights in the impulse coupling to push against the
springs so the drive operates as a normal 'solid' drive.

Safety Spark Gap


(Not shown in the drawings). This is fitted to some systems between the secondary winding and earth. It
prevents damage to the armature in the event of a plug lead becoming detached by allowing the high voltage
to escape as a spark to earth.

Booster Coils
(Not shown in the drawings). Where the magneto is of the non-impulse type a booster coil is fitted to boost
the current (and the spark). The booster coil is powered by the aircraft's battery or external power supply and
is switched on by a booster coil switch or by the engine ignition/starter switch. Coils may be low tension (low
voltage) or high tension (high voltage).

The low tension booster coil supplies a stream of low tension pulses to the armature primary winding to
augment (or replace) the voltage induced in the primary windings by the magnetic flux.

With the high tension booster coil a supply of high tension pulses are given to a secondary or 'trailing' brush
in the distributor rotor arm which, due to its position, automatically retards the ignition.

Ignition Switch
This is connected between the primary coil and earth. When closed it will earth the coil and operation of the
contact breaker will have no effect - and the engine will stop.

THE LOW TENSION MAGNETO


On aircraft which consistently fly at high altitude it has been found that the decreased atmospheric pressure
leads to the breakdown of the insulation within the magneto. To overcome this problem the low tension
magneto was developed. It is similar to the rotating magnet magneto already described except that there is
only one coil.

Low voltage impulses are generated from this coil and distributed to the spark plugs via the distributor.
Before the impulse gets to the spark plug it goes through a secondary coil (one for each plug). This acts in a
similar way to the secondary coil of the conventional magneto - converting the original low tension to high
tension. It is in essence a transformer.

MAGNETO SPEED RATIOS


Every cylinder of an engine that works on the four stroke cycle requires one spark every two revolutions of
the crankshaft. Consequently the greater the number of cylinders in the engine the faster the magneto needs
to be driven to provide the necessary number of sparks.

The speed at which the magneto has to be driven may be calculated as follows:

Magneto Speed = Number of engine cylinders x engine rpm


2
Example. On a four cylinder engine fitted with a rotating armature type magneto.

Magneto Speed = 4 x engine rpm


2
Each segment of a distributor is connected to a different cylinder and each requires one spark every two
engine revolutions. Therefore, the distributor rotor) irrespective of the magneto shaft speed, always rotates at
half engine speed.

FIRING ORDER
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This is the sequence in which the cylinders of an engine fire. It is worked out in the design stage to give the
best balance and least vibration. In practice this is achieved by connecting the leads from the sparking plugs
to the distributor segments in such a way that as the rotor arm passes each segment the secondary current
is distributed in the correct order.

The cylinders of most inline and V engines are numbered from the anti-propeller end with number one being
at the rear right (looking down on top of the engine) and number 2 being rear left with the numbering moving
forward to the propeller end. Some engines number their cylinders from the front right.

The cylinders of radial engines are normally numbered with number one being at the top and the numbering
sequence being in the direction of the crank rotation. With twin row radials the even numbers are on the front
row with the odds being on the rear row.

The firing order for single row radials is 1,3, 5, 7, 9, 2 etc and for double row radials the order is 1, 5, 9, 13,
17, 3 etc. For inline engines the order is 1, 4, 2, 3 or 1, 3, 2, 4 but in any case check the AMM for your
engine.

MAINTENANCE
Fitting the magneto. Of course - always consult the AMM, but in general:

1. Inspect the magneto for corrosion, damage - correct fitting of seals and plugs. Remove seals and
plugs and inspect internally - as far as possible for damage and debris.
2. Check that it is the correct magneto. Check serial and part numbers against the AMM/IPC (Illustrated
Parts Catalogue) and the stores release documents/EASA form 1/transit label.
3. Check that it is still within its storage life.
4. Check whether it is a 'right-hand' or left hand' magneto. The part number will indicate this and it will
have the direction of rotation inscribed on it.
5. Inspect, as far as possible, the seating and engine drive for cleanliness and damage.
6. Fit new seals.
7. Fit magneto and check that the drive engages correctly and seats correctly.
8. Connect all ignition leads and check timing.
9. Lock in position.
10. Carry out engine run.
11. Record all details in the engine logbook with appropriate details in the airframe logbook (engine
running details).

Note. Always time each magneto to the engine and not to each other. This will help prevent cumulative
errors.

Timing the Magneto


Again - check the AMM for exact dwell values, timing positions etc, but generally:

The cylinders of most inline and V engines are numbered from the anti-propeller end with number one being
at the rear right (looking down on top of the engine) and number 2 being rear left with the numbering moving
forward to the propeller end. Some engines number their cylinders from the front right.

The cylinders of radial engines are normally numbered with number one being at the top and the numbering
sequence being in the direction of the crank rotation. With twin row radials the even numbers are on the front
row with the odds being on the rear row.

The firing order for single row radials is 1,3, 5, 7, 9, 2 etc and for double row radials the order is 1, 5, 9, 13,
17, 3 etc. For inline engines the order is 1, 4, 2, 3 or 1, 3, 2, 4 but in any case check the AMM for your
engine.

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MAINTENANCE
Fitting the magneto. Of course - always consult the AMM, but in general:

1. Inspect the magneto for corrosion, damage - correct fitting of seals and plugs. Remove seals and
plugs and inspect internally - as far as possible for damage and debris.
2. Check that it is the correct magneto. Check serial and part numbers against the AMM/IPC (Illustrated
Parts Catalogue) and the stores release documents/EASA form 1/transit label.
3. Check that it is still within its storage life.
4. Check whether it is a 'right-hand' or left hand' magneto. The part number will indicate this and it will
have the direction of rotation inscribed on it.
5. Inspect, as far as possible, the seating and engine drive for cleanliness and damage.
6. Fit new seals.
7. Fit magneto and check that the drive engages correctly and seats correctly.
8. Connect all ignition leads and check timing.
9. Lock in position.
10. Carry out engine run.
11. Record all details in the engine logbook with appropriate details in the airframe logbook (engine
running details).

Note. Always time each magneto to the engine and not to each other. This will help prevent cumulative
errors.

Timing the Magneto


Again - check the AMM for exact dwell values, timing positions etc, but generally:

Maintenance
This is all laid down in the AMM with periodicities laid down in the maintenance schedule.

The following are some points - not in any particular order - that should be checked.

1. Check for signs of high voltage discharge (burning).

2. Thoroughly clean all cables, harnesses, magneto parts, etc.

3. Lubricate moving parts - sparingly.

4. Check contact breakers for:

(a) Correct contact area.


(b) Gap - when rocker arm is at top centre of cam lobe.
(c) Timing.
(d) Condition - pitting - cleanliness (clean points with a solvent and dry off).
(e) Measure the correct spring force using a spring balance. This is carried out just as the points
are about to open. A 0.002" feeler gauge or a lamp and battery can by used.
(f) The springs should be free from damage, distortion, corrosion and securely attached.

5. Check the distributor for damage, arcing at segments and tracking on the casing. If tracking (signs
of electric current flowing on the plastic casing) is excessive then the distributor cap must be
changed. If the tracking is light clean the casing thoroughly. (Tracking can usually be seen quite
clearly during an engine run in the dark. BE CAREFUL. THIS CAN BE VERY DANGEROUS
because of the propeller, moving engine parts and hot exhausts etc).

6. Check the distributor rotor and segments for arcing.

7. Check that gauze filters in breather holes are secure and undamaged (distributor).

8. Check the gap. It is important that the gap is correct (eg 0.012"). It may be checked using feeler
gauges. Remember, there should be no force required to insert them between the contacts. A more
accurate method is to use a DTI (Dial Test Indicator). The DTI is set up such that it measures the
movement of the moving contact. The difference between the high and low reading (the run-out) is
the gap dimension.

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Some manufacturers recommend checking the gap on more than one lobe. On others, a master cam lobe is
used.

The gap can be adjusted by carefully moving the mounting plate on which the points are attached, on others
it is adjusted by a screw thread adjuster - clamped to prevent movement due to vibration.

9. Carbon brushes should seat correctly, be free from damage with sufficient spring pressure to keep
them correctly seated. Contact rings should be free from damage and corrosion and there should be
freedom or rotation.

10. All springs should have adequate 'springiness', be free from corrosion and damage and be securely
attached.

11. All connections should be secure and cables/harnesses properly supported.


12. Cam rings should be checked for cleanliness, corrosion and wear.

13. Variable timing devices, impulse starters etc should be checked for freedom of movement,
cleanliness, damage, corrosion and lubricated where necessary.

Note. Some engines are fitted with a sealed magneto where little or no maintenance/adjustment is
necessary. Where this is the case check the AMM for correct operation and fitment.

IGNITION LEADS
Have to have high standards of insulation (can carry 40,000V) and be bonded to prevent electro magnetic
radiation being emitted.

These leads transmit high voltage currents to the spark plugs and the energy radiated from this current will
cause radio interference so it must be contained within the harness and grounded.

Ignition leads are usually made of stranded copper or stainless steel wire with rubber or silicone insulation.
There is a braided metal shield around the wire insulation to intercept any radio interference and carry it to
ground. This shield is encased in a plastic outer insulator to protect it from wear. Some ignition leads use a
continuous spiral of wire covered with a silicone rubber insulation.

Ignition leads may be 7mm or 5mm in size. Some ignition systems use a separate^ metal shielding,
complete with pipe-work and connectors etc. Connections may be disconnected to pull the unshielded wire
through for cable replacement.

It is important when installing an ignition lead that no strain is placed on the wire at any point. Bends in the
cables may be made using elbows supplied, eg 70°, 90° 110° and 135° elbows. Some systems rely on the
flexibility of the cable itself. Sometimes special brackets might be used.
3 5
Spark plugs have either a /4-20 or /a-24 terminal end and magneto harnesses are made to fit both types of
spark plugs.

Some of the older harnesses used a phenolic or ceramic tube with a coil spring at its end for the terminal
connection to the spark plug (sometimes called cigarettes).

The insulation is cut from the stranded conductor far enough back for the wires to stick through the small
hole in the end of the terminal and the ends of the wires are fanned out to provide a good electrical contact
and prevent the cigarette from slipping off of the wire. In some instances a small pin is pushed in the hole in
the terminal to lock the strands in position (check your AMM).

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Fig. 15 IGNITION HARNESS

More modern harnesses crimp the spark-plug terminal to the wire rather than spreading the strands and the
springs screwed over the end of the terminal.

When fitting terminals to a harness the shielding must be correctly secured. Some manufacturers use a
tapered inner and outer ferrule with the shielding between them. The two ferrules are pressed or swaged
together and the shielding becomes an integral part of the lead, electrically grounded at both ends.

A spark plug can be replaced disconnecting (unscrewing) the plug terminal, replacing the plug and
reconnecting the terminal.

Figure 15 shows a harness for a radial engine. Inline engine harnesses will be of^ similar construction but be
a different shape.

Testing
A harness with a high resistance or a leak to ground may bleed off the current before the voltage can rise
high enough to fire the spark plug. Sometimes this problem is intermittent as the leakage occurs only when
the harness is hot. Special harness testers are available for leakage testing. These usually place a high
voltage in the harness and any high leakage is shown by an indicator light.

Normal inspections would include checking for security, damage, insulation breakdown, oil and water
contamination and checking for signs of burning.

SPARK PLUGS
The function a spark plug has is to provide an insulated electrical terminal in the combustion chamber to
provide a spark (as big as possible - within reason).

To achieve a fat spark' an HT (High Tension - high voltage) supply is sent to the
central electrode of the spark plug for a short period of time. The voltage of the HT supply is sufficient to
cause ionisation to occur between the central electrode and the earthing pin/s (or ground electrode/s) on the
plug and a spark is created.

This spark is designed to ignite the fuel air mixture in the cylinder.

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The spark plug must resist fouling by any of the contaminants in the combustion chamber and its electrodes
must undergo minimum erosion from, either the heat in the cylinder or from the arcing action as the spark
jumps between them.

The single ground electrode used by automobiles is improved on by the use of two, three or four ground
electrodes placed around the central electrode and ma of nickel alloy. The centre electrode evolved from a
solid nickel rod to a nickel alloy sheath filled with copper for better heat conduction. Fine-wire plugs, having
their electrodes made of platinum wire are also used.

Size
Aircraft spark plugs come in two sizes of shell thread, 14 and 18mm with 18mm being the most popular.

Shielding
Some of the older engines use unshielded spark plugs but most modern engines use shielded spark plugs.
Examples are: a short-reach, massive electrode (large central electrode) plug with low-altitude shielding with
%-24 threads on the terminal end of the barrel. A more watertight seal is provided in the terminal end by
recessing the insulator in the spark plug shield and using a resilient seal on the harness. This type of spark
plug is called an all-weather or high-altitude spark plug and has a %-20 thread.

Centre Electrodes
The central electrode may be a large diameter electrode (massive electrode) or a small diameter electrode
(fine-wire electrode). It is to this electrode that the HT ignition lead is connected.

Grounding Electrodes
These are connected to or are part of the body of the spark plug. The body of the spark plug is screwed to
the engine block and is grounded to it so the grounding electrodes provide a current path to earth from the
centre electrode.

The spark plug may have a three-pronged insert in its firing end, permanently bonded in place that forms the
ground electrodes to which the spark jumps from the centre electrode. As the spark jumps it erodes the
electrodes.

For multiple electrodes/massive electrode the large area provides a maximum amount of material, so that
the interval between services can be extended. The centre electrode of this type of spark plug is a nickel
sheath, filled with copper so there will be a maximum amount of heat transfer from the electrode and hot
spots will not build up in the nickel.

Fine-wire spark plugs have a centre electrode and two ground electrodes made of small cross-section wires
of either platinum or indium. The small electrode cross-section allows the spark plug to spark at a much
lower voltage than the massive electrode and at the same time the material so the electrodes resist erosion
from both heat and sparking.

Reach
The length of the threads on the spark plug shell classifies it according to reach. The shell is threaded Va
inch on the short-reach spark plug and for 13/16 inch on the long-reach plug.

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Fig. 16 TYPES OF SPARK PLUG

Heat Range
The heat range of a spark plug is the ability of the insulator and centre electrode to conduct heat away from
its tip. Hot spark plugs conduct heat away slowly and
are used in engines which have a relatively low amount of heat chamber - low compression ratio engines.
in the combustion

Cold spark plugs conduct heat away more quickly and are used for cold running high compression engines.
The spark plug selected for each engine must run hot enough to minimise fouling of the insulator tip and
operate at temperatures below those which could cause pre-ignition.

Resistors
Shielded ignition, while reducing the problem of radio interference, tends to cause accelerated electrode
erosion. The shield acts as one plate of a capacitor and stores electrical energy. When the spark occurs this
capacitor is discharged resulting in high values of current. This discharge makes up what is known as the
capacitive component of the spark. This high-amplitude, rapidly changing current is responsible for a large
portion of the radiated interference and electrode erosion, but has no effect on engine performance due to its
very short duration.

A resistor is built into the spark plug to limit the peak current and thus minimise electrode erosion. It also
produces a spark for a longer duration.

Construction
A steel shell and shield are machined to form the holder for the spark plug insulator. The centre insulator is
assembled into the shell and both are bonded together to form a gas-tight seal. The insulator, which holds
the contact for the lead wire, the centre electrode and the resistor, is made of a ceramic material. It readily
conducts heat and makes it possible to have the longest possible insulator tip length for a given heat range
plug. Long insulation tips provide the maximum size cavity and help minimise lead fouling.

The centre wire seal is made up of a powdered metal and glass or ceramic and forms a close bond between
the resistor and the centre electrode.

The ground electrode of the massive electrode spark plug is made of nickel alloy, which is carefully bonded
into the end of the shell to assure maximum heat conductivity. The fine-wire plugs have two platinum or
iridium wires welded to the rim of the shell. Since the fine wires do not require a mounting ring or any
widening of the rim, the cavity in the firing end is less obstructed. Therefore the gases of the combustion
process are free to flow into the cavity and scavenge the combustion by-products before they can condense
and form solid deposits.

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MAINTENANCE
Initial Inspection
When the plugs are removed from an engine they should be pi ced in sequence in numbered holes in a rack
- each identifying the cylinder from which it was removed. This will aid in making an evaluation of the
condition inside the cylinder.

A plug of the correct heat range which has been operating for a short time will have a fairly clean brownish
appearance at the electrode end. The dull brown deposit on the insulator and the lack of build-up in the
cavity indicates that the cylinder has been firing correctly. The plug can be cleaned, re-gapped, tested and
re-installed for another service period.

If the initial inspection shows that the plug is worn-out or damaged it should be replaced. Fine-wire plugs can
normally be used until either the ground or centre electrode wears away to one-half of its original dimension.
Massive electrode plugs can usually be re-gapped if they have not worn away more than one-half the
thickness of the nickel sheath.

If several spark plugs in an engine appear severely eroded, it is likely that the fault is common to all, such as
an induction leak or other fuel supply problem. Check for indications of further damage by using a borescope
in the cylinder, looking carefully at the cylinder head.

Excessive overheating of a massive-electrode plug can cause erosion to eat through the nickel sheath and
allow the copper core to run out.

All aviation gasoline uses tetraethyl lead to improve its anti-detonation characteristics and ethylene
dibromide is added to the fuel to help scavenge the lead oxides before they solidify in the combustion
chamber. If the fuel-air mixture has been non-uniform or if the engine or spark plug has been operating too
cold, lead deposits will form in the firing end cavity of the spark plug and give the appearance of hard, grey,
clinker-like deposits.

These must be removed, preferably with a vibrator type cleaner. After a light abrasive blast, the plug may be
re-gapped, tested and returned to service.

A black, dry, sooty deposit in the firing end is caused by a too rich fuel-air mixture. Too much ground idling
with its attendant poor fuel-air mixture distribution or an operation with too rich an idle mixture will cause this,
as well as the spark plug having the incorrect heat range for the engine.

If the deposit in the spark plug is black and oily, it means that oil is getting into the cylinder. This can be
caused by worn valve guides, broken, worn or misaligned piston rings or worn supercharger impeller seals.

This sort of evidence would require the cylinder block to be removed from the engine to determine the
source of the oil. Once found it should be rectified.

A hard glaze on the nose insulator of a spark plug indicates that there has been
silicon in the combustion chamber. This usually comes from sand (when operating in desert/beach locations)
and probably indicates a leak in the induction system after the air filter or a damaged air filter. Silicon glaze is
an insulator at low temperatures but becomes conductive when hot. Glazed silicon is difficult to remove
completely and the spark plug should be replaced.

Cleaning
It is normal to remove, clean, gap, test and reinstall spark plugs every 100 hours, but check the maintenance
schedule for that engine. It is important that plugs should never be cleaned unless they actually need it.

A record should be kept of any ignition incidents and the condition of the spark plugs should be noted on the
100-hour and annual inspections.
If, when the spark plug is removed, it has a correct gap, is undamaged and has no excessive lead deposits,
it may be reinstalled for another service interval.

When fitting spark plugs, ensure all threads are clean and undamaged and they screw into the cylinder head
without undue force - they should screw in using the fingers only - until torque loaded for the final tighten.
Rotate the spark plugs to the next cylinder in the firing order and change position from top to bottom and
bottom to top. Always use new gaskets and the torque called for in the engine maintenance manual.

Ensure that no debris falls into the cylinder when changing plugs.
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After the spark plugs have been removed from the engine, degrease by soaking, electrode end down, in a
container of Varsol, Stoddard solvent, or unleaded gasoline, or spray them clean with a suitable solvent,
being careful not to contaminate the terminal end.

Vapour degreasers can also be used.

Remove the contaminants from the threads on both ends of the plug by brushing with a bristle brush or fine-
wire brush.

Inspect the threads and clean up any that have been damaged, using a fine triangular file. To remove the
lead a bench-mounted unit or a hand-held vibrating tool can be used.

After all of the lead deposits have been broken out, the firing cavity can be lightly cleaned with an abrasive
blast. Keep this to a minimum - a five second blast on the electrodes equates to as much as 300 hours of
engine operation. The spark plug is rotated whilst being cleaned to keep electrode wear to a minimum.

Use only glass beads or aluminium oxide as an abrasive, never silica sand. The abrasive should be fresh
and clean; replace after about 75 to 100 spark plugs. A water trap should be installed in the air-line before
the cleaner.

Once cleaned, inspect the end for erosion, contamination and damage. Replace if necessary.

Warning. Some cleaning agents can be toxic. Always wear protective clothing and goggles and work in a
well ventilated location.

Gapping
This is the next operation where the correct tools must be used and the proper procedure followed - laid
down in the spark plug manuals.

Centre electrodes in fine-wire and massive-electrode spark plugs are never adjusted, moved or tampered
with, as this can cause nose ceramic stress and more serious problems if the spark plug is reinstalled.

Move the ground electrode/s using the correct tool, being sure there is no feeler wire (a special feeler gauge
used for spark plugs) in the gap while the gap is being closed. It is important not to open up the gap if it has
been closed too tight as nose ceramic or centre electrode damage could result.

Care must be exercised when closing the gap of fine-wire plugs ground electrodes, especially the iridium
electrodes, as they are brittle and can fracture easily.

Testing
A bomb tester can be used where the plug is screwed into the testing chamber and 200psi of air or nitrogen
pressure is introduced into the test chamber and a high voltage applied to the plug terminal. If the spark plug
fires consistently, it is considered satisfactory for service.

Another test uses the combination cleaner-tester, which uses a lower air and a lower voltage.

If the plug still fires when the pressure is in the range identified by 'OK' on the gauge, the plug is acceptable
for service; but if it blacks out or is intermittent with any lower pressure, the plug should be replaced.

If the spark plugs are not to be used within 24 hours after they have been cleaned, gapped and tested, they
should be stored in a dry cabinet. Any type of closed container, away from contaminants and heated by a
100 watt light bulb, will keep the cabinet sufficiently dry. A small amount on non-conductive rust-preventing
oil may be applied to the threads of the firing end to protect them and to serve as an anti-seize compound
when reinstalling the plug.

Radial engines with odd numbers of cylinders allow every other spark for each cylinder to have opposite
polarity. Horizontally opposed engines have even numbers of cylinders and either two or four-lobe cams, so
each cylinder sparks with the same polarity every time and this concentrates the wear. Every time th spark
plugs are removed from an engine they should be rotated from top to bottom and to the next cylinder in the
order of firing.

Installation
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Before installation the threads are checked for cleanliness and serviceability. Bronze and steel bushings may
be cleaned out by running a special thread-cleaning tool through them.
If the grooves in the tool are filled with grease, the powdery residue from the threads will stick in it rather than
fall into the cylinder. A thread cleaner should not be used in a heli-coil insert, as there is a danger of the tang
of the heli-coil catching in the slots of the tool.

But a bottlebrush can be used to remove the contaminants from these threads.

Always use a new thread gasket. There is no need to use any anti-seize compound other than the rust-
preventive oil that is already on a new spark plug or put on during spark plug servicing. The spark plug
should screw all the way down using only your fingers. After the plug is finger tight, use a spark plug socket
and torque wrench to get the torque recommended by the engine manufacturer.

The required torque value assumes clean threads and the use of a lubricant or anti-rust oil recommended by
the manufacturer. This will produce about 0.002" (0.5mm) compression of the gasket and a good seal. If too
much torque is applied, there is a possibility that the threads may be overstressed, the shell stretched and
the plug damaged. If too little torque is applied the hot gases can leak out past the threads and damage both
the spark plug and the threads in the cylinder.

Be sure the ignition lead terminal is clean and insert it straight in to prevent damage and then tighten the
lead nut down by hand. Inspect the finished assembly for correct alignment and carry out an engine run -
when all other work is completed on the engine.

Record all the work done in the engine logbook.

ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLIES


Electrical power supplies are not actually in the EASA module 16 syllabus or the
BCAR module 6 syllabus but have been included here as background information to the interface between
instrument transducers, electronic engine controls, FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) etc and the
aircraft electrical power supply.

The electrical power supply systems for piston engined aircraft are not too unlike electrical supply systems
for any aircraft. All aircraft will have a battery (some have more than one) and a generator system - usually
one generator per engine. The generator will be either a dc generator or an ac generator.

If it is a dc generator then it is likely to be belt driven (but not necessarily) and the whole aircraft is dc. If there
are any ac driven equipment then inverters (rotary or static) will be provided.

For ac generating systems transformer rectifier units (TRUs) are provide to supply dc - for dc services and
for battery charging.

In general ignition systems are self contained unless they are electronically controlled when the control
computer will require power together with some of the system components.

Figure 17 shows a typical small aircraft dc electrical power supply system. It is not typical in one respect -
there is a supply to FADEC and most single engined piston aircraft are not fitted with FADEC. It is based on
the Centurion Diesel engine. Study the drawing and note the following:
 By regulation there is a maximum limiting current that can be drawn by all non FADEC services.
 The FADEC must be capable of working off the battery or generator supply.
 The battery and generator supplies are redundant independent supplies. All services will work off the
battery or the generator.
 The generator's output is 90A 14V.
 The battery has to have a minimum capacity (35Ah) to operate all services for at least two hours.
 All non essential services can be switched out in an emergency by a single switch to the main bus.
 Excitation circuit to the generator - gives initial excitation to the generator for start-up - comes from a
small dedicated battery.
 Glow plug supply for the Diesel engine cylinders. Small glow plugs fitted to each cylinder to pre-
warm the cylinder for start-up. Ensures combustion of the fuel on cold starts.
 Supplies to the main bus, starter circuit, fuel pump, FADED and FADEC displays.

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Fig. 17 ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL


Electronic engine control may be divided into:
1. Spark ignition control.
2. Fuel injection control.
3. Engine management control, FADEC for example.

Some engines may be fitted with either 1 or 2 above whilst the more modern engines have all the
parameters of the engine controlled and monitored electronically by an engine management control system
(3).

In very general terms the engine parameters are monitored by transducers which send their data to a pre-
programmed computer which then sends signals to control the engine.
These systems are used in place of the conventional mechanically operated systems because:

1. They are lighter.


2. They are more reliable.
3. Quicker response times.
4. They can take some of the work-load off the pilot (maximum and minimum engine limits, for
example, are already programmed into the computer).
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5. The digital electronic system can interface more easily to electronic displays and other electronic
systems.
6. Can react quicker to changes in engine operating conditions.
7. Will not allow the pilot to operate the engine outside its limits.
8. Can include automatic fault registering and fault location.
9. Records all engine parameters - running times etc.
10. Some parts of the system already exist in most engines such as transducers for temperature
measurement, rpm indication etc.

SPARK IGNITION CONTROL


Figure 18 shows a simplified system for controlling the spark ignition. The computer (Electronic Control Unit -
ECU) is effectively an electronic switch. The battery voltage is increased by the use of an Oscillator
Transformer Rectifier (OTR) to about 400V where it is used to charge up a capacitor. When the capacitor is
discharged by the electronic switch there is a rapid fall in current in the primary coil. This will cause a rapid
rise in the voltage in the secondary coil ready for the distributor to connect the circuit to earth through the
appropriate spark plug. The high voltage (and therefore the high current) across the spark plug gap will
produce a "fat" spark.

Fig. 18 SIMPLIFIED ELECTRONIC IGNITION CONTROL

The OTR effectively takes the dc battery voltage and by the use of an oscillator converts it into a form of ac.
The ac can now be fed through a transformer and the voltage increased. After the (ac) voltage has been
increased it is rectified to dc so it can be used to charge up the capacitor.

Figure 19 shows the system with more detail showing the various i into/from the ECU. These include:
Power supply.

 rpm sensor. This can be a reluctance sensor in that it consists of a magnet around which is wound a
coil. It is fitted near a ferromagnetic toothed wheel which is part of the crank. As the wheel rotates so
the teeth will change the reluctance as they pass the sensor and it will produce an ac supply in the
coil the frequency of which varies with rpm. The coil is connected to a circuit to supply this data to
the computer. Its actual frequency is rpm x number of teeth.

 Load sensor. This picks up inlet manifold pressure. If the pressure is sent direct to the ECU (via a
pipe-line) then there is a pressure transducer in the ECU - if not there will be a pressure transducer
fitted to the inlet manifold.

 Knock sensor. This is located within the engine block to pick-up any knocking (detonation). It is a
small piezoelectric accelerometer that sends signals to the ECU. The vibrations it picks up include
valve clatter and piston knock so its signals are put through a filter in the ECU. If any knocking is
detected then the ignition is retarded.
 Temperature sensor. Senses the coolant temperature so the ECU can monitor the engine condition.

 The ECU will have logic data stored in the ROM (Read Only Memory) which has been obtained
through engine testing, and other data already known to the design engineer. This basic information
may be called a "map" and contains many engine parameters together with their corresponding
"other" parameters.

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Fig. 19 ELECTRONIC COIL IGNITION CONTROL

For example there will be stored, say, 20 rpm settings with each one having, say, 20 load settings. For each
one of these combinations there will be specified all the other engine settings. There would be many
thousands of combinations.

Fig. 20 SIMPLIFIED COMPUTER OPERATION

Data is sent to the ECU (temperature, knock, rpm etc) and converted to digital data (using an A/D converter)
to be stored in RAM (Random Access Memory). Here it is worked on by data from the ROM and an output
signal is made. The output signal comes from a heavy duty transistor to control the primary winding current.
The switch off point will control the ignition timing and the switch on point will control the dwell period.

The distributor system is similar to that already described.

Figure 19 shows a system for timing the spark and more advanced systems also control the distribution of
the spark - sometimes called a Distributorless System. In very general terms each spark plug has its own
inductive coil fitted directly to the spark plug. There are power supply connections for the primary winding
and control connections to the ECU. In some engines these coils may be shared between two cylinders.
When the spark is initiated it will occur on two cylinders -the compression stroke of one and the exhaust
stroke of the other (cylinders 1 and 4 for example). The spark on the compression stroke cylinder does its
job, spark on the exhaust stroke is wasted. Sometimes called a Lost Spark system.
MISSING PICTURE
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Fig. 21 ELECTRONIC FUEL CONTROL

FUEL CONTROL
Some engines have an electronic fuel control system. Figure 21 shows a simplified system for a multi-point
(direct injection, one injector per cylinder) fuel system. It would not be too unlike a system for a single injector
system where the injector would be close to the throttle valve.

Note the sensor/control inputs to the ECU and the electrical connection to the throttle. Note also that there is
ignition control. Most engines that have electronic fuel control would also have electronic ignition control.

Figure 22 shows a more comprehensive system. Take a minute or two to study the details and make sure
you can understand how it works. There should be no need to commit the details to memory.
missing picture
Fig. 22 FULL ENGINE ELECTRONIC CONTROL

FADEC CONTROL
Full Authority Digital Engine Control was originally designed for use in aircraft jet engines and has been
around for many years. It is a form of an electronic engine management system which has recently been
introduced into aircraft piston engines. In general terms, for aircraft piston engines, it means:

 The engine (and propeller, turbocharger waste gate and other engine related controls) are controlled
by a digital computer. It has full authority over the control and operation of the engine.

It receives analogue (or digital) signals, converts them to digital data which it can "work on" and sends
signals (normally analogue) to various electrically operated valves to control the engine rpm, boost pressure,
propeller settings, idle, top rpm, etc.

 The pilot's input signals include ignition switch, throttle setting and boost setting. These are all sent
to the computer as an analogue electrical signal.

 The engine/propeller/turbocharger will not be allowed to work


o outside their normal operating parameters because these limits are programmed into the
software of the computer.

In general the system comprises inputs to the computer, the computer, and outputs from the computer.
Figure 23 shows a typical system with the FADEC computer in the centre of the drawing. Note that the
system shown is a general arrangement. On gasoline engines there would be no glow plugs (or control) and
for Diesel engines there would be no ignition control.

The FADEC (and all control systems) has two main control loops: Closed Control Loop and Open Control
Loop.

A closed control loop is one where the input signal is sent to the component anc( / feed-back information,
from the signal, is sent back to the signal origination for signal modification. This may be called negative
feed-back control.

An example of this system would be the throttle control. The pilot would put a load input to the engine via the
thrust lever and this would be summed with feedback data on engine rpm, propeller torque values etc to
modify the actual rpm setting sent to the engine.

An open loop system is where a signal is sent to a component and no information is sent back to the origin
for signal modification. These are normally discreet signals, eg ignition ON/OFF, valve OPEN/CLOSED, glow
plug ON/OFF etc.
MISSING PICTURE
Fig. 23 TYPICAL FADEC SYSTEM
MISSING PICTURE

Fig. 24 CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM


MISSING PICTURE
Fig. 25 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

Figure 23 shows a typical FADEC system with the FADEC controlling the engine. Many of the
sensors/inputs/control outputs are redundant duplicated systems (not shown in the drawing). The FADEC
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computer is also a redundant duplicate^W unit (not shown in the drawing). Both units are powered when the
aircraft electrical system is on and both are operational at all times but only one is active - normally FADEC
A with FADEC B being on standby. Both units run a continuous health check. If the health of FADEC A is not
100% then the system automatically switches to FADEC B and the FADEC A warning light will flash. If the
system then detects a problem with FADEC B, its warning light will flash and the system will automatically
switch to the healthiest FADEC. All these details are automatically entered electronically in the event log.

The flashing light and the event log can only be re-set by a qualified engineer.

The pilot can select FADEC B if he/she wishes. In this case it will stay selected at B and there will be no
automatic switching to A if a health check shows that A is the healthiest.

With both lights flashing it is strongly recommended that the pilot lands the aircraft as soon as possible.

After a FADEC warning it is recommended to check all plug and sockets, ie remove each plug, inspect, and
re-insert correctly ensuring it is firmly in place.

If a significantly incorrect parameter is sent to the FADEC from any sensor it will recognise this, assume that
the sensor has failed and substitute a pre-determined default value - just to keep the engine running. When a
sensor is assumed to go down it is given a health code. Some sensors are more important than others and
their failure health codes will reflect this, eg:

 rpm sensor failed health code 1


 oil temperature sensor failed health code 8

These codes (together with dozens of others) can be viewed/down loaded using a lap-top computer
connected into the system by the maintenance engineer.

The inputs into the FADEC include:

General
 Electrical power.
 rpm.
 Throttle setting (load setting).

Engine
 Carburettor air - static pressure, dynamic pressure temperature.
 Engine oil temperature.
 Gearbox oil temperature.
 Coolant temperature.
 Engine fuel supply pressure/flow/temperature.
 Propeller torque.

Tests
 BIT switches.
 Lap-top computers.
 Software up-dates.

Ambient air
 Temperature.
 Pressure - Pitot and static.

Outputs include:
 Fuel injector/s control.
 Propeller control valve
 Fuel pressure control valve.
 Turbocharger waste gate control valve.
 Glow plug control (Diesel engines).
 Ignition control (gasoline engines).
 Data to other on-board computers - if fitted.
 Data stored in the FADEC itself.

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The throttle (or load lever) input is usually via an analogue input from a variable resistor type transducer
fitted behind the throttle lever When the pilot moves the throttle a voltage proportional to lever movement is
sent to the computer where it is converted to a digital signal.

Here the signal is modified by parameters such as air temperature, barometric pressure and engine
temperature (all digitally) and the resulting outputs (analogue) are sent to the fuel control units, propeller
pitch control, boost and waste gate controls and (for gasoline engines) ignition control.

Fig. 26 THE FADEC COMPUTER

The calculation of the output settings in relation to the load lever settings is worked out as a three
dimensional map which may be shown as a three dimensional graph on a drawing.

Figure 26 shows an actual FADEC computer. Note that it is made up to 2 ECUs (FADEC A and FADEC B)
which are connected by a board which contains the switching relays and the connections for the wiring
harness.

There are pipeline connections to both units for barometric and manifold pressures which means there will
be pressure transducers within each unit to convert these analogue pressure signals to analogue electrical
signals. These electrical signals are then converted to digital signals in an A/D (analogue to digital)
converter.

On some systems these pressure signals could be converted to electrical signals^ the tapping location on
the actual component. This means this data will be senti the computers via the wiring harness.

FADEC MAINTENANCE
This can include:
 BIT (Built In Test) checks.
 Functional checks.
 Event log/diagnostic checker/data down loading.
 Component replacement.
 Software updates/modifications, and are all laid down in the manual.

BIT Checks
These will vary from engine to engine. On some systems individual components will have a BIT button (on
some of the larger aircraft). If there is a defect (on some aircraft) then a light will come on if all is well, on
others, fault codes are given on a small screen for individual faults.

When the system is powered up the ECU normally goes through a self-test programme.

When a system/component fails a BIT check then the component/cabling/ plugs/sockets/PCBs etc are
changed and the test repeated.

Functional Checks
Normally requires an engine run and a set procedure is carried out - eg:

1. Start engine, allow warm-up time and set to idle.


2. Press and hold down BIT button for the entire test.
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3. FADEC A and B lights should come on and rpm increases.


4. The system switches to FADEC B and FADEC B light comes on.
5. Propeller control coarsens the prop and rpm decreases.
6. The system now switches to FADEC A. FADEC A light comes on and rpm increases.
7. Prop control is excited and rpm decreases.
8. FADEC A light goes off. Engine reverts to idle. Test is completed.
9. Release BIT button.

The above procedure is carried out before each flight.

Other tests on the engine can include a throttle slam check. At idle the throttle is pushed forward quickly and
the time taken for the engine to reach max rpm is noted. Carried out on FADEC A and FADEC B settings.

The rpm should rise quickly and smoothly to maximum (say 2300rpm). Note idle and max rpm's and load
indicator values (90 to 100%) and record in the engine log book

During all the above tests the engine cockpit indicators should be checked for correct readings etc.

The Event Log/Diagnostic Checker/Data Down Loading

The event log is an electronic record of events related to the engine. It can be checked using a lap-top
computer and shows the date, time, duration and nature of each event.

The diagnostic checker also uses a lap-top computer and shows the health for all the components in the
system.

Data down-loading uses data in the On-board Logger. It would normally only be used when investigating
difficult faults.

Component Replacement
Carried out by a qualified Bl engineer (or any person who has dispensation from the CAA) in accordance
with the AMM - followed by a functional test. Components that may be replaced include:

 Power supply cables.


 Data transmission cables - including any arinc cables.
 Terminals, plugs and sockets.
 Lamps (BIT and warning lamps for example).
 1 Sensor pipelines.
 Transducers.
 The FADEC unit/s.
 PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards).

Software Updates/Modifications
When the system is initially certified by the CAA it will have a certain standard of hardware and software. At
some later date it may be found necessary to update/up-grade these.

For hardware up-dates (or modifications) the appropriate component is replaced (the FADEC itself, a PCB, a
cable, a transducer etc). For software updates a laptop will be connected to the system or a CD placed in the
CD drive of the system.

All the equipment used must be approved and the software must come from an approved software supplier -
normally the engine manufacturer. This process can be carried out by a suitably qualified Bl or B2 licensed
engineer.

After any modification of the system/software loading a full functional test must be carried out - which will
normally include an engine run.

All the above is carried out in accordance with the AMM and must be fully documented and signed for in the
engine log book.

Book 4
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HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK


Written for the B1.2 and B1.4 person studying for the CAA EASA part 66 licence.

This book covers a variety of subjects including fire prevention systems. All the subjects are listed in the
syllabus except for fire prevention but we feel that it should be covered. It is included in all the airframe
syllabuses (modules 11A, 11B and 12) and the jet engine syllabus (module 15) so the CAA say that it has
been covered adequately.

We feel that, just in case the CAA ask questions on the subject, and to make the subject of 'piston engines'
complete we should include at least some material on fire preventative measures.

We recommend that you read through the subject and understand how the systems work but do not try to
commit the details to memory.

As for all the other subjects in the book - these are in the syllabus - so read, understand and digest.

Note. The following CAA publications are related to piston engines.


 Leaflet 11-39 CAP 562 (was AN4). Propellers approved for use on civil aircraft manufactured in the
UK.
 Generic Requirement 1 (GR 1) of CAP 747. Starter circuits for aircraft with maximum authorised
weight of 5,700kg must be protected by battery master switch, or starter isolation switch, or two
starter relays, or a warning light to indicate starter circuit still energised.
 GR 15. Light aircraft maintenance schedules. Re-issue of.
 GR 17. Maintenance requirements for VP propellers installed in aircraft holding a UK C of A.

ENGINE FIRE/OVERHEAT DETECTION SYSTEMS

Types Of Fire Extinguishing Systems


Fire extinguishing systems can be divided into fixed, portable, and mixed systems.

The term 'fixed' refers to a permanently installed system of extinguisher bottles, distribution pipes and
controls provided for the protection of the engine and other systems on the aircraft.

A portable system refers to hand held fire extinguishers provided in the cockpit. (Refer to module 7 book 1
book entitled 'Safety Precautions' for details on hand held extinguishers).

A mixed system is rare and is where the distribution pipelines are fixed in the appropriate compartment and
coupled to adapter points within the cabin which a portable extinguisher is plugged into when required.

Extinguishants On Fixed Systems


Methyl Bromide (MB). Boils at about 5°C and is used for the protection of power plants. Highly toxic and
must not be used in confined spaces such as cabins. The effects of breathing the vapours may not be
immediately apparent, but serious or even fatal after-effects may be sustained.

Not very common, though might be fitted to engines of older aircraft where the engines are away from the
fuselage.

Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF). This is semi toxic and is particularly effective against electrical and
liquid fires. It is used in engine fire zones and portable extinguishers. It is gaseous at normal temperatures
and condenses to a liquid at -4°C.

Bromotrifluoromethane (BTM). Similar to BCF.


BCF and BTM are very effective extinguishants, however, they are halogenated hydrocarbons, and their
discharge into the atmosphere seriously affects the ozone layer. They are being withdrawn and research is
being carried out to find an effective replacement.

Chemical Dry Powder. Produces a dry powder discharge. Non toxic though it can cause choking. Is available
from manufacturers of extinguisher systems though not yet common on aircraft.

General

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Fire zones will be designated in the aircraft where there is a potential fire risk. On small aircraft this may well
involve only the engine/s. Each engine will have a fire-proof bulkhead between it and the rest of the aircraft
and may contain a fire detection system and an extinguishant application system (extinguisher bottle/bottles
or fire bottles).

Fire detection systems may be used for overheat warning along hot-air ducts, cabin heaters etc.

Passenger compartment linings and furniture materials, and cargo compartment interior linings must meet
the fire resistant specifications as laid down in EASA CS 23 (small aircraft), CS 25 (large aircraft) and CAP
747.

FIXED FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS


Regulations laid down in CS 25 state that aircraft in the transport category must have provision to tackle a
fire at least twice in any engine fire zone (except for combustion heater fire zones). In some cases two
bottles per fire zone with attendant pipework are provided whilst in others a 'two shot' system is used with
one bottle per zone and a 'cross-over' pipe-work system (figure 1).

The 'two shot' system with one bottle per zone can only be used in multi engined aircraft.

With reference to figures 1 and 3. Each fire bottle has 2 discharge heads and the fire switches in the flight
deck are supplied with 28V dc from the essential or hot bus bar. When the extinguisher switch is operated
current will flow to the appropriate fire bottle head detonator unit/cartridge unit/squib (and to earth) and to the
warning lamp/indicator fuse.

The detonator unit will operate allowing extinguishant to go to the fire zone via the directional flow valve.

Should the fire persist or re start then the bottle from the other fire zone can be discharged by moving the
switch to the 'shot 2' position. This will cause one of the detonator units on the other bottle to operate
allowing extinguishant to flow via the directional flow valve to the fire.

In the drawing an inertia switch is fitted that operates if the aircraft is put through more than say 3g (as would
happen in a crash landing). May be fitted to more sophisticated piston engined aircraft.
MISSING PICTURE
Fig. 1 A TWO SHOT SYSTEM (ONE BOTTLE PER FIRE ZONE)

On some aircraft a rubber covered crash strip may be fitted beneath the aircraft. If the fuselage touches the
ground the two elements of the strip come into contact to complete a circuit - operating all the extinguishers.

When operated the pressure in the pipelines (on some aircraft) pushes out a small plastic discharge indicator
disc on the outside of the fuselage/engine nacelle (figure 2). This allows outside verification that the system
has been operated. If the disc is found missing then a check should be made on the rubber seal inside the
unit.

If rubber seal is still their then it is possible that the disc has become detached by the airflow and needs a
replacement fitted.

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Fig. 2 BOTTLE DISCHARGE INDICATOR

If the rubber seal is missing then there is a good chance that the system has been operated - of course there
should be other indications also - pilot report Tech Log entry - signs of a fire - cockpit fire handle position -
fault computer etc.

Should the extinguisher bottle over-pressurise due to high ambient temperature conditions then a disc will
burst in the extinguisher head (to prevent the bottle exploding) and all the extinguishant will be lost over-
board via the discharge indicator disc.

Fig. 3 TYPICAL TWIN HEADED EXTINGUISHER

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Directional Flow Valves


These are a type of non-return valve which only allows extinguishant to the fire zone irrespective of which
bottle has been fired. An arrow on the valve body allows for correct alignment when fitting.

MAINTENANCE

Extinguishers
Check that the bottle is of the correct type as laid down in the AMM and/or the IPC, that all markings on the
container are legible and that the bottle is securely attached. Check the bottle is within life (bottle date
stamped). Check for signs of leakage, corrosion, dents, scores, and damage. The state of charge should be
checked by carrying out a weight check and/or checking the pressure gauge on the bottle (if fitted).

The fully charged weight of the bottle is stamped on the bottle neck or on the bottle itself. On some aircraft
this weight includes the blanking caps but excludes the cartridge units, on other aircraft the weight includes
the cartridge units (check the AMM). Typical weight tolerances are ±4%, ±0.1 Ibs.

Check the discharge indicator. For example, with the pin type, that the pin is flush with the cap. Check the
threads for security, damage, and locking. On assembly where specified use the approved grease, eg
barium chromate grease.

Detonator Units/Squabs
These are dangerous so handle with care. Never put then in your pocket. Always point the discharge end
away from you and other people. Never torch the electrical connector ends - you could set it off.

Check detonator heads/cartridge units (sometimes called squibs) for corrosior damage, and security of
attachment. Check electrical cables for security of attachment and correct fitting. Check date of manufacture
stamped on the unit and check the life of the unit as laid down in the AMM.

Check detonators for continuity and insulation. Remember to use safety test meters for this purpose with the
detonator off the aircraft, removed from the bottle and facing away from any personnel.

Note. Early detonators were wired to the aircraft using a terminal block on the detonator head and
compression fittings. Double check- particularly on the 'two shot one bottle per fire zone' system that
detonators are correctly wired.

The wires should have identification codes which must be correlated to the aircraft wiring diagram. If they
have no codes or they have been obliterated then an electrical system function check must be carried out -
with the detonator wires disconnected.

The reason for this check is to make sure that the correct pair of wires are fitted to the correct detonator - so
that when the pilot selects 'shot one' he gets 'shot one' and not 'shot two' which would mean the
extinguishant going to the wrong fire zone.

On most modern fire systems the detonators are connected by a plug and socket and the pins are so
arranged that incorrect connection cannot be made.

QUESTION How would you check that the correct cartridge unit is being fired when the
appropriate switch is selected in the cockpit? (5 mins)

ANSWER Consult the AMM. Disconnect all cartridge units. Connect a


voltmeter (set to dc and the correct range) to the wires leading to the unit in
question. Ensure that power is on. Operate the 'fire one' switch for that unit. The
voltmeter should show 28V (or thereabouts). If it does not, check which unit is being
signalled. Ensure that all wiring is correctly connected.

Reconfigure the aircraft as per the AMM.

On some aircraft, BIT checks may be available to verify correct cartridge unit
signalling.

Cables
Inspect cables for chafing, moisture ingress, fraying and condition of insulation. Check for correct support
and clearance. If necessary carry out continuity and insulation tests.
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Pipelines
Before installation the pipes should be blown through with clean dry air or nitrogen. After installation the pipe
system should be pressure tested in accordance with the AMM. Check pipes, spray rings, threads, and
unions for damage, corrosion, and security of attachment.

Valves
Should be checked for corrosion, damage, security of attachment, cleanliness, freedom of moving parts, and
correct location with respect to extinguishant flow. When fitting new valves always fit new seals.

Discharge Indicator Disc


Check for corrosion, damage and security of attachment. Check that the plastic disc is secure and in position
and the sealing plug is in the pipe.

Inertia Switches
Always set/activate after fitting to the aircraft and before putting power on. If you put power on before
pressing the SET button in then all bottles will be discharged. Refer to the AMM.

General - Check that all locking is correct and secure.

STORAGE
Extinguishers and detonators should be stored in a room, on shelves, in their packaging with blanking caps
fitted. They should be out of direct sunlight, in a corrosive free atmosphere at normal room temperature.
They should be inspected annually and at the end of their life (normally 5 years) they must be returned to the
manufacturers. Should be issued in strict rotation - first in first out - and records kept.

FIRE & OVERHEAT DETECTION


The system should be able to:

 Show when a fire starts and when it stops.


 Not give spurious warnings if it fails.
 Be capable of being checked by the flight crew from the flight deck.
 Provide both audible and visual warnings, with cancellation of the audible warning with
automatic reset.

There are several types of fire and overheat detection systems and the following pages gives a brief
description of some of them. The detectors can be divided into two main groups - unit type and continuous
type (fire-wire).

Fig. 4 TYPES OF DETECTORS

UNIT TYPE DETECTORS


These are used in fire zones singly or more than one to give better coverage. In some cases they are used
in conjunction with a continuous detector.

The Melting Link Switch. This consists of a pair of contacts held apart by a mechanism controlled by a fusible
plug. At a known temperature the plug will melt allowing the contacts to close and completing a circuit to a
warning light in the cockpit. Not common. Not resettable.

The Thermocouple Type. The principle of operation of this unit is described in the book in this series on
Piston Engine Instruments and can be used in the detection of fire and overheat situations.

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The couple puts out a voltage when subjected to heat and when a particular pd value is reached in the fire
detection circuit a relay will operate or an electronic circuit will operate to cause a visual/aural warning in the
flight deck.

When the fire goes out, the pd drops and the re lay/electronic circuit will cancel the warning.

The Differential Expansion Type. This unit consists of a switch in the fire zone connected between the dc
essential battery bus bar and the warning system in the cockpit (figure 5).

Fig. 5 DIFFERENTIAL EXPANSION FIRE WARNING SWITCH

The contacts are held apart on a spring-bow assembly which is secured at either end of an alloy steel
expansion tube. When the unit experiences heat the barrel expands length-wise. It's coefficient of linear
expansion is greater than that of the spring-bow assembly, thus the spring-bow is caused to straighten and
the contacts to close - causing a cockpit warning to come on.

QUESTION What happens when the unit cools down? (2 mins).

ANSWER The barrel will contract (more than the spring-bow), and cause the contacts to open,
thus switching off the warning.
The unit is adjustable by the manufacturers only and is adjusted to operate at different temperatures. The
units look very similar but their part numbers relate to their operating temperature, it is therefore most
important to check that the correct unit is being fitted in the correct location by reference to it's part number
and the IPC/AMM.

Light Detectors Units. These use photo-electric light detectors that converts visible light into an electric
current. Their electronic circuitry analyses the light spectrum and will only give a warning when it detects light
coming from a hydrocarbon fire. They are self resetable.

CONTINUOUS TYPE DETECTORS (FIRE-WIRE)


For larger fire zones a number of unit type detectors would have to be used, so
it is often better to use a single continuous type.

Gas Operated Fire-wire. Sometimes called the Systron-Donner system it consists of a sealed firewire
connected at one end to a pressure operated responder. The construction of the firewire consists of a small
bore tube inside of which is housed a titanium hydride core. Outside the core, but within the firewire is helium
gas.

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Fig. 6 GAS OPERATED FIREWIRE - GENERAL LAYOUT

Fig. 7 CROSS SECTION OF FIRE-WIRE

When the fire-wire is subjected to an increase in temperature the pressure of the helium gas increases. This
is sensed by the responder and when it reaches the responder setting value the switch closes and connects
a 28V dc supply to the aircraft warning circuits.

When the temperature decreases, the pressure drops and the warning circuits are de-activated. This may be
used for overheat and fire detection.

When the firewire is subjected to a local high temperature, such as a small flame, the increase in pressure of
the helium gas alone may be insufficient to operate the responder. In this condition the central titanium
hydride core will give off a considerable amount of hydrogen gas which increases the helium gas pressure.
This operates the responder.

As soon as the temperature drops below a certain value the titanium hydride core re-absorbs the hydrogen
gas, the pressure drops in the helium gas and the warning signal is cancelled. This is used as the fire
detection mode.

The above cycle is repeatable indefinitely.

The fire-wire is pre-pressurised so that a pressure integrity switch will operate should the fire-wire develop a
leak. This will show-up as a fault in the cockpit.

Electrical Fire-wire. This forms a continuous stainless steel (or inconel) loop fire-wire around the fire zone
with both ends of this small diameter tube entering a control box.

Modern technology exists for the single loop to pass around several fire zones with the electronic control box
able to detect where, in the loop, the overheat has occurred. Most aircraft have one loop - usually duplicated
- for each fire zone.

Fig. 8 OPERATION OF GAS OPERATED FIREWIRE

The element has one or two central electrodes which are insulated from the outer tube by a temperature
sensitive material. In some aircraft the outer tube element is supported on special metal supports and may
be protected within perforated stainless steel tubes. It is more usually supported in rubber covered 'P' clips to
prevent chafing.
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There are basically three types of electrical fire wire - resistive type, capacitive type and resistive/capacitor
type.

With the resistance type the central electrode has a positive voltage applied to it and the outer case is
grounded. As the temperature rises the insulation breaks down and current will start to flow from the central
electrode to the outside of the fire wire - to earth.

Fig. 9 RESISTANCE TYPE FIREWIRE DETECTION CIRCUIT

This current will cause a relay to operate in the control box and cause warnings to come on in the cockpit.

When the fire is out and the temperature drops the insulation will regain its former properties, the current will
cease to flow, the relay will open and the warnings will be cancelled.
1
When the 'press to test switch is pressed in the cockpit a relay is operated within the detector unit which
sends a dc current through the complete circuit. This will only happen if the circuit is complete, and all
electrical supplies are connected and on (usually both a dc and an ac supply is required).

The ac supply provides power for the fire wire, the dc supply for the relay, and the dc test for the test circuit.
When the 'press to test' button is operated (from the flight deck) a current is passed through the control box
and the complete length of the central electrode of the fire wire to operate the warning lamp in the flight deck.

Should the electrode be broken or the control box not work correctly or any supply be missing then the
warning lamp will not operate. With a break in the fire wire, fire detection is not affected but 'press to test' is.

Capacitance Type Fire-wire. Capacitance is the ability to store charge, and the central electrode and shell of
the fire wire form a capacitor with the insulation or dielectric between. The capacitance of a capacitor
depends on several things and one is the value of the dielectric (dielectric constant). This changes with
temperature. As temperature rises so does the capacitance of the fire wire.

The core is supplied with half wave ac current which the wire stores during the first half of the cycle and
returns to the control box during the second half.

With an increase in temperature the returned current becomes greater, and at a pre-set value operates a
relay to trigger the warning systems in the cockpit.

A 'press to test' facility is provided. If the wiring or fire wire are shorted to earth then a false warning does not
occur.

Resistive/capacitive type. With this type of fire wire the impedance as well as the resistance is monitored.
With an increase in temperature the resistance drops and the impedance becomes more reactive. When this
happens the detector unit registers this as a fire.

With some aircraft the signals from the above systems go to an electronics card within a rack mounted unit
(computer). This will process the signal and send warnings signals etc to all other appropriate systems/units.

ENGINE MOUNTINGS
Engines maybe mounted on a tubular framework. This (usually) welded steel framework is rigidly attached to
strong points on the fireproof bulkhead in front of the cockpit or through the fireproof bulkhead to the
fuselage framed structure (longerons) or wing nacelle structure which is bolted directly to the front spar (twin
engined aircraft).

Fig. 10 TYPICAL SINGLE ENGINED AIRCRAFT IN-LINE ENGINE MOUNTING

The engine is mounting on this steel structure and supported on anti-vibration mountings.

Some (often inline) engines are mounted in bearers which provide four attachment points in a horizontal
plane. The engine bearers are often welded tubular structures running down each side of the engine and
attached through the bulkhead at the rear, but may also be an extension of the lower fuselage or nacelle
structure.

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Most radial piston engines are mounted on a vertical tubular steel ring which itself is attached to a tubular
steel structure attached to the main airframe structure (front fuselage bulkhead or main spar if wing
mounted).

Fig. 11 TYPICAL RADIAL ENGINE MOUNTING ARRANGEMENT

The engine is usually attached to the mounting ring, bearers, or airframe structure by means of flexible
vibration mountings. These are designed for each engine and transfer propeller thrust and inertia loads to
the airframe but limit the transfer of propeller/engine vibration. The load is transmitted through the rubber in
shear or compression and a typical mounting for an engine is shown.

Fig. 12 ANTI VIBRATION MOUNTING

Engine mountings must meet the appropriate CS specification, eg CS 23 (Normal, Utility, Acrobatic and
Commuter Aircraft) and CS 27 (Small Rotorcraft).

The engine must be electrically bonded to the rest of the aircraft so bonding strips are fitted where-ever anti-
vibration mountings are used. On most engines there is a bonding strip at each mounting position. The strips
may be of braided copper to allow for flexing of the mounting and after engine fitment an electrical bonding
check must be carried out.

When fitting the engine:


 Always consult the AMM.
 Inspect anti-vibration mounts and mounting structure for deterioration. If found change or investigate
further. Inspect any structure that will not be accessible after engine fitment.
 Use new anti vibration mounts-unless allowed by the AMM. fcf
 Align engine carefully with bearers (engine supported in a harness-using a crane or hoist). Take note
of all the safety precautions when raising heavy loads - module 7 book 1.
 Lower engine and align each attachment point (on the main engine casing usually) onto its rubber
anti-vibration mounting.
 Locate bonding strips and insert attachment bolts.
 Tighten nuts onto attachment bolts to correct torque value.
 Lock as laid down in the AMM.
 Carry out bonding check.
 Fit all engine controls, fuel lines, ignition systems, electrical connections, pipe and ducting
connections etc.
 Carry out engine controls rigging checks.
 Carry out appropriate Duplicate Inspections.
 Panel-up engine.
 Carry out engine run and adjustments as necessary.
 Complete all documentation.

ENGINE CONTROLS
Linkage between the cockpit controls and the engine provides for operation of the throttle, mixture control,
propeller governor, and oil or air temperature control flaps etc. On light aircraft this linkage is usually
mechanical, and in some cases the temperature control flaps may be electrically actuated and may be
automatically controlled.

On later aircraft the engine may be controlled electronically and all functions (mixture control, VP propeller
etc), taken care of automatically. In this case it is possible that there is no direct mechanical connection
between the thrust lever (throttle) and propeller control and the engine.

The thrust lever/propeller governor control lever position is transmitted to the engine electronic control
unit/FADEC unit via an electrical signal with the onl; connection between the cockpit and the engine being an
electrical cable.

Mechanical connections between the cockpit controls and the engine can be b] various methods, such as
rods and levers, pulleys and cables, cables containe within a rigid or flexible conduit, or, in the case of some
controls, by means of single-acting cable and return spring. Typical systems include Teleflex and Bowden
cable control systems.

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The rod and cable ends terminate in fork or eye-end fittings for connection to the associated lever or control,
and these afford the means of adjusting the linkage so that movement of the cockpit control lever
corresponds to engine control movement - both in range and sense.

When pulleys and cables are used the cable ends are joined by turnbuckles,
which are used to adjust cable tension. Initial setting of the linkage is usually by placing the cabin and engine
controls in the required positions, then adjusting the length of the connecting linkage to suit these positions;
the inspection holes in the end fittings should be used to check that sufficient thread is engaged to provide a
safe connection.

In some cases rigging pins or graduated quadrants may be used to fix the positions of the levers or pulleys in
the system, before connecting the rods and cables. Positive locking such as split pins or locking wire are
used on all parts

Remember that where chains and sprockets are used the control chain links must be locked with a positive
locking system - not a spring clip.

Any powered actuators are usually electrically powered and take the form of a screw jack, which is driven
through a reduction gear by an electric motor. The direction of rotation of the motor depends on the electric
current direction, anc this is controlled by a switch. When automatic operation is provided, the manual switch
is by-passed and current is directed to a temperature/pressure sensitive switch to control the actuator.

Setting or Rigging the Controls

If the system is a long complicated run with cables and pulleys etc - the general procedure is as follows:

1. Refer to the AMM.


2. Set all levers, quadrants, pulleys to neutral using rigging pins.
3. Adjust cable tensions.
4. Check that all cables, chains, etc, have equal amounts of free cable/chain either side of the
pulley/sprocket.
5. Check alignment of cables/pulleys.
6. Remove rigging pins - recheck cable tensions.
7. Carry out sense check, eg cockpit throttle forward, throttle lever on carburettor to the increased
power position.
8. Check range of movement - can be checked with a rule, and adjust the stops if necessary.
9. Carry out static friction check using a spring balance.
10. Check correct operation of any interconnection of controls.
11. Check all adjusters are in safety and correctly locked.
12. Carry out a Duplicate Inspection.
13. Record all work in the Airframe Log Book.

Note. For more information on control cables and remote control systems please refer to LBP Module 6 Book
6.

THE AIR INTAKE SYSTEM


If fitted, the air intake system comprises a smooth-walled duct allowing ram air to the carburettor or injector,
and generally includes an air filter and an alternative air flap. The duct may be separate from the engine
cowling or, particularly in the case of radial engines, an integral part of the upper or lower portions of the
cowling. The duct may pass over or under the engine, depending on whether an up-draught or down-draught
carburettor is fitted. On light aircraft the air filter is usually located at the front of the duct and, in normal
circumstances, filters all incoming air. Operation of the alternative air flap may be either manual or automatic.
Joints and mating surfaces in the air intake are sealed to prevent air leakage and often include a flexible
bellows type joint at the carburettor to accommodate engine vibration.

The alternative air flap is operated (manually or automatically) if (a) the air filter becomes blocked or (b) if the
intake gets iced-up. If icing is a problem then the air duct might be de-iced/anti-iced using fluid type systems
or internal cowling hot air or electrical heater mats fitted in the in take/ducting.

If icing is a problem the intake will be anti-iced - usually. This prevents ice formation. If the duct is de-iced
(which is the removal of the ice after it has formed) then provision is made in the intake to allow the ice
debris overboard. It must not be allowed to enter the carburettor/engine.

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THE EXHAUST SYSTEM


The exhaust system is designed to carry the exhaust gases from the engine and discharge them safely
overboard. The exhaust may be used as a source of warm air for the carburettor during icing conditions, and
to provide cabin heating. A typical exhaust cabin heater system uses a heater muff (figure 13).

On some radial engines the individual pipes from each exhaust port are fed into an exhaust collector ring,
which is a large diameter pipe surrounding the rear of the engine, and usually contained within the engine
cowling.

Fig. 13 HEATER MUFF

One or more tail pipes from the collector ring lead the exhaust gases to atmosphere. A heater muff may be
incorporated.

An exhaust system consists of a number of components, most of which are made from sheet plain carbon or
stainless steel welded together, and connected by clamps or slip joints to their adjacent components. With
normally-aspirated or internally-supercharged engines the exhaust system is usually connected rigidly to the
engine but when a turbocharger is fitted, flexible couplings are also used in the exhaust ducting.

To control the noise emissions around small airfields some aircraft have silencers fitted. Similar to silencers
fitted to road vehicles they contain baffles and passageways designed to reduce the noise coming from the
engine exhaust. Usually fitted so that the exhaust pipe from the engine leaves the engine cowling at the
bottom of the engine and the silencer is fitted and supported underneath the aircraft.

Because of the temperature and corrosive nature of the exhaust gases many parts of the system have a
limited life and require regular inspection for leakage, cracks and damaged or broken parts, in order to
ensure that the exhaust gases are contained within the exhaust system.
Inspection is particularly important on those installations which use a cabin heater muff, since any gas
leakage in the heater system could introduce carbon monoxide into the cabin, with possible fatal effects. A
similar effect could result from poor sealing of the engine fire-proof bulkhead or the introduction of exhaust
gas through unsealed seams or openings in the aircraft skin.

Where there is the possibility of contamination of the cabin air by engine exhaust gases, carbon monoxide
detectors are fitted within the cabin.

COOLING
The ICE (internal combustion engine) is notoriously inefficient - converting only about 30% of the available
fuel energy to useful work.

QUESTION Where does most of the remaining energy go? (2 mins)

ANSWER It goes as heat energy to the atmosphere. The laws of


thermodynamics dictate that only a certain amount of the heat energy generated can
be turned into useful work which means that the remaining heat must be removed
from the engine otherwise it would overheat and seize-up.

So we need an efficient cooling system to keep the engine from getting too hot.

Cooling may by using liquid or air cooling. Liquid cooling systems compared to-air cooling system are
generally heavier, more complicated and more expensive but they do provide a higher degree of engine
temperature control - which makes the engine more efficient.

Liquid Cooling
A few aircraft engines are liquid cooled. The system is basically the same as in a motor car.

The system consists of a header tank; an engine driven water pump, thermostat valves and pipework.

The cylinder block is suitably ported and drilled to allow the flow of coolant through, and gaskets prevent
internal and external leaks where the cylinder W% block is attached to the cylinder head and main engine
block.

The coolant is water with anti freeze additives and it removes the heat from the engine to be transferred to
ram air via a radiator.
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A thermostatically controlled coolant temperature control valve prevents the coolant from circulating round
the system when the engine is cold - allowing it to warm-up quickly. As the temperature of the engine gets
hotter so the valve opens more to allow more coolant to flow.

Air Cooling
Most engines are cooled directly by ambient ram air. The engine is cowed-in to produce a streamline shape
with openings at the front to allow ram air in with outlet ducts at the rear. The cylinders are suitably finned to
increase the surface area and hence the rate of heat transfer from the cylinder to the air.

On inverted in-line engines the cooling ram air is admitted through air intake/s under the propeller, or either
side of it. The air is then directed by internal baffles around the cylinder fins - it then goes to the rear of the
engine and may pass through oil coolers, around magnetos, generators, etc before re-entering the airstream
- usually underneath the engine.

On some engines the air will leave the engine compartment via a flap positioned at the bottom of the engine
compartment. The flap can be adjusted to control the amount of cooling air passing through the engine
compartment and hence provide some form of engine temperature control.

The flap may be manually operated or powered by an electric mo tor/actuator controlled by a thermostat.

On radial engines the air passes around each cylinder and leaves at the rear between the engine cowling
and the engine nacelle.

The rear of the engine cowling may be fitted with moveable gills which can be opened or closed to control
the engine temperature.

Fig. 14 AIRFLOW THROUGH AN INLINE ENGINE

All piston engines that use air cooling are designed to be adequately cooled by the effect of in-flight ram air.
When the aircraft is stationary there is only the ram air from the propeller and in this case the engine is likety
to overheat if ran for too long. So when carrying out an engine run - keep it short (as laid down in the AMM)
and face the aircraft into wind.

Fig. 15 AIRFLOW THROUGH A RADIAL ENGINE

Care should be taken to ensure cooling ducts are undamaged and clear of obstructions. Any broken cylinder
cooling fins should be smoothed to a rounded contour - with reference to the AMM to check on the number
(and amount of shortening) that is allowed.

With some engines some cylinders will run hotter than others. These are usually those situated at the rear of
the engine because the cooling air has already passed the forward (hot) cylinders and is therefore less
efficient at cooling. The designers try to ensure that all cylinders run at equal temperatures by the inclusion
of local air baffles to ensure that each cylinder gets the same amount of cooling air.

ENGINE ACCESS
Engines need good access for maintenance purposes. This is usually achieved by the removal of cowlings -
in some cases leaving the complete engine accessible.

The access panels may be hinged on one side with quick release fasteners to secure the other 3 sides.

On some radial engines a 'clam-shell' type of cowling is used - on others the engine cowling might be
attached to the top of the cylinders and to each other (say 3 sections) by quick release fasteners.

Panels are often classed as tertiary structure and as such take little or no load. However, it is important to
note that should a panel come adrift in flight then the airflow will cause it to fly backwards and there is a
likelihood of real damage to the airframe, windscreen, controls, tailplane, etc.

It is important to check all panels for:


 Corrosion (metal), delamination, water ingress (composites).
 Damage.
 Security of attachment.
 Correct fitting and security of the quick release fittings.
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 Smooth external surface - particularly at joins.


 Clearance from internal parts when closed.
 Correct electrical metal to metal bonding.

STARTERS
Most engines are started using an electric motor which usually has to be engaged with the crankshaft prior to
cranking. The starter may be engaged by one of several methods:

1. Manual engagement (figure 16). This is operated directly by the pilot via a cable system (rare).
It is sprung loaded in the disengaged position and when the pilot operates the control it causes a lever within
the starter housing to move the starter drive pinion to engage with the starter ring gear.

As it does so the lever contacts a starter switch to supply electrical power to the starter motor. When the
engine starts the overrunning clutch disengages the drive pinion from the starter ring gear.

2. Solenoid engagement (figure 17). When the engine starter switch is operated the solenoid is
supplied with electrical power - it moves forward to engage the starter pinion. At the end of its travel
it operates a contact switch to supply electrical power to the starter motor. When the starter switch is
released the return spring extends to disengage the starter pinion.

Fig. 16 MANUAL ENGAGEMENT


Fig. 17 SOLENOID ENGAGEMENT

3. Bendix mechanism (figure 18). This method of engagement is automatic. The drive pinion is rotated
by the motor and drive spring, but the drive pinion is mounted on helical splines (in fact a multi start
screw thread).

Because of the inertia of the drive pinion, as the drive shaft is rotated, the pinion tends to remain stationary
thus it will act similar to a nut being held stationary on a rotating bolt -the nut will move forward.

As the starter pinion gets to the end of its forward travel so it must rotate with the starter drive shaft and
hence rotate the starter ring gear of the engine.

Fig. 18 BENDIX MECHANISM

When the engine starts the starter ring gear rotates quicker than the starter shaft (and pinion) which will
cause the pinion to be pushed back down the helical splines and disengage the starter ring gear.

When electrical power to the motor is switched off the anti drift spring will hold the pinion in the dis-engaged
position.

4. Clutch engagement. This method uses a clutch mechanism. As the starter motor rotates the starter
drive shaft so the automatic clutch engages the drive to the engine. When the engine starts and the
engine runs faster than the starter drive the clutch disengages.

STARTER SYSTEMS
Most piston engines are started using heavy current electric motors. Like most heavy current carrying
electrical systems the cables (from the batteiy to the motor) must be kept as short as possible. They are
heavy and if they where taken from the battery to the cockpit then back to the motor there would be a weight
penalty, and a large switch in the cockpit for the pilot to operate. So a relay is used.

With some aircraft a combined starter/generator is used.

Starter Motor Circuit


Figure 19 shows a starter motor circuit with a dc supply.

The bus bar is connected to the battery through a battery master switch or relay - when closed the bus bar is
'live'. The bus bar is also connected to the 'external' supply which will be the aircraft's generator and possibly
an external power source.

The bus bar also supplies power to all the dc circuits in the aircraft including the starter switch and the starter
motor. All circuits will have a circuit breaker (C/B) or fuse fitted to protect the circuit should too much current
1
be drawn. This might happen if, for example, a 'short occurred in that circuit. If this happened the high
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current would cause the fuse to get hot and melt - breaking the circuit and stopping the current. The C/B
works in a similar way except that it is tripped magnetically to interrupt the current.

QUESTION If the fuse blew or C/B tripped what action should be taken? (1 min).
ANSWER Find the fault and rectify. Replace the fuse, or reset the C/B, then retest the circuit. (
For details on fault rectification you are advised to read the appropriate books in the
LBP series in modules 3 and 7.)

Fig. 19 SIMPLIFIED STARTER CIRCUIT

The starter circuit to the cockpit will draw a small current and therefore will use a small cable (say Nyvin 22).
The (much shorter) cable to the motor will be a heavy duty cable drawing a high current.

With the battery ON, and ignition ON, operation of the starter button in the cockpit will cause the starter relay
to 'pull down' and connect the motor to the supply.

The motor will turn and engage with the starter ring gear and turn the engine.

With the ignition ON (that is the secondary winding of the magneto NOT earthed) the spark plugs will operate
and (provided carburation is OK) the engine will start.

When the starter switch is released it will spring back to the OFF position, the relay will open and the starter
motor stop - it will already have been disengaged from the engine ring gear.

Starter Motors
The dc motor has field windings which when supplied with current will set up a magnetic field such as to
cause the armature to rotate. The windings may be in series with the armature (series wound motor) or in
parallel (shunt wound motor). Some motors - as shown in the drawing - have both series and parallel
windings - called a compound motor.

The motor is bolted to the engine casing and usually includes its engagement system.

ENGINE REMOVAL/REFITMENT
An engine may have to be changed for many reasons. Some operators will change an engine and transfer
all the components from the 'old' engine, fitting them to the 'new' one.

Some operators will change a complete engine - it is quicker but more expensive.

As you know, all work on the aircraft/engine must be recorded in the log book.

QUESTION What log books would be involved during an engine change? (5 mins)

ANSWER As many as 4 could be involved:

1. The airframe log book must have details of the change -


reasons - details of engine off and engine on and details of the propeller/s.

2. Engine off log book - reason for change - details of aircraft removed from - any work
carried out - hours run to date -details of propeller and other components removed.

3. Engine on log book - reason for change - details of aircraft fitted to - any work
carried out - hours run to date - details of propeller and other components fitted.

4. The VP prop* log book - again giving the reason for the change - any work carried
out on the prop - what engine and airframe it was removed from and what engine
and airframe it was fitted to - hours run to date.

Note. CAP 562 leaflet 11-39 (was AN 4) gives a complete list of propellers together with drawing numbers
and engines and aircraft that they can be fitted to that have a Certificate of Airworthiness.

Of course - always remember to consult the AMM, but the following is a general procedure for
removal/fitment of an engine.

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Removal
1. 1. Bring aircraft into hangar and prepare the airframe.
(a) Ensure adequate hangar floor space and prepare area the engine is to be moved to after removal.
v
(b) Chock the wheels fore and aft. '
(c) Check aircraft will not overbalance on engine removal -position steady trestle/s if necessary.
(d) Shut off fuel supply and isolate electrical supply.
(e) Remove all engine panels.
(f) Place drip trays under engine.
2. Prepare the engine.
(a) Disconnect all controls and electrical cables The electrical cables may be connected by plug
and socket or by compression connections at junction boxes.
(b) Remove the spark plugs - as a safety precaution. Remember the system is live with the engine
ignition earth lead disconnected.
With an impulse magneto a small movement of the prop could cause the engine to 'kick' or fire with serious
consequences.
(c) Remove the propeller.
(d) Disconnect all pipes - fuel, hydraulic, pneumatic etc, and blank.
(e) Disconnect/remove ducting if necessary.
(f) Disconnect/remove exhaust if necessary.
(g) Disconnect instrument tubing/pipework/electrical connections.
(h) With some engines the carburettor might have to be removed to allow the engine to be lifted
out. The turbo charger, likewise, might have to be removed. Remember to blank all orifices.
3. 3. Prepare the engine stand.
(a) Prepare the engine stand that is to receive the engine and ensure that it is of the correct type and
there is a clear swing from the aircraft location to the stand location.
(b) Use a lifting hoist or crane with sufficient capacity to cope with the weight of the engine and
use a serviceable sling. The sling should be of the correct type and must be inspected for
serviceability before use.

QUESTION What would you look for on the sling? (5 mins)

ANSWER (a) Check that it is the correct one.


(b) Ensure that it has an identification tag attached and that the sling is within
test date.
(c ) Check for corrosion, kinks, frayed strands and thinning of the cables.
(d) Check for corrosion, damage, and security of attachment of the end fittings,
rings, hooks, etc.

Remember

Never walk or work under a suspended load. Lower the engine onto the stand as soon as possible. Position
the stand close to the engine.

4. Engine Lift.
(a) Attach the sling securely to the engine lifting points and take some of the weight.
(b) Carefully loosen and remove the main attachment bolts -disconnect the earthing strips.
(Before removing bolts completely check that they are not taking any strain).
(c ) Raise the engine slowly ensuring clearance between engine and surrounding structure.
(d) When clear, swing engine over the engine stand and lower into position. Secure on stand
and blank all pipelines/ports.
(e) Complete all worksheets/job cards. Complete details on the— Airframe log book, Engine log
book and VP log book.

QUESTION What would you do now? (5 mins)

ANSWER There are many things that you might do now, but you have the opportunity to do
something which you have not had until now -Inspect all those parts of the
engine, structure and systems that you did not have access to while the engine was in-situ.

Note: If the engine is being removed because of internal failure the following should also be sent away for
overhaul because of the possibility of damage from oil debris:
 VP prop.
 Propeller governor.
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 Oil cooler.

All airframe oil pipes, and the tank, should be flushed to remove any contaminated oil.
Installation
1. Remove the engine from its case/packing and check that it is the correct engine and that the
information on the stores release documentation is correct (EASA form 1 etc).
2. Remove external corrosion preventative compound using a suitable solvent and inspect the engine
for corrosion and damage.
3. Remove the dehydrator plugs from the cylinders and inspect the cylinder and piston with a
boroscope for corrosion and
wear/damage.
4. Any inhibiting oil should be drained from the engine by:
* Removing the sump plug.
* Removing the filters and cleaning with a solvent.
* Using a syringe through the spark plug holes. Slowly turn the engine while draining the oil.
5. Remove all blanking caps and inspect as far as possible for corrosion and damage to faces and
internal parts.
6. Inspect all components in a similar manner before fitting to the engine.
7. Once all components have been fitted (remember to leave the ignition plugs out until all work on the
engine is completed) obtain correct sling and lifting equipment.
8. Inspect the engine bearers on the aircraft and align as necessary. Ensure aircraft is correctly
supported.
9. Attach sling to engine and carefully lift out of cradle. Observe all safety precautions such as:
(a) Ensure a correct and serviceable sling.
(b) Do not work or walk under a suspended load.
(c) Move load slowly.
(d) Steady the load whilst suspended - with an attached rope if necessary.
(e) Prepare the location where the engine is to go before lifting.
(f) Ensure engine is secured to the sling before commencing the lift, and do not disconnect the sling
until the engine is properly secured to the airframe mounts.
10. Position and lower slowly onto the engine mounts - keeping clear of all other structures.
11. Secure to the anti vibration mountings. Attach bonding strips and lock all attachments (observe
correct torque loading values).
12. Remove engine sling.
13. Connect the following systems:
(a) Coolant Pipes. On water cooled engines these should be connected and the system filled
with the correct coolant and checked for leaks.
(b) Carburettor Controls. These should be connected, locked and 'rigged' as per the aircraft manual.
(c) Propeller Controls. These should be connected and rigged in a similar manner.
(d) Hot Air and Cabin Intake Flap Controls. These should be connected, locked and rigged as
per the manual.
(e) Propeller. Fit the correct type of propeller, secure and lock in accordance with the manual.
(f) Fuel Lines. Connect all fuel lines.
(g) Exhaust System. Connect this using new gaskets where necessary.
(h) Electrical Connections. Connect up, making sure there is
sufficient slack to allow for vibration and that the cables lay away from any heat source and away from
moving parts.
(i) Hydraulic Lines. Hydraulic pump pipelines should be connected, bled and the reservoir topped up.
(j) Ducting. Connect all ducting. Clean air intake filter. Check hot air flap to carburettor for correct
operation.
(k) Instruments. Connect all instrument systems.

Notes
1. Before connecting any component always carry out an inspection for damage and corrosion and
serviceability of such things as screw threads, internal bores, deteriorating rubber hoses, etc.
2. Check that there is adequate clearance between all components, structure, links, ducts, pipework,
cowlings, cables, engine.

QUESTION : What to do next? (5 mins)

ANSWER:
1. Fill engine sump/tank with the correct oil.
2. Connect battery.
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3. Flush and bleed the injector/carburettor.


4. Prime the engine with oil (see later note).
5. Fit and connect spark plugs.
6. One final check to see if everything has been done that should be done.
7. Close all panels and carry out an engine run (see later notes).

QUESTION: Why do you think item 5 above was left until last? (1 min)

ANSWER: At least with them removed (and the blanks fitted) there is no
chance of the impulse magneto causing a spark when the engine is cranked. It
could cause a serious accident.

Oil System Priming


This will vary between engines so do check the manual, but in general it requires the use of a rig.

Oil (preferably hot) is pumped around the engine using the rig. The engine is turned by hand during the
process and the oil is then drained out via the sump drain.

Connection of the oil rig might be via an oil inlet pipe or by a special connection. Run the engine within 4
hours after priming. Record and sign for all work done in the engine and airframe log books.

ENGINE RUNNING
Before carrying out an engine run there are several things that we should check. Can you think of any? Take
a few minutes and see what you come up with.

This is my list - see how it compares with yours.


1. Position aircraft outside on firm level ground.
2. Ensure all cowlings and panels are secured.
3. Ensure aircraft has fuel.
4. Check engine oil level and general condition.
5. Place aircraft into wind, chocked and brakes applied.
6. Post a look out man with the correct type of fire extinguisher.

The engine run


 Check the manual.
 Switch power, ignition and fuel on.
 Using external power (ideally) crank engine.
 When engine has started keep rpm low and allow engine (oil and coolant) to reach normal
temperature.
 Check oil pressure. If not correct shut the engine down.
 Check magneto 'dead cut' by momentarily switching off both magnetos. The engine should stop
firing during this period.
 Check operation of the VP prop.
 Check operation of magnetos.
 Carry out engine power check.
 Carry out a full power check and note rpm.
 Check operation of carburation.
 Check operation of supercharger/turbocharger.
 Check operation of engine related systems:

a) Electrical charging rate.


b) Hydraulic pressure and system operation.
c) Pneumatic pressure and system operation.
d) Vacuum pressure and systems operation.
e) Instrument systems.

 Close throttle and allow engine to idle. Check for correct idle rpm.
 Allow engine to cool at this speed for a while - until cylinder head temperatures are within limits -
then shut down.

After the engine run, the engine should be inspected for gas, fuel and oil leaks. Any adjustments required
should be carried out. Top up the oil system.

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QUESTION: What to do next?

ANSWER: Record it all - and sign for it. Details of readings and the engine run itself must be
recorded in the engine log book. The airframe and VP log books should have details
of what is fitted to what and brief details of the engine run.

GENERAL MAINTENANCE
The most powerful tools the aircraft maintenance engineer has are keen observation and a good attitude
towards aircraft safety.

Of course, both these attributes are aided considerably by:


 A good working environment.
 Maintenance schedules.
 Maintenance manuals (AMM).
 Repair manuals.
 Parts lists (IPC), etc.
 Correct equipment.

The engine will be inspected in accordance with the maintenance schedule. This may be a LAMP* (Light
Aircraft Maintenance Programme) schedule or a schedule devised by your company and approved by the
CAA.

 Remember, if a LAMP schedule is used it must be approved by the CAA for use with that particular
aircraft. These used to be called LAMS (Light Aircraft Maintenance Schedules) and are standard
schedules applicable to all light aircraft that can be adapted and approved for individual light aircraft
types.

Any technical information required to support the maintenance schedule will be found in the maintenance
manuals, parts lists etc.

The sort of inspections required may be:

 Before flight inspection.


 After flight inspection.
 50 hour inspection.
 100 hour inspection.
 500 hour inspection.

but check your schedule for the correct inspection frequency.

The engine will be required to be removed from the aircraft from time to time for scheduled overhaul. These
periods are usually recommended by the engine manufacturer. The periodicity is usually based on running
hours and in some situations may be based on calendar times.

For light aircraft engines (aircraft below 2730 kg max weight or engines of 400 horse power or less) the
overhaul period may be extended by 20% provided certain conditions are met.

New engines are given an overhaul periodically which is often extended as the engine gets older and more is
known about its reliability.

Lifed Items
Some components are given a finite life on the engine, eg 500 running hours. They must be removed for
overhaul at this time unless there is a tolerance allowed. This replacement may coincide with a scheduled
servicing - it may not. But at any rate the replacement must go ahead unless a concession is obtained.

The Engine
Checks on the engine should include:
 An engine run.
 A compression check on each cylinder.
 An inspection for damage, corrosion, cracks, oil/coolant/exhaust leaks. Security of attachment and
correct locking.
 An inspection for correct clearance between parts/moving parts.
 Cowlings, panels and baffles
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Engine Mountings
This primary structure should be checked for corrosion, damage, cracks, security of attachment to the
airframe and serviceability of anti-corrosive treatment and paint work.

Remember, that with tubular engine mountings, these should be checked for bowing - if necessary with a
trammel and feeler gauges. Bowing limits are in the manual of course - but in general are considered to be
1:600 maximum.

The anti-vibration mountings should be checked for deterioration, deformation and damage. They should be
changed - ideally as a set - if they are suspect. Check their security of attachment.

Many engines have a continuity (bonding) strip at each mounting location. This should be checked for
damage, corrosion, security of attachment and freedom from strain when the engine is secured to the
mountings.

If in doubt about the electrical bonding carry out a bonding check. (Refer to the appropriate book in the LBP
series airframe modules.)

Intake Ducts
The structure of these should be inspected for similar defects to those listed for Cowlings, Panels and
Baffles. The filter should be checked for security, completeness and cleanliness - clean or replace if
necessary.

Any flaps should be checked for security, damage, corrosion, and correct operation - as should any controls.
Lubricate as necessary.

Exhaust Systems
As mentioned earlier a defective exhaust system can be dangerous, particularly if there is a heat exchanger
muff fitted.

Check the system - including welds for:


 Security.
 Damage.
 Alignment.
 Signs of exhaust gas leakage.
 Cracks.
 Correct clearance from other objects.
 Correct outlet protrusion into the airflow.

Repairs can sometimes be carried out to exhausts by welding (by a qualified aircraft welder), but care must
be exercised not to warp the exhaust in any way and not to produce a restriction inside the exhaust pipe. It is
generally preferable to change a defective exhaust.

Sometimes the outer jacket of the exhaust muff can be removed to allow inspection of the exhaust itself.
Ensure this is properly sealed when refitting. ,

If in doubt about a muff system pressure, test it or replace it.

The overhaul manual will specify the pressure test details. A pressure test entails using special blanks and
adapters fitted to the exhaust to allow a supply of pressure air or fluid into the exhaust. The exhaust will have
a pressure gauge fitted via an adapter and also a safety valve.

The exhaust will be placed in a safety cage and pressurised - usually 2psi, but check the manual. Shut the
air supply off and no leakage should occur.

If the test is successful release the pressure and remove all the blanks and adapters.

On the aircraft check the connections to the turbo charger, if fitted, and check it for security of attachment.
(The more detailed checks for the turbocharger are discussed in the book 'Superchargers/Turbochargers').

Also check the carbon monoxide detector (if fitted) in the cabin to see that it has not changed colour.

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Fig. 20 EXHAUST MUFF PRESSURE TEST

Oil System
Oil quantity is checked daily and an oil change is carried out at say 50 or 100 hours (as per the AMM).

QUESTION: How you would carry out an oil change?

ANSWER: The general procedure is:


 Drain oil (preferably hot) into a suitable receptacle. Do not dispose of straight away in case it (or
some of it) is required for analysis.
 Change the filters - or in some cases they can be cleaned and refitted Check the manual.
 Inspect any debris that might come out of the filters. The debris might give an indication of
something inside the engine wearing/about to fail.
 After refitment of the oil drain plug and filter fill the oil system to the correct level with the correct
specification of oil.
 When the engine run is carried out check the oil system for leaks, and recheck the level.
 Check oil coolers, pipes, turbocharger connections, etc, for leaks, damage, security of attachment
and corrosion.

Engine Fuel Systems


The complete system, within the engine bay, should be checked for damage, security of attachment, correct
locking and leaks.

The system could include:

 Pipework.
 Carburettor.
 Injectors.
 Valves.
 Pumps.
 Filters.
 Common rail delivery system.
 Sensors and electrical cables.

Some components/valves may have tell-tail drains that indicate failure of internal seals, diaphragms, etc.

The fuel filter should be drained to remove debris and water. Excessive amounts of water would require
further investigation.

All filters should be cleaned, when specified, with solvent and dried using
compressed air. The air filters fitted to injector nozzles may not be detachable and are therefore cleaned
using ultrasonics.

Check all linkages and controls for correct sense; full and fre range of movement; appropriate clearances,
safety and locking. Check for correct operation during the engine run.

Lubricate in accordance with the manual.

Flexible Pipes
We have discussed (rigid) pipes already, and where flexible pipes are fitted they should be inspected for:

 Twist - by checking the white line along them.


 Chafing.
 Deterioration.
 Correct alignment and strain.
 Kinks.

Remember, they are changed at the end of their life irrespective of their condition.

The Fire Proof Bulkhead


It is a regulation that a fire proof bulkhead is fitted between a power plant and the rest of the aircraft. It must
be inspected for:

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a) All pipes and controls that pass through the bulkhead must pass through a seal. The complete
bulkhead should not have any air gaps.
b) Check the bulkhead the same as you would any other structure -cracks, corrosion, damage, security,
loose rivets, etc.
c) Check all seals for security, damage and effectiveness. The reasons for the regulations concerning
the bulkhead is so that it is fume proof and fire proof. (Of course, it will not hold off a fire forever, but
it will contain it for a period of time).

NON-ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

This can be divided into various categories such as:


 Modifications. Not all modifications fall into this category but the urgent ones may have to be carried
out before the next routine inspections.
 Manufacturers7 CAA Directives. Again, these might be urgent and have to be carried out
immediately.
 Fault Rectification. Unless a fault can be classed as an ADD (Acceptable Deferred Defect) then it
must be cleared before the next flight. Some of the more common faults are listed below.
 Lifed Components. These must be changed at the end of their life or within any tolerance given.

Damaged/Malfunction of Components
These must be repaired/changed before the next flight unless on the ADD list.

Overspeeding
Momentary overspeed by 2% over Rated Speed (RS). Determine the cause and rectify. Record all details in
the engine log book.

Overspeed up to 5% over RS
a) Drain oil and check oil and filters.
b) Carry out cylinder compression check.
c) Examine the cylinder walls with a boroscope for scoring caused by broken piston rings.
d) If the above inspections prove satisfactory return the engine to service. Of course, refill with oil and
fit filters.

Overspeed between 5 up to 10% RS


a) Carry out a 100 hour inspection.
b) Drain oil and check oil and filters.
c) Examine the cylinder walls with a boroscope for scoring and also check valves and seats for damage
and distortion.
d) Examine valves, rockers, pushrods, valve guides and springs for damage and distortion.
e) Rotate engine by hand (plugs removed) and check for full and free movement.
f) On a turbocharged engine inspect the turbocharger compressor and turbine, and the bearings.
(Refer to the book Turbochargers/ Superchargers).
g) Return engine to service after rectification/or no faults found.

Overspeed greater than 10% RS


Remove the engine for overhaul in accordance with the maintenance manual.

Overboosting
On a supercharged engine this may occur due to the controls being set up incorrectly, or a mechanical fault
in the control systems, or by pilot error. At any rate this means that excessive pressure has been created in
the induction system and cylinders. This may have caused over stressing.

Overboosting not exceeding 2in Hg (Ipsi) (6.9kPa)*

No special action necessary except that the cause should be found and rectifi and a record made in the
engine log book.
* Hg = Inches mercury. Used in a manometer.
psi = Pounds per square inch. The imperial system of measurement - still used in the UK and America.
Pascals (Pa). The SI system of pressure measurement.

Overboosting between 2 and 5in Hg (2.5psi) (17.2kPa) less than 10 seconds.


a) Carry out a 50 hour inspection.
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b) Inspect cylinders internally and externally for cracks, particularly round the base and spark plug
holes.
c) Inspect the spark plugs for damage and cracks.
d) Drain oil and inspect oil and oil filters.
e) If nothing is found refill with oil, fit filters and return engine to service.

Over-boosting above Sin Hg


The engine must be removed and overhauled in accordance with the maintenance manual.

Shock Loading
The most likely cause of this is the propeller striking the ground. The damage caused is likely to occur to the:
 Propeller.
 Prop shaft.
 Crankshaft.
 Crankshaft counterweights.
 Crankshaft bearings.
 Crankshaft bearer webs.
 Engine main block and engine bearers, if severe.

The propeller can be inspected in-situ and minor damage repaired (see EASA module 17 - Propellers). In
most cases the propeller should be removed for overhaul.

Limited inspection can be carried out on the prop shaft and crankcase with the engine in-situ so it is usual to
remove the engine. It is then sent to the engine bay/overhaul facility suitably labelled for strip-down and
inspection.

Lightening Strike
When lightening strikes the aircraft it is likely to cause damage where it hits the aircraft and damage where
the electrical charge leaves - although it may not be too readily apparent.

For checks on the airframe you should refer to the appropriate modules in the LBP series (7, 11A and 1 IB).
The following checks should be carried out on the engine/propeller.
a) Check for signs of damage and burning to the propeller tips.
b) Check bonding strips between engine and airframe. Renew if necessary and carry out a bonding
check.
c) Drain the oil and inspect - also inspect the filters. Look for evidence of bearing damage.
d) Remove the plugs and rotate the engine by hand and check that all bearings - particularly roller and
ball - rotate freely and smoothly. (Remember that if a high current passes through a roller or ball
bearing it passes through a small contact area and may cause burning).
e) Check all connections (pipes, cables, push/pull rods etc.) between the engine and the airframe for
tracking/burning.
f) Check engine controls for full and free range of movement.
g) Check fire proof bulkhead (see previous text on Inspection of Fire Proof Bulkheads).
h) Remove ignition harness - check for continuity and carry out an
insulation test.
i) Check condition and operation of magneto,
j) Refill with oil and refit filters.
k) Check all electrics and any electronic systems (FADEC etc).
l) Carry out an engine run.

REMEMBER
It is important that all work carried out on the engine is recorded in the engine log book. In general the log
book entry should include:

1. Date.
2. Part numbers and reference numbers of items removed/fitted.
3. Cross reference to EASA form 1 and any other documents.
4. Reasons for rectification/changed components.
5. Life of components - if lifed.
6. Engine hours at fitment/change.
7. Actual work carried out on the engine.
8. Over speed / overboost values.
9. A CRS.
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All entries should cross refer to entries in the airframe log and VP propeller log as appropriate.

ENGINE STORAGE
During normal operation the internal parts of a piston engine are protected against corrosion by the
lubrication system and the temperatures are sufficient to dispel any moisture which may form. After
shutdown the residual film of oil left on cylinders, valve guides, gears etc gives protection for a short period.

When the engine is not in regular use, however, parts which have been exposed to the products of
combustion and internal parts in contact with acidic oil are prone to corrosion. If engines are expected to be
out of use for any period of time they should be inspected and ground run periodically or some form of anti-
corrosive treatment applied internally and externally to prevent deterioration.

The standard of protection applied depends on how long the engine is expected to be out of service; if it is
installed in an aircraft and if it can be hand turned.

This section of the book gives general procedures to be followed but always refer to the Maintenance
Manual for the particular engine.

The storage times quoted in this section are applicable to storage in a hangar in temperate climates and will
vary for different storage conditions. Times may also vary between different engines; again check the engine
Maintenance Manual.

Installed Piston Engine - Short Term Storage


If it is possible to run a piston engine which is installed in an aircraft and expected to be out of service for a
period of up to one month, sufficient protection will be provided by running the engine every seven days, but
if the period of inactivity is longer, periodic ground running would result in excessive wear and the engine
should be placed in long-term storage.

The engine run should be carried out at low rpm (1000 to 1200 rpm), operating the engine and propeller
controls to ensure complete circulation of oil, until normal working temperatures are obtained. If the engine
cannot be run for any reason, the manufacturer may recommend that it should be turned by hand or motored
by means of an external power supply, but otherwise it will be necessary to inhibit the engine.

Long-term 'On-Wing' Storage


When the engine is likely to be out of service for more than a month it must be treated internally and
externally with a corrosion inhibitor.

The treatments described below are normally considered satisfactory for six months but this period may be
extended to twelve months in ideal storage conditions.

At the end of this period the engine should be cleaned, inspected, any defective parts replaced, oils and
coolants changed, and the engine given a ground run as described above. If it is to remain in storage then it
should be re-protected or, alternatively, removed from the aircraft and stored 'off-wing'.

Internal Protection
American Method. Described in some American publications and CAAIPs published by the UK CAA.
1. Drain the oil sump and tank and refill with storage oil as prescribed by the manufacturer.
2. Run the engine at low rpm (1000 - 1200 rpm) until normal operating temperatures are obtained.
3. Spray cylinder protective into the induction system until white smoke issues from the exhaust, then
switch off the engine and continue spraying until the engine stops.
4. Drain the oil sump/tank and remove the filters.
5. Remove the spark plugs and spray a fixed quantity of cylinder protective into each cylinder while the
engine is turned by hand. A further quantity should then be sprayed into the cylinders with the engine
stationary.
6. Fit dehydrator plugs in each cylinder and replace oil filters.
7. Place a quantity of desiccant in the intake and exhaust and blank off all openings.

UK Method. Described in CAAIPs.


1. Drain the oil sump/oil tank and refill with the storage oil recommended by the manufacturer.
2. Run the engine at low rpm (1000 - 1200 rpm) until normal operating temperatures are reached.
3. Drain the oil from the system and remove filters.

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4. Remove the spark plugs and spray the specified quantity of cylinder protective into each cylinder
while the piston is at the bottom of its stroke (BDC), at the same time spraying the valve springs and
stems with the valves closed and the valve heads and ports with the valves open. Also spray the
valve rocker gear.
5. Turn the engine at least six revolutions by hand, then spray half the previously used quantity of
cylinder protective into each cylinder with the engine stationary.
6. Replace oil filters and fit dehydrator plugs.
7. Blank off all openings into the engine (intake, exhaust, breathers, etc).
8. Replenish oil tank to normal level with storage oil as specified.

Additional Requirements
Coolant systems should be drained and flushed unless an inhibited coolant is used.

Fuel system components such as fuel pumps, injectors, carburettors and boost control units should be
inhibited. Drain all fuel and oil as appropriate and refill with storage oil or mineral oil as recommended by the
manufacturer. Fit blanking caps and plugs to retain the oil.

Auxiliary gearboxes should also be inhibited. The normal lubricating oil should be drained and the gearbox
refilled with storage oil and the gearbox rotated to ensure all surfaces are coated.

If the propeller is removed the propeller shaft should be sprayed internally and externally with cylinder
protective and correct blanks fitted.

External Protection
Exterior surfaces of the engine should be cleaned with an approved solvent such as white spirit by brushing
or spraying and dried with compressed air. Any corrosion should be removed; the area re-treated in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and chipped or damaged paintwork renewed. The following
actions should then be taken:

a) All control rods and any bare metal parts should be coated with a general-purpose grease.
b) Magneto vents should be covered.
c) Spark plug lead ends should be fitted with transport blanks. Exposed electrical connections masked
and rubber components covered with waxed paper or mouldable wrapping.
d) Spray holes in fire extinguisher pipes should, if possible, be blanked off, using polythene sleeving or
waxed paper suitably secured.
e) An approved preservative (normally lanolin or an external air-drying varnish) should be sprayed over
the whole engine in a thin even film.

Precautions
Once protected, an installed stored engine should not be turned, as this would remove the protective coating
from cylinder walls and other in-contact moving parts. If the aircraft is in the hangar the propeller need not be
tied down, but warning notices should be displayed on the propeller and in the cockpit that the engine is
inhibited and should not be turned.

Uninstalled Engines
Engines which have been removed from the aircraft for storage, or uninstalled engines which are being
returned for repair or overhaul, should be protected internally and sealed in Moisture Vapour Proof (MVP)
containers/bags. This is the best method of preventing corrosion and is essential when engines are to be
transported overseas.

The engine should be drained of oil, the cylinders inhibited as described earlier^ and drives and the inside of
the crankcase sprayed with cylinder protective and the openings sealed.

Before placing in the bag, care should be taken to ensure that no fluids are leaking from the engine and that
all sharp projections, corners etc are padded to prevent damage to the MVP envelope.

The MVP envelope should be inspected to ensure that it is undamaged and placed in position in the engine
stand or around the engine, as appropriate. The engine should then be hoisted into the stand, care being
taken not to damage the envelope at the points where the material is trapped between the engine
attachment points and the stand bearers.

A vapour phase inhibitor or desiccant should be installed in the quantities and— at the positions specified in
the Maintenance Manual and a humidity indicatoL-should be located in a visible position in the envelope.
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The envelope should then be sealed (usually by adhesive) as soon as possible after placing of the desiccant
or vapour phase inhibitor.

The humidity indicator should be inspected after 24 hours to ensure that it has not turned pink. If it has,
replace the desiccant, check the MVP envelope for damage or deterioration and repair/replace and re-seal
and re-check.

Check the humidity indicator monthly and after a period of 3 years the engine should be inspected for
corrosion and re-preserved.

Inspection
Engines, which are not stored in an MVP bag, should be inspected at about two-weekly intervals. Any
corroded areas should be removed and a protective treatment applied. If external corrosion is extensive a
thorough inspection of the complete engine is called for.

MPV envelopes should be inspected monthly to ensure that humidity in the envelope is satisfactory. If the
indicator has turned pink (normal colour blue) the envelope should be unsealed, the desiccant renewed and
the envelope resealed.

Equipment and Materials


Spraying Equipment. This should be approved by the engine manufacturer and used in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. For spraying cylinders a special nozzle is required - this should be checked
before use to ensure that the spray holes are clear. Correct operation of the spray gun may be checked by
spraying a dummy cylinder and inspecting the resultant distribution of fluid.

Materials. Only the types of storage and inhibiting oil recommended by the engine manufacturer should be
used and used in accordance with the inhibitor manufacture's instructions. American manufacturers usually
recommend American specifications and British manufacturers generally recommend storage oil to
specification DEF 2181, wax-thickened cylinder protective to DTD 791 and external air-drying varnish
approved to DTD 900 specification.

Blanks
Approved blanks or seals should be used whenever possible. These are normally supplied with a new or
reconditioned engine and should be retained for future use. Pipe connections are usually sealed by means of
a screw-type plug or caps such as AGS 3802 to 3807 and plain holes are sealed with plugs such as AGS
2108, These items are usually coloured for visual identification. Large openings such as air intakes are
usually fitted with specially designed blanking plates secured by the normal attachment nuts and contact
areas smeared with grease before fitting, to help sealing. Adhesive tape may be used to secure waxed paper
where no other protection is provided, but should never be used as a means of blanking off by itself, since it
may promote corrosion and clog small holes or threads.

Removal from Storage

Records
1. Consult the manual.
2. Remove from MVP bag - if fitted.
3. Remove all masking, blanks, desiccants, padding, sealings etc.
4. Clean the engine, removing external protective coatings, grease and oil from control rods etc.
5. Inspect the engine and equipment for signs of deterioration -rectify/renew as necessary.
6. Ensure fire extinguisher spray pipe holes are clear.
7. Replace any components which were removed for individual storage, de-inhibiting as necessary.
8. Drain out all storage oil.
9. Remove spark plug blanks and turn engine slowly to drain excess oil from the cylinders, then fit
plugs and connect leads.
10. Fill and prime the engine oil system.
11. If engine stored off-wing, fit engine to aircraft in accordance with the AMM and connect controls, fuel
lines, fit propeller etc.
12. Ensure coolant systems are serviceable and topped up with the correct coolant to the correct level.
13. Start the engine and carry out a check of the engine and associated systems.

Entries must be made in the engine logbook giving particulars of inhibiting procedures, length of time in
storage, components removed and any periodic ground running/inspections carried out. Such entries must
be signed by an appropriately licensed engineer or Approved Inspector.
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Where the engine was removed from the aircraft entries must also be made in ^ the aircraft logbook. If a VP
propeller was involved then entries must also be made in the VP logbook.

Book 5
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK
Written for the category B1.2 and B1.4 engineer covering the instrument section of the CAA EASA Part 66
piston engine syllabus.

You will need a sound knowledge of the instrumentation systems associated with the piston engine. You will
need to understand how they work, what reading/ s to expect when the engine is performing correctly (and
when it is not), and what rectification action/s to take in the event of an incorrect instrument reading.

Remember, when an instrument does not show a correct reading, it could be any one or more of the
following that could be at fault:
 The instrument (the flight deck display).
 The engine.
 The power supply to the instrument system.
 The computer generating the signal to the instrument/flight deck display (if CRT or flat screen
displays).
 The transducer.

It will be up to you to analyse the fault (with the aid of the AMM, FIM, BITE etc) and carry out the necessary
corrective action.

If there is any work going on on your aircraft that is connected with engine instrumentation then do offer to
get involved. Instruments, however, are generally very reliable pieces of equipment and usually require very
little maintenance so at least look at the presentations. Note the:

 Number of engine parameters monitored (the number of gauges) -rpm, coolant temperature etc.
 Types of presentation - pointer (analogue), counter, mechanical, flat screen etc.
 Units of measurement - psi, rpm, inHg etc,
 Present reading of the gauges (with engine stationary).
 Whether there is any internal or external lighting, or none at all.

It there is an engine run, again try to get involved and note all gauge readings at all engine settings.

Look at the aircraft manual and check on the types of systems used for engine cockpit gauges. Compare
them with those described in this book.

NB. There are some drawings used (with manufacturer's permission) that are related to jet engines. The
reason for this is that there are a vast number of these drawings available for jet engines and very few, if
any, for piston engines. They are used because they show the principle of how the system works and you
should not try and commit the details to memory - but the principle you should know.

INSTRUMENTS GENERAL
This part of the book deals with what we have called 'General Instruments'. It covers instrument systems that
can be used to measure more than one parameter (more than one measurand) for example, a moving coil
instrument can be fitted in a system to measure pressure, and the same type of instrument can be fitted in a
system to measure temperature. The list of instrument types include:

 The moving coil instrument.


 The dc ratiometer.
 The ac ratiometer.
 Synchros.

These instruments can all be used to indicate a variety of parameters, from pressure to temperature, to
position. The moving coil instrument, for example, can be used to measure such things as fuel level (using a
float), temperature -of oils, coolants etc (using a thermistor) or pressure (using a Bourdon tube or bellows).

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In all cases the output from the transducer is a current which is changed by a variable resistor - and this
current 'drives' the instrument windings against a spring.

The dc ratiometer uses dc to produce two opposing torque's within the instrument, and when the torque's
balance (not the currents) the instrument comes to rest.

The ac ratiometer works on a similar principle to the dc ratiometer except that it uses ac and this drives two
separate (shaded pole) motors in the instrument - both with opposing torques.

Cockpit instruments may be classed as Primary or Secondary. Primary are those associated with the actual
flying of the aircraft and secondary relate to the aircraft systems. Engine instruments are secondary
instruments.

THE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT


If a coil carrying current is placed in the field of a permanent horseshoe magnet, the field due to the current,
interacts with the permanent magnet field in such a way that the coil turns.

When conventional dc current flows in a wire and the wire is going into the page then current flow direction is
indicated by the symbols O and ®. O represents the current flowing towards the reader (like the point of an
arrow) and the symbol ® represents the current flowing away from the reader into the page (like the flights of
a departing arrow).

When current flows in a wire a magnetic field is set up around the wire. For a dc current flowing away from
the reader the direction of the magnetic field is clockwise (the corkscrew rule) and for a current flowing
towards the reader tH . field direction is anti-clockwise (figure 1).

Fig. 1 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR

Magnetic lines of force flowing between the poles of a magnet are said to flow from north to south. If the lines
of force, called flux lines, meet other flux line moving in the same direction then they are strengthened. If
they meet flux liri coming in the other direction then they are weakened.

Fig. 2 FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Flux lines tend to behave as if they are elastic. They try to straighten and exert a force on the copper
conductor (as shown - figure 2).

In the instrument the conductor is wound in such a way as to form a loop within the permanent magnet field
and when current flows, the loop will try to turn (figure 3).

In a moving coil instrument, the loop is repeated many times to form a coil. It is wound on a former with a soft
iron core which is hinged and connected to a pointer. The coil is connected to a dc supply and the turning
torque of the dc supply is resisted by the hairsprings (figure 4).

Fig. 3 PRINCIPLE OF THE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

Fig. 4 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

Figure 4 shows the construction of a basic moving coil meter. When the meter is inserted in a circuit and the
circuit switched on, current flows through the hair-springs to the coil and the coil turns in a direction
dependent on the direction of current through it. Thus, to get the pointer to move over the scale the meter
must be connected the right way round in the circuit.

As the coil turns, so moving the pointer over the scale, the hair springs tighten and oppose the movement.
When the deflecting force due to the current in the coil is balanced by the controlling force of the hair-
springs, the pointer comes to rest and remains steady at this reading. An increase in current increases the
deflecting force and the pointer moves further over the scale before it is balanced by the controlling force.

The coil is wound on an aluminium frame which rotates with the coil. This frame, moving in a magnetic field,
has voltages induced in it and the resulting^ eddy currents produce a force tending to oppose the motion
producing them.™ This gives a damping force to the meter and the pointer takes up its final position quickly
without oscillation.

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This instrument in the cockpit would be connected to a variable resistor type transducer fitted to the
equipment to be monitored, eg a pressure indicator system on a hydraulic/oil system would have a
transducer made up of a variable resistor connected to a pressure operated bellows or bourdon tube. This
would send a dc supply proportional to the pressure.

THE DC RATIOMETER (Figures 5, 6 85 7)


The ratiometer principle registers the difference between opposing torques produced by coils wound in
opposite directions and placed in a magnet.

The system can be used to measure position, pressure and temperature.

Fig. 5 SCHEMATIC OF A DC RATIOMETER

A permanent U shaped magnet has within it a pivoted coil assembly with two coils 'A' and 'B' wound on it at
an angle. The gap between the coils and the magnet is narrowest at the centre, increasing towards the top
and bottom.

The strongest magnetic field is at the centre of the magnetic poles, caused by the two coils 'A' and 'B' being
wound on a soft iron concentrator.

The coils are wound onto the core in opposite directions result in opposing torque's being produced when an
electrical current flows in them. When the current in both coils is the same, the torques are equal and the
pointer attached to the core assembly will read ZERO.

If the current in one coil is increased then the torques will be unequal and the pointer will move in the
direction of the highest torque reaction.

Movement of the core and pointer due to torque reaction will move the coils in the magnetic field, the
stronger coil moving so that its gap (between it and the magnet) increases and the weaker coil reducing its
gap. The effect of this is that the opposing torques will eventually balance, and the pointer will indicate the
new condition in the system.

Fig. 6 DC RATIOMETER SYSTEM - PRESSURE INDICATION

With reference to figure 5 and 6. If the pressure increases then the resistance values change in such a way
that more current flows in coil A than coil B. Coil A has the greater torque and turns the instrument clockwise
(against the torque of coil B).

But as the instrument moves so coil A is moving into an area of weaker magnetic flux (therefore its torque is
reducing), and coil B is moving into an area of stronger magnetic flux - increasing its torque.

When the two torque's are equal the instrument stops moving.

Its reaction time is quick. The instrument moves at the same speed as the transducer. In case of supply
failure a weak spring is fitted in the instrument to pull the pointer off-scale.

Fig. 7 TEMPERATURE INDICATION USING THE DC RATIOMETER

Figure 7 shows the arrangement of a dc ratiometer used in a temperature measure circuit. In this case coil B
is wired in series with a thermistor whose resistance changes (increases) with temperature. This will
increase the resistance in circuit B allowing circuit A to pull the coils and cause the pointer to show a
temperature increase.

To indicate movement (valve position for example) the resister in the transducer would be a variable resistor
connected to move with the component.

THE AC RATIOMETER (Figure 8)

The Transducer
This system is supplied with a 26V 400Hz ac supply - but it can be any voltage so long as it is ac. It has two
coils and two soft iron cores. The cores are moved against a spring by a pressure operated capsule stack.

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The current supply is divided between the two coils depending on their impedance. Impedance is the total
resistance in a coil carrying an ac supply. It is measured in ohms.

The impedance of a coil is increased when the soft iron core is moved into the coil. This increased
impedance reduces the current in that coil. If the core is removed from the coil then its impedance drops and
its current rises.

The Indicator
Consists of two shaded-pole motors (cam discs and coils) mounted on the same shaft with a pointer. Each
motor is wound in such a way that their turning effects are opposite to each other.
When a current supply is sent to the two motors the most powerful one dominates and this will cause the
complete assembly to rotate in its direction. In so doing, however, less of the cam disc is affected by the
motor and its torque decreases. The less powerful motor (being rotated backwards), however, is having
more disc area placed underneath it and therefore its torque is increasing (in opposition to the most powerful
motor). When their torques balance the discs, shaft and pointer come to rest.

Remember - the cam disc assembly only rotates, say, about 90°, and does not rotate pass the 'step' on the
cam.

QUESTION What do you think would happen in the event of power failure? You might find this
question a-bit tricky, so take a couple of minutes on it.

ANSWER In it's present condition - as so far described - it would stay in the position that it was
prior to power failure, thus giving a false indication to the pilot that all is well.
Obviously not a good idea. Something must be done. Do you have a solution?

ANSWER The manufacturer's solution is that they have fitted a weak spring that in the event of
power failure the pointer will be pulled off scale.

Example (figure 8)

As pressure increases the soft iron cores are pushed upwards so the impedance of coil A is increased while
that of coil B is reduced. More current, therefore, flows in coil B and less in coil A.

Shaded pole motor B now has more current than A and discs and pointer are rotated clockwise. Motor A
tries to rotate the assembly anti clockwise but has insufficient power.

As the discs rotate clockwise so the torque of motor B decreases while that of A increases. When the
torques are the same the discs and pointer come to rest.

Fig. 8 AC RATIOMETER SCHEMATIC

SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMITTER SYSTEMS


These are data (normally position) information transmitters that transduce movement and send this data to
indicators in real time (ie synchronously).

The Desynn System

The Desynn is a dc powered system of transmission that indicates continuous variation of shaft position. The
input shaft is connected to a transmitter unit that is connected to the receiver unit by wires. The receiver unit
drives the output shaft that moves the indicator pointer.

In the Desynn system (figure 9), the transmitter is a circular potentiometer which has three fixed tapings (a, b
and c) spaced 120° apart, connected to the receiver unit. A rotating mechanism is mounted on the input
shaft and carries two sliding contacts or wipers that are arranged opposite one another. The wipers are fed,
via slip rings and brushes, from the positive and negative terminals of a dc supply.

The receiver has three coils (a, b and c) with axes 120° apart (connected in star). Within them is a
permanent magnet rotor which is capable of rotation through 360° and which carries a pointer over a
calibrated scale. The three air-cored coils in the receiver are connected to the tapping points a, b and c on
the transmitter by the three lines shown in figure 9.

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A weak circular magnet which plays no part in the normal operation of the indicator, will return the points to
an "OFF SCALE" position if the power supply fails or is switched 'OFF'.

Fig. 9 THE DESYNN SYSTEM

When a dc supply is connected to the transmitter wipers, the voltages at the tapping points A, B and C in
thetransmitter cause currents to flow through the three stator coils in the receiver, the resultant magnetic field
produced causes the rotor magnet to align itself with this field. For example, with the input shaft in the
position shown at A in figure 9, point A is at 28V with respect to supply negative, while B and C are both 8V.

With a positive by the same amount to both B and C, current flows from A through coil A in the receiver; it
then divides equally and half the total current goes through coil B and half through coil C back to the
transmitter. This produces a magnetic field that causes the magnet to align with the transmitter wiper arm.

If the input shaft is rotated to any position then the resultant division and flow of the current through the coils
in the indicator will produce a magnetic field to cause the magnet to align itself with the wiper arm.

The rotor magnet remains aligned with this field at all times and so rotates in synchronism with the input
shaft. A pointer, moving over a calibrated scale, is attached to the rotor so that a remote indication of the
position of the input shaft is shown (reverse thrust cowls etc).

Maintenance checks and adjustments consists of the checks that are carried out on any instrument system
and also the arm operating the transmitter can be adjusted for length and range of movement (refer to the
AMM).

After adjustment check the flight deck pointer indicates the correct position of the service at all positions.

Fig. 10 DESYNN TRANSMITTER

SYNCHROS
There are several different types of synchros. Described below is what is called a Torque Synchro.

The basic circuit is shown in figure 11. It consists of a Torque Transmitter (TX) and a Torque Receiver (TR).

The TX and TR are similar but the TR has some form of damping to prevent oscillation.

In this system ac is fed to both synchro rotors. Assuming the rotors are in identical positions then the ac
applied to the rotor is acting like the primary of a transformer and emf's will be induced into the stator
windings.

These emf's will depend on rotor position.

If the rotors are in identical positions then the emf's in the TX and TR stator windings are identical and no
current flows between the two-synchro stators. This is known as the 'NULL' position.

Fig. 11 SYNCHRO CIRCUIT

The TX is usually mechanically coupled to an input shaft and the rotor of the TR is coupled to a pointer of an
instrument. A typical application on older aircraft would be flap position indication. The TX being in the flap
transmitter near the flap and the TR being in the flap indicator on the flight deck.

If the flap is moved (TX input shaft moves - say 20°) then the emf s in the TX stator will change due to
change of rotor position. These emf s are no longer equal to the TR stator voltages, therefore current must
flow between the two stators. This causes a resultant magnetic field in the TX and TR stator's.

The TX rotor cannot move as it is mechanically coupled to the flap. The TR rotor is free to move and lines up
with this resultant field (which is 20° from the NULL position). As the rotor lines up with this field, the two
rotors are again in the same position, the emfs induced in the stators are the same, no current flows and the
flap position indicator now shows the new flap position.

PRESSURE INDICATING SYSTEMS

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In earlier systems, hydraulic, fuel, oil and pneumatic pressures were fed directly to a Bourdon tube type
gauge on the flight deck. This meant long pressure lines to the flight deck with a consequent weight penalty,
increased leak probability and (for pneumatic pressures) a safety issue.

THE BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE GAUGE


The bourdon tube is a metal tube with an elliptical or oval cross-section shaped in the form of a C. The tube
material may be phosphor bronze, beryllium bronze or beryllium copper. One end of the tube is sealed and
the other is open and connected to the pressure line of the system to be monitored (figures 12 and 13).

Fig. 12 DIRECT READING GAUGE

Fig. 13 BOURDON TUBE PRINCIPLE

There is usually a choke or restrictor fitted to the inlet union to prevent surge pressures affecting the gauge.
The principle of operation is such that when pressure is applied to the interior of the tube there is a tendency
for the sectional area of the tube to attempt to change its shape to a more circular cross-section (from its
oval shape). This has the effect of trying to straighten the tube causing the sealed end to move outwards and
move the quadrant gear and thus the indicator needle.

To prevent total fluid loss from the main system should the supply line to the cockpit fail some fluid lines
have a pressure transfer valve fitted which transfers pressure but not flow. It consisted of a small cylinder in
which slides a piston with the system connected to one end of the cylinder and the pressure transfer pipe to
the cockpit fitted to the other. As the system pressure changes so the piston would move and transfer the
pressure to the flight deck supply line. If this line leaked then the piston would move to the limit of its travel (2
or 3cm) with no fluid loss from the system. The pressure indication would go to zero.

A SYNCHRO SYSTEM
A more modern alternative to the pressure transfer valve system is the transmitter-indicator system
(transducing the pressure signal at source and sending the indication to the flight deck as an electrical
signal). These vary but the one described here uses a bourdon tube as a transducer with the resultant
electrical signal sent to the cockpit (figure 14).

Fig. 14 BOURDON TUBE/ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCER SYSTEM

The transmitter consists of a bourdon tube, gearing and CX (Control Transmitter). This is mounted directly
on the engine and is connected to the pressure source. The indicator consists of CT (Control Transformer),
amplifier and a servomotor.

Pressure causes the bourdon tube to move and the CX rotor to turn. This causes a change of field across
the CT rotor, inducing an error voltage. This voltage is amplified and sensed for direction and then fed to a 2-
phase servomotor, which drives the indicator and also the CT rotor. When the rotor reaches its NULL
position, ie field cutting it at 90°, there is no error signal induced and the motor stops. The gauge now
showing the system pressure.

Maintenance (as per the AMM) includes checking for security, damage, moisture ingress and correct power
supplies. Pressure tests include pressurising the transmitter side with air pressure to SOpsi and checking
that the indicator reads 80(±3)psi. This pressure is held for 3 minutes to check for leaks.

THE DEAD WEIGHT TESTER


Used to calibrate direct reading pressure gauges off the aircraft. The gauge to be tested is fitted to the tester
which is filled with the appropriate oil as used by the gauge. The unit is bled and masses as required are
placed on the mass carrier. The plunger is screwed in to ensure that the mass carrier is clear of the body
and the mass carrier rotated by hand to ensure that it is not sticking. The pressure reading is taken from the
gauge and compared to the calculated pressure.

Each mass is marked with the pressure it should generate but if marked my its weight the pressure value
can be calculated:

Pressure = force per unit area

= mass weight
piston area

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Assume the piston area to be equal to 0.2 square inches and if the masses added to the mass carrier and
the mass carrier both weigh 2.51b then the pressure equals:

Pressure = 2.5
0.2

= 12.5psi

Fig. 15 DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

ENGINE SPEED MEASUREMENT


The three most common methods of engine speed measurement are:

i. Direct drive indication system.


ii. Tacho generator indicator system.
iii. Pulse probe indicator or Tacho probe system.

DIRECT DRIVE SYSTEM


Used on small single engined aircraft (and on most road vehicles for speed indication). A flexible drive from
the engine (geared off the crankshaft) to the cockpit instrument rotates a magnet inside a drag cup
manufactured from non-magnetic material (copper or aluminium).

The rotation of the magnet induces eddy currents into the drag cup. These eddy currents create a magnetic
field which act similar to aerodynamic drag on the drag cup causing it to try to follow the rotating magnet.

A hairspring coupled to the drag cup prevents it from producing a continuous rotation of the pointer and
provides a controlling force. The final position of the pointer (indicated rpm) is determined by the speed of
rotation of the magnet and the strength of the hairspring.

This type of tachometer is impracticable for large multi engined aircraft since the flexible drive requires
frequent servicing, has a limited life and becomes erratic when long drive lengths are used.

Fig. 16 DRIVE AND DRAG CUP SYSTEM

This consists of a simple generator mounted on the engine and an electiically operated gauge in the cockpit.

The tacho generator is a small rotating field ac generator driven via a gearing from the engine (for propeller
rpm the unit is fitted to the gearbox).

The generator's rotating magnetic field cuts the stator windings producing a frequency output which is
proportional to the speed of the rotating magnet -which is in proportion to the engine rpm.

This frequency signal is sent to the gauge and is applied to the motor in the indicator which is basically an
induction motor with synchronous characteristics. The signal from the tacho generator creates a rotating
magnetic field in the stator of the indicator motor; this field therefore rotates at a speed dependent on
generator frequency and thus engine speed.

Fig. 17 TACHO-GENERATOR SYSTEM

As the field rotates it cuts the rotor of the indicator motor and causes it to rotate. The speed of the motor will
be proportional to the output frequency of the tacho-generator and therefore engine speed.

The motor drives a magnet which rotates inside a copper drag cup. The magnetic field cuts the copper cup
inducing eddy currents into it and producing a magnetic field. The field from the copper cup interacts with the
magnet field, causing the cup to rotate in the same direction as the magnet.

The effect is to drag the drag cup around using magnetic drag. The cup turns against the tension of the
hairspring until the two forces balance. The movement of the cup drives the pointers, through gearing, to
indicate the engine rpm.

The faster the generator runs the higher its frequency output and the faster the synchronous motor turns, so
the greater the magnetic force on the drag cup which will turn further against the hairspring.

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Fig. 18 TACHO-GENERATOR SYSTEM WIRING DIAGRAM

QUESTION What would happen to the system in the event of aircraft electrical power failure? (2
mins)
ANSWER Nothing. Yes, in a word - nothing. It is self-powered.

Figure 18 shows a system as fitted to a Boeing aircraft. The engine is a multi spool jet engine and therefore
has two rpm's - Nl and N2. This drawing is used because it shows clearly how the electrics are organised.
Study the drawing and make sure you understand how it works.

Maintenance Checks
1. Visually check generator for damage, security of attachment, corrosion, signs of burning and that the
drive shaft rotates freely.
2. Check gauge for clarity of presentation and correct operation.
3. Visually check cables and connectors for signs of damage, corrosion, moisture ingress and signs of
burning.
4. Carry out resistance and insulation checks between phases A, B and C.
5. Carry out any BIT checks.
6. Change any item found to be unserviceable.
7. Engine run to check full accuracy of system.

SERVO-OPERATED TACHOMETER SYSTEM


Used to operate indicators where mechanically driven counters are used whici need to be powered. The
ordinary tacho generator (above) has only enough power to rotate a lightly loaded drag cup. If counter style
presentations are required they have to be driven with something more powerful.

The tacho generator output is fed to an amplifier in the indicator. Also fed into the amplifier is a signal from a
potentiometer which is connected to the pointer in the instrument. Thus the two inputs to the amplifier are (1)
engine speed and (2) main pointer position (feedback signal).

If the instrument is indicating the speed correctly then these two signals will be the same, (the input to the
amplifier being the difference between the two signals). There is no difference, therefore no signal input to
the amplifier

If however, engine speed changes, then the input signal from the tacho is not the same as the feedback
potentiometer signal from the main pointer position This error signal (difference signal) is fed into the servo-
amplifier where the increased output is fed to a motor. The motor drives the indicator and also the digital
readout to indicate the new reading.

As the indicator is driven the potentiometer output will change and when it equals the input signal from the
tacho generator there will be no error signal -the amplifier output ceases, the motor stops and the indicator
shows the new engine speed.

On the indicator is an overspeed pointer. Should an overspeed occur the main pointer moves to the
overspeed position and carries the overspeed pointer with it. When the speed is reduced the main pointer
moves back but the overspeed pointer remains at the new position. Reset of the overspeed pointer is
achieved by operating a reset button, which energises a reset solenoid within the indicator.

Maintenance is similar to the non-servo tacho-generator system, except that \^/ ^ a servo-indicator is used
some additional checks will include checking the operation of the failure flag. Also applying a signal
generator to produce a frequency to move main pointer to overspeed. Overspeed pointer stays and resets
when reset switch is operated.

TACHO PROBE/PULSE PROBE SYSTEM


This system has the advantage that the probe has no moving parts.

The probe works on the principle of a variable reluctance circuit causing a varying magnetic field to induce a
varying emf into a coil, the frequency of the induced emf being proportional to engine speed.

The sealed probe comprises a permanent magnet, a pole piece and a number of nickel/chromium coils
around a ferromagnetic core. Separate windings provide outputs to the rpm indicator and other equipment
requiring engine speed data (FADEC and other computers etc).

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The probe is usually mounted in the engine gear box.

Fig. 19 TACHO PROBE

The probe is mounted close to a rotating ferromagnetic wheel. This wheel has castellations and is
sometimes called a phonic wheel. As each castellation passes the magnet it concentrates the magnetic field
causing the field (flux lines) to move across the coil - thus causing a rise in the voltage
s As each 'gap' passes the magnet, the field moves back across the coil - causing
a drop in the voltage. This back and forth movement of the field over the coil induces an alternating current in
the coil. The frequency of this current change is proportional to the speed the castellations pass the probe
which is proportional to the rpm of the wheel.

This frequency signal is sent to a signal-processing module (or a computer where it is digitised). It is then
sent as a dc signal to a torquer motor in the cockpit instrument. A feedback system in the instrument cancels
the signal when the pointer has reached the correct position.

In the event of power failure the scale pointer is pulled off-scale by a lightly loaded spring.

Figure 20 shows a system as fitted to a Boeing aircraft with the output frequency is received by the EICAS
computer (computerised system showing displays on CRT/flat screens) and then displayed in % rpm

Notes.
1. EICAS is fitted to Boeing aircraft and stands for Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System.
2. The drawing is only of interest in the context of what the display would look like and the details of the
phonic wheel and speed probe.

Fig. 20 PULSE PROBE ENGINE SPEED INDICATION SYSTEM

Figure 21 shows how the frequency signal is dealt with in an electromechanical type indicator. The signal is
processed and sent to a torquer motor to move the pointer. As the pointer moves so it operates a variable
resister to supply negative feedback to the summation device to cancel the original input signal.

Fig. 21 TACHO PROBE SYSTEM INDICATOR

Maintenance Checks
1. Inspect probe for damage and security of attachment. Limits will be given in Chapter 77 of the AMM.
2. Inspect cable for contamination, signs of burning and correct and secure connection. Check pins for
damage and corrosion.
3. Some systems may have a test generator where you disconnect at the probe and inject signals at
set frequencies to test the accuracy of the indicator, also to test any overspeed warning systems.

PROPELLER SYNCHRONISATION
Used on multi engined aircraft the propeller synchronisation system is used to set all engine governors at
exactly the same speed so the propellers all rotate at the same rpm, so reducing noise and vibration, though
the propellers might be at any angle relative to each other at any one point in time (phase angle).

A synchronisation system may be used with mechanical or electrical/electronic governors.

Synchronisation is normally used for all flight operations except take-off and landing. A Master Engine is
used to establish the rpm to which all other
engines (Slave Engines) will adjust.

THE MANUAL SYSTEM


The simplest method of maintaining synchronisation between engines is for the pilot to manually adjust the
throttles of each engine in turn whilst monitoring the rpm indicators.

This is not very practical because the individual instruments can have different permissible indication errors
and when made to read the same operating speeds, the engines may in fact be running at speeds differing
by an amount equal to the sum of two indication errors. In addition, the synchronising of engines by a direct
comparison of rpm indicator readings is made difficult by the sensitivity of the instruments causing the pilot to
overshoot or undershoot an on-speed condition by having to 'chase the pointers'.
In order to allow manual adjustment of rpm an additional instrument known as synchroscope is used (figure
22). It provides a qualitative indication of the differences in speeds between two or more engines and by
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using the technique of setting up the required on-speed conditions on a selected master engine, the
instrument also provides a clear and unmistakable indication of whether a slave engine is running faster or
slower than the master.

It will indicate this on the synchroscope by a rotating needle for each slave engine. There will be one needle
for each slave engine but not one for the master engine, eg on a four engined aircraft there will be three
needles, on a two engined aircraft there will be one.

The needle for each slave engine will rotate clockwise if that engine is running faster than the master and
anti-clockwise if it is running slower. It is up to th j pilot to 'nudge' the offending engine's throttle lever to get
the needle to stop rotating - not easy, but at least its rate of rotation can be reduced to be nearly stationary.

The digital display (not shown) is a four digit, liquid crystal display (LCD). A press-to-test pushbutton can be
used to verify the correct operation of the indicator, when pressed the indicator aligns with a blue dot at 1050
rpm with an equivalent digital display, when released both indications show zero.

In the event of indicator electrical power failure, the indicator moves off scale below zero and the digital
display is blanked.

Figure 22 shows the instruments for a twin-engined aircraft (left hand picture) and a four-engined aircraft
(right hand picture). Note that in each case there is one less pointer than there are engines. The master
engine does not have a pointer - only the slaves.

When a slave engine is running faster or slower than the master, its pointer will rotate in the appropriate
direction - the greater the speed the greater the difference between slave and master engine rpms.

Fig. 22 SYNCHROSCOPES

The pilot will nudge the appropriate throttle lever forward or back to get the pointer to slow and eventually
stop.

The operation is based on the principle of the induction motor, which, in this case, consists of a three-phase
star-wound stator and a three phase star-wound rotor pivoted within the stator. The stator phases are
connected to the tacho-generator of the slave engine while the rotor phases are connected to the master
engine tacho-generator via slip rings and brushes.

The pointer, which is double-ended to symbolise a propeller, is attached to the front end of the rotor shaft
and can be rotated over a dial marked INCREASE and DECREASE or FAST and SLOW.

Synchroscopes designed for use in four-engined aircraft employ three separate induction motors, the rotor of
each being connected to the master engine tacho-generator while each stator is connected to one of the
three other engine tacho-generators.

Operation
Consider the installation of a typical twin-engined aircraft tachometer system the circuit of which is shown in
figure 23. Assume that the master engine, which is usually No 1, has been adjusted to the required 'on-
speed' condition using the rpm indicator and that the slave engine has been brought into synchronisation
with it using the synchroscope.

Both tacho-generators produce a three-phase alternating current, which is fed to the synchroscope,
(generator 1 feeding the rotor and 2 the stator). Thus, a magnetic field is set up in the rotor and stator, each
field rotating at a frequency proportional to its corresponding generator frequency and for the phase rotation
of the system, rotating in the same direction.

Fig. 23 OPERATION OF SYNCHROSCOPE SYSTEM

Because generator frequencies are proportional to speed, the frequency of the synchroscope stator field is
the same as that of the rotor field. This means tru both fields reach their maximum strength at the same
instant; the torques due to these fields are in balance and the attraction between opposite poles keeps the
rotor locked' in some stationary position, thus indicting synchronisation between the two engine speeds
(pointer stationary).

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If the slave engine slows, the frequency of the slave engine generator will be lower than the master engine
generator and the stator field will be lagging the rotor field. In other words, reaching its maximum strength at
a later instant, at say, point a-a (figure 23), the rotor (being magnetised faster than the stator) tries to rotate
the stator and bring the stator field into alignment, but the stator is fixed, so a reactive torque is set up by the
interaction of the greater rotor torque with the stator.

This torque causes the rotor to turn in a direction opposite to that of its field so that it is forced to
continuously try to realign itself with the lagging stator field. The continuous rotation of the rotor drives the
pointer round to indicate that the slave engine is running SLOW and that an INCREASE of speed is require
to bring it into synchronisation with the master engine.

If the slave engine should run faster than the master then the synchroscope stator field would lead the rotor
field, reaching maximum strength at, say, point b-b. The stator field would then produce the greater torque,
which would drive the rotor to realign itself with the leading stator field, the pointer indicating that the slave
engine is running FAST and that a DECREASE of speed is required for synchronisation.

On newer multi engined piston aircraft the system is automatic.

AN AUTOMATIC SYSTEM
This will set all the engines to run at a common speed automatically. The system uses a master engine and
compares the alternator outputs from all other engines to the master engine output. An 'error' signal from any
of the slave engines is detected and is sent to the 'corrector motor' fitted to that slave engine. This alters the
setting of the power control to that engine governor and brings the revs back into line.

The signal may be generated by an engine driven tachometer generator whose voltage is used to operate a
differential motor. The voltage signal is used at the differential motor to compare the slave engine rpm to the
master engine rpm. The engine which generates the higher voltage will determine the direction the motor
rotates and this adjusts the governor setting of the slave engine.

Fig. 24 PULSE GENERATOR FITTING

If the signal is obtained from a frequency or pulse generator then it is the signal frequency that is monitored
and not the voltage. Because of this it is not possible to run a motor (as with the voltage signal system
above) directly from the signal. The signal has to be converted to a voltage output for motor operation.

A typical system consists of a master governor; a slave governor for each engine; a magnetic pulse pick-up
on each governor; a control panel in the cockpit; an electronic comparator unit and an actuator for each
slave engine.

The frequency from each engine governor (magnetic pick-up) is sent to an electronic comparator unit which
sends a correcting signal to the appropriate slave engine governor control mechanism.

Operation
On a four engined aircraft there are normally 2 master engines which the pilot can select. An alternative
engine is provided in case the current master engine fails.

The master engines are normally numbers 2 (port inner) and number 3 (starboard inner). On a twin engined
aircraft the port engine is normally used

On some systems a 're-sync' button is provided in the cockpit to reset the 'sync' system. Normally the sync
system will not operate unless the engines are within lOOrpm of each other. When the re-sync button is
pushed it allows the slave engine to move greater than lOOrpm towards the master engine. This button is
used if one or more slave engines are more than lOOrpm out of sync from the master engine.

QUESTION The sync system is used for all phases of flight except for take-off and landing. Can
you think why it is not used on take-off and landing? (2 mins)
ANSWER If the master engine fails with the sync system ON then all engines will try to follow
with an immediate lOOrpm loss of power on all slave engines. Not a good idea on
take-off (or landing).

During normal operation the sync system is switched on when all engines are within lOOrpm of each other.
This will then cause all slave engines to adjust to the same rpm of the master engine through signals being
sent to their respective governors.
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If a master control is incorporated in the cockpit it can be used to adjust the rpm of all engines
simultaneously. When the master control lever is moved it
may cause the sync system to be interrupted momentarily, should return as soon as the lever stops moving.
but synchronisation

Maintenance
Of course, all routine maintenance is carried out in accordance with the and the maintenance schedule. It will
involve checking for damage, security, moisture ingress, signs of burning, cleanliness, open circuits, correct
lubrication and functional testing. Non routine maintenance will include fault finding, component changes and
functional testing.

A Typical Test includes (but always refer to the AMM):


1. Start all engines and set to within lOOrpm of each other.
2. Select master engine - if not already selected automatically.
3. Switch on sync system and check all engines synchronise.
4. Change master control rpm and note that all slave engines follow.
5. Test the re-sync system by changing the rpm of each slave engine by less than lOOrpm and noting
that it returns to the master rpm setting once the switch is released. Moving it outside this range
should cause the system to go out of sync.
6. Turn off sync system.
7. Set engines more than lOOrpm different from master and press tht re-sync button.
8. Each time re-sync button is pressed all slave engines should move closer to the master engine by
lOOrpm until all engines are synchronised.

SYNCHROPHASING
Not really an instrument system but included here for completeness.

Whilst keeping the rpms of all the propellers the same each blade of each propeller is caused to reach 'top
dead centre' at a different time. This further reduces vibration and noise levels.

Fig. 25 SYNCHROPHASING

The propeller synchrophasing control circuits provide for automatic synchronising and phase angle non-
alignment for the propeller system.

On a two-engined aircraft, No 1 propeller is the master and No 2 propeller is the slave. System components
consist of a synchrophase control unit, a torque motor (contained in the Pitch Control Unit of engine No 2)
and two pulse generators.

The synchrophasing mode is manually selectable and must remain switched off during take-off and landing
or when operating the propeller outside the cruise range.

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS


If exhaust temperatures are to be measured then this is usually carried out by the use of thermocouples.

A thermocouple system consists of a hot junction and a cold junction connected by an electrical circuit (figure
26). The hot junction is made up of two dissimilar metals joined together, If the metals are heated an emf is
generated in the circuit proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot junction and the cold
junction of the circuit. If the circuit is opened at one end, termed the cold junction end and a millivoltmeter is
inserted then the value of the emf can be measured. The millivoltmeter will be calibrated in degrees of
temperature.

Fig. 26 THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLE

THERMOCOUPLE PROBES
The thermocouple is mounted in a ceramic insulator and encased in a metal protective sheath, the whole
assembly forming a probe which is projected into the gas stream. The thermocouple itself is made form
Chromel (a nickel-chromium alloy) and Alumel (a nickel-aluminium alloy).

The thermocouple shown in figure 27 protrudes into the space inside the end of the housing, which has
transfer holes in it to allow the exhaust gas to flow across the junction. The relative positions of the transfer
holes in the housing depends on the actual design of the unit and what engine it is fitted to.
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The cables from the thermocouple probes are formed as a harness around the engine and terminate at a
junction box, which also provides the connecting point for the cables leading to the indicator.

The types of thermocouple vary so check the aircraft you are currently working on. It should be noted that
the probe may contain one, two or three elements to feed exhaust gas temperature to other systems, eg top
temperature control, FADEC etc.

Fig. 27 STAGNATION TYPE EXHAUST GAS THERMOCOUPLE

Fig. 28 CYLINDER HEAD THERMOCOUPLE

Fig. 29 SIMPLIFIED EGT SYSTEM

The leads going from the junction box to the indicator will be Alumel and Chromel (although this may not
always be the case). The mechanical indicator is a moving coil millivoltmeter calibrated in degrees
centigrade but modern systems will use a flat screen display with signals coming from a computer.

Some systems may include a trimmer resistor which allows adjustment of the overall circuit resistance. In
addition, on some aircraft, a ballast resistor is fitted, as shown in figure 29, across the thermocouple output.

This is required because on certain types of engine, due to temperature scatter at the exhaust, hot spots will
tend to increase the output of some thermocouples, giving an incorrect reading.

The resistor is across the thermocouple output to 'load' the output and divert the excessive current to enable
the indicator to read accurately. The value of the resistor will vary from engine to engine and is usually
recorded on the engine data plate and also in the engine logbook. The resistor, if fitted, must be removed
with the engine.

If the leads from the engine to the indicator are made of the same material as the thermocouples these are
known as extension leads.

On some aircraft the leads from the engine to the indicator are not made of the same material as the
thermocouples, eg Chromel/Alumel thermocouples migl have Copper/Constantan leads to the indicator,
these leads are known as compensating leads.

Cold Junction Temperature Compensation


If there is any change of temperature at the cold junction end of the system then this will cause a small emf
to be produced and the indicator will read incorrectly. So a method needs to be found to compensate for
changes of cold junction temperature and keep the indicator reading the correct temperature.

One method employed is to use a bi-metallic strip within the moving coil indicator. This will change shape as
the cold junction temperature changes and put a correction into the instrument.

The temperature changes at the indicator also effect the resistance of the moving coil itself, if the
temperature goes up, its resistance goes up and the current through it falls and therefore the indication will
be low. One method of overcoming this problem is to connect a thermistor in series with the indicator coil. A
thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient, ie its resistance decreases with an increase in
temperature. If the temperature of the indicator increases then the coil increases its resistance, the
thermistor resistance decreases, so the overall resistance of the coil circuit remains the same. Therefore
current and indication will remain the same.

In the simplest thermocouple system no external power is required but on many aircraft an ac power supply
is used to amplify the signal to power motors within the cockpit gauge.

Maintenance Procedures
It is important that you study your own manuals for the aircraft you are currently working on. Use the
following notes as guidelines only.

Visual Checks
1. Check thermocouple probes for damage, security of attachment and blockage.
2. Check engine harness for moisture, carbon deposits, general condition of cables, terminal
connections for correct torque loading and cleanliness.
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System Tests
1. Insulation tests - may include disconnecting leads at engine junction box and using a low voltage
meggar, checking between each lead and ground, between each terminal stud and ground and
between each cable outer covering and inner conductor.

2. Short circuit and open circuit tests.

3. Resistance checks - this is normally done by taking a resistance reading with leads of test meter
connected one way, then a reading is taken with the leads reversed and the two noted resistance
readings added together and divided by two.

4. Accuracy Test - involves injecting millivolts into the system to check indicator is within limits as laid
down in the AMM. Also to check over-temperature indications by injecting millivolts to over-
temperature level and checking that indication comes on and goes off within required values.

NB. It is important that you know whether the test set you are using has automatic ambient temperature
compensation or not, if not then allowance must be made for the ambient temperature.

5. Failure Flag - Tripping and resetting the circuit breaker to ensure flag appears and disappears
correctly.

6. Resistance of Ballast Resistance.

Now look up your manual and make a list of the checks including an engine run check to ensure
serviceability of the system.

OTHER TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS


These include temperature indicating systems for engine oil temperature and fluid coolant temperature for
example, and involves the use of resistance bulbs as the sensor and a ratiometer type indicator in the flight
deck (or flat screen display).

The resistance bulb (figure 30) has resistance wire of nickel or platinum wound on an insulated former and
sealed in a brass or stainless steel tube, which may be filled with an inert gas to assist heat transfer to the
element. Whether nickel or platinum is used depends on the temperatures to be measured. Nickel can be
used up to 300°C and platinum up to 600°C.

The ratiometer indicator gives a good degree of accuracy. One of its coils is connected directly across the
supply and the other is connected in series with the temperature bulb. The principle of operation is the same
as that described for the dc ratiometer.

Remember the torque on each coil is proportional to current and flux and as the two torque's oppose each
other and become equal the pointer of the instrument becomes stationary.

Fig. 30 TEMPERATURE BULB

The cockpit indicator and temperature bulb have small inherent resistances and their resistance will change
with temperature change. This means that the system would indicate when there was an ambient
temperature change. This has to be corrected. Therefore the system is wired in such a way that when there
is an ambient temperature change both sides of the system are affected the same and as the coils are
wound in opposition the resistance change cancels each other out.

An open circuited coil will move the indicator to the full-scale position.

Figure 31 shows a schematic of an oil temperature measuring system for a helicopter jet engine, but it could
equally be an oil system for a piston engine. Study and understand it, but there is no need to commit it to
memory.

Maintenance Checks
Check the AMM of your aircraft but in general:
1. Inspect bulb for damage and corrosion, and electrical connection for resistance and insulation
checks.

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2. Check indicator for electrical connections, broken glass, damaged case. Power failure - check
indication moves below scale.
3. System checks. These will vary from aircraft to aircraft. Some just measure temperature of the oil
with a calibrated thermometer and compare with the gauge. Others disconnect the bulb and
substitute a set value of resistance and the indicator should read a certain value. Others have a test
box, which can simulate temperature bulb resistance's to check and calibrate the indicator.

Fig. 31 EXAMPLE OF OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATION SYSTEM -

HELICOPTER ENGINE
FUEL FLOW RATE INDICATING SYSTEMS
These measure the rate of fuel usage to each engine. The transducer is usually fitted to the engine in the
fuel line before the fuel injectors/carburettors. There are several types and we shall consider three:

1. Rotating Vane Type


2. Motorless Rotor Type (rare on piston engined aircraft)
3. Motor Driven Rotor Type (rare on piston engined aircraft)

1. above relies on a variable orifice type of arrangement and 2. and 3. rely on the impact of the
(rotating) fuel on a turbine. The main advantage of 2. and 3. above is that they automatically compensate
for any changes in the fuel density (due to temperature change) and can therefore indicate more accurately
the mass (in kg) of fuel per unit time being consumed by the engine. (The moss of fuel burnt governs the
amount of heat produced more accurately than the volume).

This is achieved by measuring the 'momentum' of the moving fuel. Momentum is a function of velocity (v)
and density (p) (rho).

ROTATING VANE TYPE (Figures 32 85 33)


The transducer consists of two sections in the one unit, one section - the flow measuring chamber and the
other the data transfer section. The flow measuring chamber is completely sealed from the data transfer
section.

The transducer is supplied with 400Hz 26V ac. It has a cast body with fuel inlet and outlet connections.
When fuel enters the unit it impinges on a metering vane and moves it against a calibrated spring about a
pivot. This movement causes it to rotate within a volute shaped chamber so the gap between the end of the
vane and the chamber wall becomes wider. Thus with increasing fuel flow the vane is caused to move
further round the volute curvg to allow the fuel through the increasing gap.
So as the flow increases the vane is caused to move to a greater angular displacement against the action of
the control spring. The vane is mounted on a shaft carried in two bushed plain bearings, one in each cover
plate enclosing the metering chamber.

Turbulence in the fuel is reduced by the provision of fixed guide vanes at the inlet.

Should the moving vane become jammed or blocked then provision is made for a spring loaded pressure
operated by-pass valve to open to allow fuel to bypass the volute chamber. The fuel will then go direct to the
engine fuel burners.

Fig. 32 VANE TYPE FLOW TRANSDUCER

Automatic by-pass provision is a mandatory requirement for all fuel system components - should they fail or
become blocked in any way.

Some transducers have a viscosity valve fitted. This is to allow a small quantity of extra fuel to pass through
the valve when the viscosity gets too high. It is a small plate cut within the by-pass valve. The position of the
plate is controlled by a small bi-metallic spring. As the temperature of the fuel falls the spring will contract
and cause the plate to open (at about 10°C) allowing some extra fuel through to the engine.

Fig. 33 ROTATING VANE TRANSDUCER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

At one end of the casing the shaft protrudes through the bearing and carries a 2 pole ring magnet which
forms part of a magnetic coupling between the vane and the data transfer unit. The shaft of the data transfer
unit also carries a two pole magnet. This arrangement ensures a complete seal between the flow measuring

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chamber and the data transfer unit and provides a 'magnetic lock' between the moving vane and the rotor of
the torque receiver synchro of the data transfer unit.

The torque receiver synchro transmits the movement of the vane in the flow indicator using normal synchro
system action. Indication in the cockpit being in Ib/min or kg/min or kg/hour.

MOTORLESS ROTOR TYPE


The principle involves the swirling of the fuel in a circular motion and allowing this swirling fuel to impinge
onto a turbine. This will displace the turbine against a spring and the amount of displacement is proportional
to the momentum of the fuel.

Fig. 34 FUEL FLOW INDICATION SYSTEM - BOEING

The transducer unit consists of two cylindrical drums housed in a casing placed within the fuel line to the
engine burners. Both drums have fluid passageways cut through them to allow an unhindered flow of the
fuel.

Figure 34 shows a drawing of a system fitted to a Boeing aircraft. While it is a jet engine the principle of
operation is shown clearly.

The fuel enters the unit after passing through the flow director which ensures that the flow is linier and there
are no angular velocities. The swirl generator then imposes a swirling motion to the fuel. The fuel passes
through the passageways in the rotor and the swirling action of the fuel causes it to rotate. The swirling fuel
leaves the rotating rotor and impinges (within its passageways) onto the turbine which causes it to rotate
against its restraining spring.

A start and stop magnet is attached to the rotor and a signal blade is attached to the turbine. Attached to the
unit casing is a start coil and a circumferential stop coil.

As the magnets pass the coils so two signals are generated. These are passed to individual pulse amplifiers
and then to a bi-stable transistorised switch - all contained within an electronic module on the unit.

When fuel flows through the unit the rotor rotates and the turbine is pulled part way round against its spring
positioning the signal blade at a certain position around the stop coil. As the start magnet passes the start
coil an emf is induced into it which will switch a transistor on in the electronic unit. When the stop magnet
passes under the signal blade a pulse is induced into the stop coil which will switch the transistor off.

This means that the bi-stable switch will produce a series of pulses (one per revolution of the unit) the width
of each pulse being proportional to the phase displacement of the rotor and turbine drums and hence
proportional to the flow rate, eg:

 Low fuel flow rate - small angular displacement between outer and inner drum - transistor switched
on for a short time interval -pulse width small.
 High fuel flow rate - large angular displacement between drums -transistor switched on for a longer
time interval - longer pulse width.

These series of pulses are fed to a computer which consists of a signal comparator (SC), a modulator and
an amplifier. The output is sent to the CRT/flat screen display in the cockpit.

MOTOR DRIVEN TYPE (figure 35)


Maybe called the Variable Transformer Type and is not too unlike the previous transducer described except
that the rotor is driven at a constant speed by an electric motor. The one described below has a variable
transformer pick-off but there can be other methods of obtaining an output signal.

This unit uses the principle of rotating the fuel to impart energy to it and causing it to impinge upon a (nearly)
stationary turbine. The turbine is pulled against a calibrated spring and its position picked-off by a rotating
core transformer.

The impeller is caused to rotate at an accurate rpm by a two-phase motor controlled by a motor control
module. The rotation of the impeller induces a rotational movement into the fuel and this will be felt by the
turbine as the fuel passes through it. The turbine will be displaced by the energy of the fuel pulling it against
a calibrated spring. This will change the position of the transformer core and hence change the transformer
output. 4
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Fig. 35 MOTOR DRIVEN FLOW RATE TRANSDUCER SYSTEM

The output signal is sent via the signal line to the cockpit indicator where it is f amplified and used to drive a
gauge motor and a rotor and drag cup assembly. This in turn drives the gauge pointer.

If the aircraft has more than one engine a fuel flow rate will be indicated for each engine and a fuel totaliser
may be incorporated.

Note that the power supply is temperature controlled so that a very accurate ac supply is sent to the
transducer motor ensuring an accurate rotation of the impeller at all times.

Maintenance Practices
Reference to the AMM will give various procedures such as:
 Equipment removal and fitment.
 BIT testing.
 Equipment testing - transducers, indicators, power supplies, computers, data transmission lines etc.
 System testing including engine ground running.

The removal/fitting of the transducer unit will include checking and inspection of all connections - pipelines,
power and signal cables, bonding cables etc. Checking the unit for damage and verifying correct part
number, serial number, title etc against the IPC (parts catalogue)/EASA form 1 or similar. If transducers can
be fitted the wrong way round in the pipeline (not made Murphy Proof) - check for correct fitment orientation.
Some transducers are transported fuel filled - so check.

Transducer testing can be carried out on an engine run with a known serviceable indicator. Check fuel
system is bled of all air.

With indicator testing, on some systems, various current values are applied to the system and the readings
noted. These are checked against the AMM -tolerances will be stated.
On other systems an audio oscillator is used to simulate fuel flow. Various frequencies are imputed into the
system with each one representing a specific fuel flow rate.

Larger/mo re complex aircraft will have on-board maintenance checking systems. Test facilities may be
available as BIT at each computer/LRU (LRU = Line Replacement Unit). These on-board checks may
include checking for:

 Short circuits in cables, PCBs, motors, transmitter circuits etc. (PCB = Printed Circuit Board).
 Faults in the indicator and checking for accuracy.

The Engine Run


In general will require the engine to run at idle, checking for leaks and noting fuel flow rate. This is carried out
at various engine speeds with the flow rates checked against the AMM. Check engine to engine figures also.
On some aircraft the barometric pressure and outside air temperature (OAT) must be noted and recorded.
These figures are used to convert recorded readings to standard values.

MANIFOLD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT


This is the pressure in the intake manifold of the piston engine with the instrument scale calibrated in inches
of mercury.

Supercharging is the process of increasing the pressure in the manifold to a level above about 30in Hg to
provide a higher mass of charge into the cylinder, thus providing more power from the engine.

The manifold pressure gauge is an absolute pressure gauge and therefore reads atmospheric pressure
when the engine is not running. The cockpit gauge consists of two bellows, one connected to the intake
manifold of the engine and the other sealed and evacuated and fitted internally with a controlling spring.

Fig. 36 MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGE

When pressure is fed to the open bellows it expands to cause the pointer to move over the scale via a
quadrant and pinion gearing. Assuming the engine controls are set to provide a fixed amount of boost
pressure and the aircraft climbs. As the aircraft climbs so the pressure on the outside of the open bellows
drops and they will expand further indicating an increase in boost pressure - which is incorrect. However,
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with increasing altitude the evacuated bellows will expand effectively pushing against the open bellows. This
will counteract the tendency of the open bellows to over-read with altitude.

Fig. 37 MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGE FOR A TWIN ENGINED AIRCRAFT

The forces from the two bellows balance each other and the gauge pointer position is taken from between
the two. The sealed bellows cancel out any atmospheric pressure changes effecting the open bellows and
the gauge reads absolute pressure (ambient atmospheric pressure + manifold pressure).

THE GLASS COCKPIT


Although not specifically mentioned in the CAA EASA part 66 syllabus the syllabus is written in such a way
that it is effectively included - and piston engined aircraft are starting to incorporate them anyway.

On all new large aircraft and most modern piston engined aircraft the electromechanical instruments in the
flight deck/cockpit have been replaced by Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs)/or flat screen displays. Except for
standby instruments all the information is displayed in colour on selectable screens.
(It is a requirement that the more essential instruments have a mechanical standby should the screen
displays fail).

The glass cockpit system uses transducers, similar to those previously described, to convert the parameter
to be measured into an electrical signal. This signal is sent to various computers for processing. These
include FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control), Data Acquisition Units, Electronic Engine Control
Units (ECC), Signal Conditioning Units (SCU), Symbol Generator Unit (SGU) and the Airplane Information
Management System (AIMS - Boeing).

SCUs, SGUs and AIMS units provide a picture signal for the screens in the cockpit.

These will show one or more of the following:


 A moving coloured picture of the instrument with a dial scale analogue readout and an alpha numeric
readout.
 Coloured symbols representing lights - red, warning - green, safe etc.
 Alpha numeric data displays.
 Simple coloured schematics of systems such as hydraulic, cabin pressurisation etc. These will show,
in real time, important data about the system as it is at that instant.
Most aircraft have several screens and typically these are arranged as follows (but not all aircraft are the
same):
 Two in front of the pilot (First officer) (large aircraft) .
 Two in front of the co-pilot (Second officer) (large aircraft) .
 Two in the centre (large aircraft).
 One in front of the pilot and one in front of the front seat passenger (small aircraft).

For large aircraft the screens in front of the pilots will normally display flight data such as the Horizontal
Situation Indicator (HSI) and the Attitude Director Indicator (ADI).

The centre displays will show selectable data on systems such as engines, hydraulics, electrical power
supplies, pneumatic supplies, fuel systems etc.

Screens have a re-configuration capability and in an emergency a screen will automatically give data on the
emergency, listing any corrective actions.

Fig. 38 THE A320 FLIGHT DECK INSTRUMENT DISPLAY

Figure 38 shows the flight deck instrumentation of the A320 (one of the first aircraft to have a 'glass cockpit")
showing EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrumentation System) displays and the ECAM ( Electronic Centralised
Aircraft Monitor) displays.

The figure serves to show that on most systems the displays can be 'switched around' to suit the pilot's
requirements.

Figure 39 shows the engine page of the A320. Note the layout of the screen and the fact that it is showing all
the engine operating parameters (rpm, temperatures, fuel and other others) on the one screen.

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When carrying out an engine run you will be expected to ensure that these systems are *up and running', all
BIT tests have been completed successfully and the engine page is showing and indicating the expected
parameters.

Fig. 39 ENGINE PAGE - A320

CHECKING INSTRUMENTS - GENERAL


The checks to be carried out on instrument systems (instruments, wiring, transducers etc) are concerned
mainly with visual checks for security, damage, contamination and correct reading (engine stationary, rpm
zero for example).

Functioning and performance tests are carried out during an engine run, and/or when carrying out BIT tests,
and/or with the use of special test equipment that inputs a test signal into the system.

All these checks will be specified in the AMM with the frequency dictated by the maintenance schedule - or
as required when fault finding etc.

Checks on the instruments include inspection for:


 Security of attachment of the instrument panels.
 Security of instruments/CRTs/screens etc to panels.
 Evidence of any damage to the instruments themselves including correct pointer and counter
positions and clearly legible alpha numeric displays.
 Security and correct operation of any adjuster knobs.
 Operation of internal lighting, warning flags etc - if fitted.
 Correct operation of any BIT/Press to Test systems.
 System checks include:
 Checking for security, damage, contamination and moisture ingress of all cables, connectors,
transducers and equipment.
 Operation of various BIT checks or running a systems test using an on-board computer or by the
connection of an external test box.
 Carrying out a full functional during an engine run.

Performance Tests
Performance tests on instruments should be carried out before installation, at times when their operation is
suspect and at the periods specified in the relevant manufacturer's manual and or the AMM. This is normally
carried out at an approved maintenance facility.

Book 6
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK
You should read through the book and be able to understand what is being said. You should be able to
relate the information to your own engine/experience, and it is quite possible that your experience is with
Lycoming engines - in that case you should get double benefit from it - but even if you have never seen a
Lycoming before then it is still very worth while reading and understanding.

For those subjects that we have already covered use the book as revision, and relate this book to what we
have already covered. Remember it is not a type rating licence that you are going for, so it is the general
principles that you should commit to memory.

You should be able to answer the questions at the back - before looking at the answers given.
Many of the procedures given would apply in general to all piston engines.

ENGINE THEORY AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF LYCOMING ENGINES


Internal combustion engines whether automobile or aircraft are fundamentally alike in principle and design.
Both convert chemical energy consisting of fuel-air mixture into useful work. However, the latter has to meet
certain design and construction criteria. It must be light-weight, compact and be able to operate under
various conditions.

Whereas the automobile operator is not too concerned about engine operating limits, the pilot on the other
hand must be constantly aware of the engines limitations. He is constantly confronted with the problems of
engine speed, cylinder temperatures, fuel-air mixture, oil pressure and temperature and many others. If he
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disregards any of these functions, it can lead to a situation that could lower engine reliability and ultimately
result in engine failure.

Cockpit instruments, supplemented by observance of powerplant operation, enables the operator to


determine the manner in which the different parts of the engine are functioning. A corresponding set of
controls allows the pilot to make necessary engine adjustments to meet the changing conditions
encountered during flight operation. This balance cannot be maintained if engines are not functioning as
required. It becomes the responsibility of the mechanic to assure the pilot that all engines have been
correctly maintained and serviced to achieve desired engine performance.

To understand operation of Lycoming engines, a brief description of various engine components have been
outlined.

When referring to Lycoming engines, the term "front" of the engine will refer to the propeller end of the
engine. The term "rear" of the engine will refer to the anti propeller or accessory housing end of the engine.
The terms "right" and "left" will apply when the engine is viewed by an observer standing at the rear of the
engine, that is, facing the accessory housing^

The oil sump is considered the lower section of the engine.

When reference is made to individual cylinders and pistons, the section nearest the crankshaft will be
referred to as the lower section and the section nearest the rocker box cover will be referred to as the upper
section. The right front cylinder is No. 1 and the cylinders on the right side are designated by odd numbers
(1,3 and 5). The left cylinder is No. 2 and the cylinders on the left side are designated by even numbers (2, 4
and 6). Direction of rotation of the crankshaft, looking at the propeller end of the engine is counter clockwise,
with the exception of L10 engines (L for left-hand rotation) and the TIGO-541. Reference to rotation of
crankshaft will apply only when engine is viewed from the propeller end. Direction of rotation of accessory
drives apply only when facing the drives or the drive mounting pad.

COMPONENTS CRANKSHAFT
The crankshaft is made from a chrome nickel molybdenum steel forging. All bearing surfaces are nitrided
and centrifugal sludge removers are provided in the form of oil tubes at each crankpin journal. These tubes
can be removed during overhaul of the engine to permit thorough cleaning of the internal oil passages in the
crankshaft.

CRANKCASE
The crankcase assembly consists of two reinforced aluminium alloy casting divided vertically at the centre
line of the engine and fastened together by means of a series of studs and nuts. The mating surfaces of the
crankcase are joined without the use of gasket, and the main bearing bores are machined for the use of
precision type main bearing inserts. Machined mounting pads are incorporated into the crankcase for
attaching the accessories or accessory housing, cylinders, and oil sump.

CONNECTING RODS
The connecting rods are made in the form of "H" sections from alloy steel forgings. They have replaceable
bearing inserts in the crankshaft end and split type bronze bushings in the piston end. The bearing caps on
the crankshaft ends of the rods are retained by means of two bolts through each cap secured by slotted nuts
and cotter pins.

CYLINDERS
Cylinders are individually attached and are staggered, which permits a separate throw on the crankshaft for
each connecting rod. The cylinder head is composed of an aluminium alloy, screwed and shrunk into a
forged alloy steel barrel. Chrome cylinders are identified by an orange band at the base of f the cylinder or
on.the cylinder fins between the push rods. Nitrided hardened steel cylinders are identified in the same
manner, except that the colour is blue.

PISTONS
Pistons are the full skirt type machined from an aluminium alloy forging. The piston pin is of the full floating
type with an aluminium plug located at each end to prevent pin from touching cylinder wall.

VALVE MECHANISM
The valve mechanism is located on the upper side of the engine, thereby facilitating proper lubrication and
accessibility. The camshaft is located parallel to and above the crankshaft and operates in aluminium
bearings.
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The camshaft actuates the valves by means of mushroom tappets. The valve rockers are supported on a full
floating steel shaft. The valve springs are supported against steel seats at each end and are retained on the
valve stems by tapered split keys. Valve clearance is adjusted by means of an adjusting screw and locknut
located in the valve rocker with the 0-235 models; the others featuring hydraulically operated tappets, are
adjustable only by means of selecting push rods of different length.

HYDRAULIC VALVE TAPPETS


All Lycoming engines, except the 0-235, are equipped with hydraulic valve lifters. The unit is a fairly simple
positive action device which will deliver trouble free performance under all normal operating conditions.

ACCESSORY DRIVES
The following accessory drives are furnished as standard equipment:

Starter
Generator
Propeller Governor
Tachometer
Vacuum Pump

Fuel pump drive and hydraulic pump drive are available as optional equipment.

COOLING SYSTEM
The air pressure cooling system is actuated by the forward speed of the aircraft. Baffles are provided to build
up a pressure between the cowling and the cylinders, thus forcing the cool air through the cylinder fins. The
air is then exhausted through augmenter tubes, cowl flaps or gills located at the rear of the engine cowling.

IGNITION SYSTEM
Dual ignition is either furnished by two Bendix Scintilla SN or two Slick magnetos, or one Bendix dual
magneto, which are mounted respectively on the upper right and left sides of the accessory drive housing or
on the reduction gear. The shielded ignition wiring is so arranged that the left magneto fires the top plugs in
the left hand cylinders and the bottom plugs of the right cylinders, while the right magneto fires the bottom
plugs of the left hand cylinders and the top plugs of the right cylinders. This arrangement insures consistent
dropoff when switching from both magnetos to either the right or the left magneto.

SUPERCHARGER
Certain Lycoming engines are equipped with a single stage, centrifugal type, supercharger; the unit is
mounted on the rear accessory housing, contained within is a series of lightweight magnesium and
aluminium castings incorporating an inlet housing, impeller section, diffuser and scroll (volute) housing. The
supercharger is driven an 11 times crankshaft speed.

TURBOCHARGER
Certain Lycoming engines are equipped with an AiResearch turbocharger. The TO-360 series engines have
a manually controlled Rajay Turbocharger installed on this system. The turbocharger is controlled by a
wastegate which is connected to the carburettor throttle linkage to avoid overboosting at high power settings.
An automatic pop-off valve is installed.

The purpose of this turbocharger is to maintain sea level atmospheric pressure over a broad engine altitude
operating range. The density controller used with this system prevents overboosting of the engine at lower
altitudes and maintains a supply of air to the intake manifold to provide sea level power at altitude.

CRANKSHAFT VIBRATION
As previously described, the purpose of a counterweight system is to remove torsional vibrations which are
induced by the firing impulses of the power stroke; by the inertia of moving masses such as pistons and
connecting rods and by propeller blade stresses posed upon the crankshaft. However, before becoming
involved in the actual function and operation of the counterweight system, the term "tuning" should be
defined:

Inertia Tuning - The object of inertia tuning is to choose the dimensions of the absorber so that the resultant
equivalent inertia, corresponding to the harmonic order which it is desired to suppress, has a value which
either eliminates resonance altogether or else removes the specified critical speed right outside the speed
range.

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The above definition might cause some confusion for personnel who are not familiar with the technical
language used in the definition. In order to simplify the above statement, let us say:
Inertia Tuning - is the object of selecting the correct weight and amount of linear-angular-movement of the
counterwieght assembly on the counterwieght mounting lugs so that all vibrations are eliminated or placed
beyond the operational speed range (RPM) of the engine.

PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMIC DAMPING


It therefore follows that detuning is the reverse of tuning. It is the condition which does not eliminate or
suppress the harmonic order but, in fact, aggravates the harmonic order (vibrations) to such a degree that
engine failure is imminent.

As to the selection of the correct weight of the counterweights, only design engineers determine this. The
amount of linear-angular-movement is also determined by engineers; however, upon removal of any
counterweight assembly, overhaul personnel will notice that the rollers which hold the counterweights to the
mounting lugs come in several sizes. This is in several diameters. The size of the roller will determine what
harmonic order (vibration) the counterweight assembly will eliminate or place beyond the operational speed
range of the engine. Thus the difference in roller diameters determine the linear-angular-movement of the
counterweight. These various angular movements of the counterweights will determine which frequency
vibrations can be eliminated from the crankshaft.

This force is carried by two rollers, i.e. each roller has to withstand 5000 kg or 5 metric tons. Since the rollers
are touching the crankshaft and counterweight bushings (hardened steel) more or less in a line and not on a
large surface, you may imagine that the specific pressure is a very high one.

The centrifugal force is then required to nullify the vibrational frequencies in the crankshaft. Furthermore, this
force may and will in some cases eliminate the vibration by placing the inherent vibration frequency beyond
the operational speed range of the crankshaft (engine RPM).

In other words, when the crankshaft is rotating, firing impulses, piston assembly inertia forces and propeller
stresses will induce vibrations of certain frequencies and magnitudes in the crankshaft. Depending on the
size of the roller (angular displacement) the counterweight will take up a certain position relative to the
mounting lug. The lugs have a hardened steel bushing of fixed size in which the hardened roller is allowed to
move, (movement depends on roller size). As rotational speed (RPM) of the crankshaft is varied so will be
the position of the counterweights in the lugs.

Naturally, with various speeds and engine loads, various vibrations of the crankshaft will be realised.
However, as these engine conditions are varied so will be the positioning of the counterweights because the
various positions of the counterweights will attempt to nullify the different vibrations set up in the crankshaft.

Therefore, we can readily see that the rollers move in the steel bushings. The contact between the bushing
and the roller is a line contact. To comprehend the force on the rollers and lugs when the crankshaft is
rotating let us look at the following calculation:
2
Centrifugal Force = Mass x Velocity
Radius
2
F = mxV
r

Counter weight mass = 1 kg (average)


Velocity = 28 m/sec
Radius = 80mm (approx)
2
Force (kg) = 1 x 28
0.08

= 9800 N

If the above is kept in mind, we now can readily see that a sudden change in RPM either acceleration or
deceleration can and will cause an overload condition on the rollers and steel bushings. No actual
engineering figures are available as to the forces placed upon the rollers and the steel bushings when a
rapid power change is made.

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It is the sudden power change that causes the detuning of the counterweights
(it is the overload condition placed on the rollers and steel bushings). The detuning (overload) has the effect
of damaging the contact surfaces of the rollers and steel bushings. This damage to the contact (rolling)
surfaces has the undesirable effect of not allowing the counterweight to take up its original designed position,
it then no longer dampens or nullifies the harmonic order (vibration) but, in fact, will aggravate the vibrational
condition to such a point that it can and will destroy the engine.

As the result of the undamped and aggravated vibrational conditions within the engine, main and journal
bearings may be overloaded with a probable result in lubrication breakdown. In addition, the accessory
housing gears will also be subjected to the uncontrolled harmonic order with the result in unusually high gear
wear.

FUEL SYSTEMS
The primary function of the carburettor or the fuel injector is to supply the engine with a combustible mixture
of fuel and air during all speed load conditions. This fuel-air mixture is delivered to the cylinders and is
subject to control by the operator, to deliver the mixture:

1. At the proper fuel-air ratio.


2. In sufficient quantities to meet power requirements.
3. At temperatures that will ensure proper combustion.

If the engine is not supplied with the correct fuel-air mixture under all conditions of flight, engine performance
will be affected and severe damage to the engine may result.

Variations in energy differ with the mixture of petrol and air. The weight of fuel divided by the weight of air in
a given mixture is known as the fuel air ratio (F/A). It is also possible to determine the air-fuel ratio. Divide
the weight of air by the weight of fuel in a given mixture (A/F).

Normal combustion of the fuel-air mixture is not a spontaneous explosion, but smooth and even. After
ignition occurs, the mixture burns smoothly and evenly with the flame front advancing at a measurable rate;
approximately 35 feet per second at the start, and increasing to about 150 ft/second, and finally slowing
down as the normal combustion process nears completion. However, the unburned portion forward of the
flame front can be sufficiently heated and compressed to produce auto-ignition, which results in a sudden
and violent explosion of the charge. This explosion is known as detonation.

Detonation is the spontaneous combustion of the final remaining unburned charge after normal ignition.
Pressure waves, set in motion by detonation, travel at supersonic speed and can produce damaging effects
on combustion chamber parts. Continued engine operation with detonation can result in dished piston heads,
collapsed valve heads, broken rings and lands or portion of valves and cylinder heads can become eroded.

Detonation can also pave the way for pre-ignition by producing an eroded surface that becomes
incandescent. Pre-ignition is the uncontrolled firing of the charge in advance of normal ignition. Another more
prominent cause of pre-ignition is deposits of lead and exhaust residue which accumulate on the combustion
chamber surfaces. This accumulation becomes hot enough to ignite the fuel-air mixture in advance of normal
ignition.

Pre-ignition results in high pressures and temperatures during the final part of the compression stroke;
continued operation of engine in this condition can result in burnt pistons, broken cylinder heads, scuffed
cylinder walls and excessive damage to valve and spark plugs. Control of pre-ignition can be accomplished
by proper maintenance and operating procedures aimed at maintaining the combustion chamber in proper
condition.

POWER ENRICHMENT SYSTEM


When full power is demanded of an engine, detonation is likely to occur if some of the excessive heat is not
removed from the cylinder heads. When the throttle is opened wide, the power enrichment system
automatically adds fuel to that metered from the main system. This additional fuel removes some of the
unwanted heat.

One popular method of enriching the mixture at full throttle places a throttle-actuated needle valve in the
main airbleed passage.

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When the throttle is opened wide, a cam on the throttle shaft moves the needle valve so it will restrict the
airbleed. This allows more fuel and less air to be pulled form the discharge nozzle, enriching the mixture as
in Figure A.

FIGURE A

ACCELERATOR SYSTEM
Engine hesitation during the transition from idle to full power is prevented by the acceleration system, which
provides a momentarily rich mixture when the throttle is suddenly opened.

A pump, such as we see in Figure B, is attached to the throttle mechanism, and when the throttle is closed,
the plunger is pulled up, allowing fuel from the float bowl to unseat the ball check valve and fill the pump
chamber.

FIGURE B
When the throttle is opened, the plunger is forced down, reseating the ball valve into the airstream at a point
of high air velocity (as seen in Figure C). Here it is vaporised. A spring on the telescoping pump shaft
prolongs the discharge.

FIGURE C

IDLE SYSTEM
The idle system meters the fuel when the engine is operated at speeds below that which produces sufficient
airflow for the operation of the main metering system. When the throttle is closed enough air flows around
the butterfly valve to produce a large pressure drop at its edge (see figure D).

FIGURE D
Fuel is pulled up from the base of the main discharge nozzle, is metered through the idle metering jet, and
then mixed with air from the airbleed. The resulting emulsion is discharged into the airstream through three
idle.holes. The upper hole is equipped with a needle valve to control the idle mixture, and the two lower
holes, fixed in size, aid in the transition from idle to cruise
without a hesitation or a "fiat spot".

When the throttle is wide open, the idle system changes its function, as we see in Figure E. Air from behind
the venturi is drawn down through the idle metering jet into the bottom of the main discharge nozzle while it
serves as an auxiliary airbleed for the main metering system.

FIGURE E

FLOAT TYPE CARBURETTOR

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE PS SERIES CARBURETTOR

PRESSURE TYPE CARBURETTOR (BENDIX "PS" SERIES)


The pressure type carburettor is supplied with the higher horsepower Lycoming engines and can be adapted
to practically all of the Lycoming engines. The following is a description of the "PS" series Bendix
Carburettors.

General
Air enters the carburettor through the air intake, passes through the venturi tube, past the throttle valve, and
into the intake manifolds; the flow of air is controlled by a conventional butterfly type throttle valve. Air
flowing through the venturi creates a suction at the throat of the venturi tube. This suction is transmitted
through internal channels to chamber "B" of the regulator and to the low pressure side of the discharge
nozzle diaphragm. This suction is termed "venturi suction".

Intake air enters the annular space between the outside diameter of the | venturi tube and the flange
of the carburettor main body and flows through internal channels to chamber "A" of the regulator and to the
discharge nozzle air bleed. This pressure is termed "impact pressure".

As the "impact pressure" in chamber "A" is greater than the "venturi suction" in chamber "B", a pressure
differential is created acting upon the air diaphragm separating the two chambers. This differential force
acting on the air diaphragm is termed "metering suction", which increases and decreases with the air flow
through the carburettor.
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Movement of the air diaphragm in response to "metering suction" is applied to the regulator needle (poppet)
valve through a stem arrangement. The degree of opening of this valve determines the pressure of
unmetered fuel that is applied to the main metering jet.

Fuel Section
Fuel enters the carburettor at the fuel inlet connection at engine pump
pressure. It flows through the fuel strainer and past the poppet valve into chamber "B" of the regulator.

In the idle range, at low airflow, there is little or no venturi suction available so the regulator spring force in
chamber "A" acting on the poppet opens it sufficiently to allow an amount of fuel to pass for idling purposes -
until chamber "D" pressure has risen to maintain idle fuel flow.

After passing through the main metering jet, fuel is next exposed to the idle needle valve and its respective
diaphragm. This fuel pressure acting on the diaphragm will force the idle needle valve away from its seat.

This movement, however, is restricted and controlled by a fork on the throttle lever. At this point in the
operating range, the actual metering of fuel is accomplished by the idle needle valve, as the orifice created
by this valve and its seat is smaller than the orifice in the main metering jet.

After passing through the idle needle and power enrichment valve seat, metered fuel pressure flows to the
fuel side of the discharge nozzle diaphragm. The diaphragm controls the discharge nozzle needle valve
position. The opposite side of the diaphragm is exposed to venturi suction and an adjustable spring. When
metered fuel pressure on the fuel side of the diaphragm overcomes this spring pressure, the needle valve
will open and allow fuel to discharge through the nozzle seat and out the discharge nozzle under positive
pressure.

Acceleration Pump
The "PS" series carburettors are equipped with a single-diaphragm, vacuum-operated, acceleration pump
that compensates for the lag in fuel flows that occur when the throttle is opened rapidly. The pump is
composed of -a. vacuum chamber, diaphragm and fuel well. (On some models, a spacer is installed between
the fuel well and the metered fuel channel). The spacer will contain an inlet passage or bleed and a
discharge relief valve to give a time delay action to the acceleration pump discharge. The vacuum side of the
diaphragm contains a spring and is exposed to pressure above the throttle, (approximately equal to intake
manifold suction), while the fuel well on the opposite side of the diaphragm is open to "metered fuel
pressure".

The pressure differential will cause the diaphragm to move in a direction that will compress the spring and at
the same time, fill the now enlarged pump well with fuel. When the throttle is opened quickly, pressure
downstream of the throttle valve will increase, as will the pressure on the airside of the diaphragm.

This increase in pressure, plus the spring force, will move the diaphragm toward the pump well, displacing
the fuel in the pump well. This discharged fl fuel will increase the pressure on the discharge nozzle
diaphragm, causing the' nozzle needle valve to open further and provide a momentary rich mixture.

Manual Mixture Control


A manual mixture control valve is provided for use as an emergency means of providing correct mixture
control in case of automatic mixture control failure. It consists of a needle valve and seat that form an
adjustable bleed between chamber A and chamber B.
In operation, as the aircraft gains altitude, a wider throttle opening will be necessary to maintain ground level
power.

As venturi suction increases with throttle opening, the mixture control valve bleeds off the excess venturi
suction and maintains the correct fuel-air ratio.

Idle Cut-Off
When the manual mixture control lever is moved to the idle cut-off position, a cam on the linkage actuates a
rocker arm which causes the idle cut-off plunger to move inward against the release lever in chamber "A".
The lever compresses the regulator diaphragm spring to release all tension on the diaphragm between
chambers "A" and "B". This permits fuel pressure plus regulator needle (poppet) valve spring force, to close
the poppet valve and stop the fuel flow through the carburettor.

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It should also be noted that by placing the mixture control lever in idle cut-off position, the mixture control
needle is off of its seat and this allows metering suction within the carburettor to bleed off.

Airflow Power Enrichment Valve


The airflow power enrichment valve, when used, consists of a spring-loaded, diaphragm-operated, metering
valve. One side of the diaphragm is exposed to unmetered fuel pressure and the other side to "venturi
suction", plus an adjustable spring. When the pressure differential across the diaphragm establishes a force
strong enough to compress the spring, the valve will open and supply an additional amount of fuel to the
metered fuel circuit, in addition to the fuel supplied by the main metering jet.

On the carburettors equipped with the airflow enrichment valve, the idle needle valve will be of a slightly
different design (without cruise step). Also the idle needle diaphragm spring will be removed as well as the
enrichment valve actuating screw, from the loose lever assembly.
Automatic Mixture Control Assembly
The automatic mixture control assembly is a device that works independently of, and in parallel with, the
manual mixture control, to automatically correct for natural enrichment at altitude. In effect, it provides a
variable bleed between chambers "A" and "B" of the carburettor to regulate the metering suction.

The automatic mixture control consists of a contoured needle that is moved in or out of an orifice by a
bellows assembly. This bellows assembly is similar to a barometer, in that it is sensitive to both air pressure
and temperature. Generally speaking, at ground level the bellows is contracted and holds the needle in the
orifice in such a position that the flow of "impact pressure" into "venturi suction" is at a minimum and
"metering suction" is, therefore, at a maximum.

As altitude increases, the bellows elongates and repositions the needle in the orifice, allowing more "impact
pressure" to flow into the "venturi suction" chamber, maintaining the ground level metering suction.

MAINTENANCE & ADJUSTMENT OF THE BENDIX "PS" CARBURETTORS PS-5DB AND PS-7-BD

Installation
NOTE: Before installing the carburettor in the engine the unit must be flushed with Avgas.

Remove all shipping plugs, inlet screen and the 1/2" pipe plug from the regulator cover and allow the
preservative oil to drain. Wash the inlet screen with clean fuel.

After the carburettor is re-installed on the engine, connect all lines and proceed as follows:
a) Open the fuel selector valve.
b) Place mixture control in "rich" and the throttle in "wide open" position.
c) Remove the 1/8" pipe plug at the bottom of regulator cover.
d) Switch on boost pump until clean Avgas flows from the pipe plug opening.
e) Re-install the 1/8" plug and continue pumping fuel to the carburettor until clean Avgas flows form the
discharge nozzle.
f) Place mixture control to idle cut-off and shut off selector. Make sure that the carburettor soaks for at
least 4 to 5 hours before starting the engine.

Caution: Do not soak carburettor completely in a bucket of petrol. This is strictly forbidden since the
carburettor must be completely disassembled and ^ cleaned if Avgas gets into contact with the air
diaphragms.

Adjustment
Start engine and warm up.

Check magnetos: If drop is in accordance with the Operator's Manual adjust the idle speed to approximately
600 RPM, at idle adjustment screw.

Check the idle mixture as follows: When the idle RPM has stabilised move the mixture control slowly from
1
"rich" to "idle cut-off position and observe the tachometer. An increase of 10 RPM indicates that the mixture
is too rich and an immediate decrease in RPM indicates that the mixture is too lean.

MAINTENANCE & ADJUSTMENT OF THE BENDIX "PS" CARBURETTORS PS-5DB AND PS-7-BD
Installation
NOTE: Before installing the carburettor in the engine the unit must be flushed with Avgas.

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Remove all shipping plugs, inlet screen and the 1/2" pipe plug from the regulator cover and allow the
preservative oil to drain. Wash the inlet screen with clean fuel.

After the carburettor is re-installed on the engine, connect all lines and proceed as follows:
a) Open the fuel selector valve.
b) Place mixture control in "rich" and the throttle in "wide open" position.
c) Remove the 1/8" pipe plug at the bottom of regulator cover.
d) Switch on boost pump until clean Avgas flows from the pipe plug opening.
e) Re-install the 1/8" plug and continue pumping fuel to the carburettor until clean Avgas flows form the
discharge nozzle.
f) Place mixture control to idle cut-off and shut off selector. Make sure that the carburettor soaks for at
least 4 to 5 hours before starting the engine.

Caution: Do not soak carburettor completely in a bucket of petrol. This is strictly forbidden since the
carburettor must be completely disassembled and ^ cleaned if Avgas gets into contact with the air
diaphragms.

Adjustment
Start engine and warm up.

Check magnetos: If drop is in accordance with the Operator's Manual adjust the idle speed to approximately
600 RPM, at idle adjustment screw.

Check the idle mixture as follows: When the idle RPM has stabilised move the mixture control slowly from
1
"rich" to "idle cut-off position and observe the tachometer. An increase of 10 RPM indicates that the mixture
is too rich and an immediate decrease in RPM indicates that the mixture is too lean.
(c) Make sure to clear engine by running up to cruise power.
(d) Repeat mixture check after each nozzle adjustment.
(e) Make mixture check at 1700 RPM.
(f) You should now have 5 to 25 RPM rise.
(g) After the off-side mixture has been adjusted with the discharge nozzle adjustment, it will be necessary
to re-adjust the idle.
(h) When re-setting the initial idle, use only the normal idle speed and idl mixture adjustment.
(i) The idle should be adjusted to give the lowest possible manifold
pressure (14 1/2 to 15") at the desired engine speed (approximately 6C RPM).

Power Enrichment Valve


It may be necessary to adjust this valve if the pilot reports that the engine is running rough and/or detonation
occurs at cruise power and/or high cylind head temperature at rated climb and take-off power settings.
Proceed as follows:

a) If the engine is running rough in cruise or climb power due to rich

b) mixture, adjust the valve one notch at a time in a clockwise direction t lean.
If roughness or detonation occurs during climb or high cylinder temperature at rated power, adjust valve to
open sooner. Due to lean condition, adjust valve one notch at a time in an anti-clockwise direction.

Caution:Never turn the enrichment valve adjustment more than


one half turn towards rich or lean to obtain the desired setting.

c) If this adjustment of one half turn on the nozzle or enrichment valve does not give you satisfactory
results, remove the carburettor and overhaul if necessary, or re calibrate on bench only.

BENDIX RS SERIES FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM


The RS system operates on the principle of measuring engine airflow and using this airflow signal to regulate
fuel flow.

The RS injector (see schematics) consists of the following basic components:


Airflow sensing system.
Servo regulator.
Fuel control system.
Flow control valve.
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Flow divider (for down-exhaust naturally aspirated engines only).


Air bleed nozzles (for naturally aspirated engines only).
Flow meter modulator (for supercharged engines only).
Fuel flowmeter gauge (supplied by aircraft manufacturer).

Airflow Sensing System


The airflow sensing system consists of a throttle body containing the-air throttle valve and venturi. Engine air
enters and passes through the throttle body and into the engine manifold. Impact and venturi air pressures
from the throttle body are directed to opposite sides of the air diaphragm contained in the servo regulator.
The differential between impact and venturi pressures is a measurement of air entering the engine.

Servo Regulator
The servo regulator system contains the above mentioned air diaphragm and a fuel diaphragm, which are
interconnected by a pivoted regulator arm. Fuel inlet pressure is applied to one side of the fuel diaphragm
and pressure of the fuel, after it passes through the fuel control system, is applied to the other side of the fuel
diaphragm. The fuel diaphragm is also connected to the ball servo valve which regulates servo pressure on
one side of flow control valve diaphragm.

Fuel Control System


The fuel control system contains an inlet strainer, rotary idle valve, metering jet and rotary mixture control
valve. The latter is manually adjustable from a full rich position to progressively leaner settings and idle cut-
off.

Flow Control Valve


The flow control valve assembly contains a diaphragm which is connected to a poppet valve. Servo pressure
from the servo regulator system is applied to one side of the diaphragm and fuel after passing through the
fuel control system is applied to the other side of the diaphragm.

Fuel flow from the flow control valve is fed either directly to air bled nozzles on the up-exhaust engines or
through the flow divider and then to air bled nozzles on the down-exhaust engines. On the supercharged
engines the fuel is fed to a single air bled pintle nozzle located at the impeller eye.

Flow Divider
The flow divider used on down-exhaust naturally aspirated engines, controls fuel distribution at low power
and also contains a valve that closes each nozzle port independently at shutdown.

The RS system used on the supercharged engines also contains an automatic mixture control that provides
constant fuel air ratio at normal rated power regardless of altitude. Manual leaning to fuel flows shown in the
applicable model specifications is done to establish cruise setting.

Flowmeter Modulator and Gauges


Fuel flow measurement is made available on all RS systems by incorporating a calibrated pressure gauge
(supplied by aircraft manufacturer). On the naturally aspirated engines the pressure gauge is connected to
read nozzle pressure and must be balanced to ambient air at nozzle location.

Pressure drop across the fixed nozzle orifice is so obtained and can be calibrated to read fuel flow.

On the supercharged engines, a flowmeter modulator is provided. This modulator is a variable orifice and
pressure drop across the orifice is related to engine fuel flow.

A differential pressure gauge and two pressure lines between the modulator and gauge are required.
Restricted fittings should be incorporated at all gauge pressure taps. The restrictor size is a function of
gauge line size and length and should be as small as possible without affecting gauge response.

Curves of pressure versus flow for all RS systems are contained in the applicable Lycoming model
specifications.
With all pressure gauge flowmeter systems it is necessary to bleed the gauge lines or fill the lines with light
oil to ensure that a hydraulic system is maintained and no air pockets are present. Gauge line size should be
kept to a minimum (recommended 1/8 inch O>D> steel or aluminium).

Although several different components are used on the various RS systems the general operation is
identical.

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As power is increased, the differential pressure across the air diaphragm increases and this additional force
is applied to the fuel diaphragm by the pivoted regulator arm which tends to seat the ball servo valve and
reduce servo pressure.

This lower servo pressure applied to the flow control valve diaphragm opens the poppet valve and increases
flow.

As flow increases the metered fuel pressure (fuel which has passed through fuel control), which is applied to
the opposite side of the flow control valve diaphragm decreases.

Lower metered fuel pressure applied to the fuel diaphragm then tends to open the ball servo valve and
increases servo pressure, thus putting the system in hydraulic balance at the higher flow level.

Proper design of diaphragm areas and pivoted rocker arm allow the system to operate on low air signals,
thus reducing induction system losses.

OPERATION OF BENDIX RSA SERIES FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM


The Bendix RSA Fuel Injection System operates on the same basic principle as the Bendix RS System. The
RSA Fuel Injection System consists of six major components:

The throttle body. Fuel Control Servo Regulator Flow Divider Air bleed nozzles Fuel flowmeter

Operation of the RSA system is similar to the RS system and can be understood by studying the former and
then applying principle to RSA schematic. The system is designed to operate with a diaphragm type fuel
pump thus reducing amount of vapour introduced into the system.

The major advantage of the RSA Fuel Injection System is operation without a vent flow fuel return line to the
fuel tank, thereby eliminating the return line piping required with other systems.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE BENDEX RSA 5AD1, 5AB1, 10AD1 FUEL


INJECTION SYSTEMS
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE BENDEX 10FB1 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE BENDEX 10DB2 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
AIRFLOW SECTION OF FUEL INJECTOR
THE FLOW DIVIDER

THE BENDIX FUEL INJECTOR


There are some sections of the Bendix Fuel Injector, such as the regulator section which consists of the air
and fuel diaphragm and associated parts, that a mechanic may not work on in the field. Any modification of
the regulator section by a mechanic without the use of a flow bench could result in a change in fuel flow
through the injector, so hands off this section please. However, there are some things that a mechanic may
do that will not affect the operation of the fuel injector.

In the following paragraphs we would like to discuss some of the things that a mechanic can do and some
procedures a mechanic can use to determine if the problem is in the fuel injector or an associated part, i.e.
fuel divider, fuel nozzles, fuel lines, etc.

Whenever a fuel injector problem arises, the first thing a mechanic should do, . before he removes the
injector or any part of it, is to make sure that the rigging is correct and that the throttle and mixture control are
both travelling to their full open and closed stop. Also make sure that there are no fuel leaks.

Another important item to consider is - do not get a rise of 25-50 RPM at idle when the mixture control.is
moved from full rich to idle cut-off. If you experience poor acceleration of the engine, this may be your
problem.

To adjust the idle mixture, turn the scalloped wheel at the side of the injector rich or lean, as required, until
the desired rise in RPM is reached.

When adjusting the idle mixture you will no doubt have to adjust the idle RPM also.

A good idle RPM is around 600 - 650 RPM.

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We would like to make everyone aware of the fact that there is a filter screen at the fuel inlet of the injector.
This screen should be removed and cleaned at each 100 hours inspection. The best results in cleaning will
be with acetone or MEK (methyl-ethyl-ketone). It is also permissible to use a sonic cleaner. After the screen
has been cleaned, blow the filter out with compressed air.

When removing the screen from the fuel injector, always take it from the same side of the injector to which
the fuel line is connected. This is to prevent depositing any dirt back in the fuel injector that might have been
picked up in the screen. On early injectors, the screen is attached to the inlet adapter, so it can only be
removed from that side. On later model injectors the screen is spring loaded to provide a fuel by-pass in
case the filter gets plugged.

This type of screen could be removed from either side.

If you are experiencing a rough shut-down and the engine does not want to stop when the mixture control is
in the idle cut-off position, it may be because 4 there is a score on either the mixture control jet or the rotating
plate, or of course, a badly damaged O-ring on the jet.

Prior to disassembly of a fuel injector, a test can be run to see if this is the problem area.

Disconnect the fuel line coming out of the fuel injector line to the divider and leave the fitting open.

Pull the mixture control all the way back (off) and turn on the booster pump.

If there is any fuel observed coming out of the open outlet fitting, you have a scored mixture jet, rotating plate
or the O-ring is damaged or deformed.

The repair is to move the mixture control assy, and eliminate the scores by lapping the mixture control jet
and rotating plate on a good smooth lapping J plate using a mild abrasive.

The final repair should be done by lapping the jet and plate together, using Bon-Ami or equivalent type
abrasive.

After this is accomplished, clean and re-assemble the part using a new O-ring each time; make sure the O-
ring is installed with a light coat of Vaseline grease.

If no fuel is observed coming out of the open fitting (divided line) on the fuel injector when the test is
performed the mixture control assy, is working correctly and you should look in other areas for problems.

Something to consider are the fuel injector nozzles. If the air bleed hole becomes plugged, the engine will
not shut down smoothly.

On normally aspirated engines, there is a screen covering the air bleed holes which makes visual inspection
impossible. Therefore, you must remove the nozzles from the engine and clean them thoroughly and blow
them out with compressed air. The best way to clean the nozzles is the following: Remove all nozzles, put
them in a can of acetone for at least 20-30 minutes. Do not use a piece of safety wire to clean the nozzles,
the wire will damage the calibrated hole inside the nozzle.

If this does not do the job, you may have to replace the nozzle with a new one, because you were unable to
remove the dirt which maybe inside the nozzle between the nozzle jets.

On turbocharged engines, the air bleed hole is shrouded and vented back to the compressor discharge
pressure "deck pressure"; inspect these lines and fittings to make sure they are free of dirt, leaks or
obstructions.

After the shroud is removed from the nozzle, the nozzle can be removed from the cylinder cleaned
thoroughly and blown out with compressed air.

NOTE: When any nozzle that is installed horizontally is re-assembled, make sure that the letter "A" which is
stamped on the hex portion of the nozzle, is pointing down; then position the air bleed hole up, make sure
you apply the correct torque - it is for all our "A" nozzles 60 inch Ibs.

Caution: For TIO-541 and TIGO-541 the torque is 15-20 foot Ibs.

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NOTE: Make sure, on shrouded nozzles, to install every time, a fuel line from the nozzle is disconnected,
new "O"-rings and on TIO-541 series as well as on TIGO-541 series, also new lockplates should be used
before installing the nozzles.

If you record, during flight, fuel flow fluctuation, you may have a badly scored i or damaged "O"-ring on the
shrouded nozzles.

Another area to consider would be an internal leak in the fuel injector centre body seal. All of the fuel that is
delivered to the engine should go through the individual fuel lines, to the nozzles and on into the combustion
chamber. If there is an internal leak in the injector, there will also be fuel entering the fuel injector at the
throat (venturi) and going to the cylinders, much like a carburetted engine. The engine will run over rich,
smokes and stumbles.

If you suspect a centre body seal leaking, there is a brief test you can run to determine if you are right or
wrong. First, remove the airfilter on the induction system just enough to see the fuel injector impact tubes.

Then disconnect the fuel line from the fuel injector to the flow divider and cap off the fitting on the fuel
injector, or cap off the line on top of the flow divider.

Move the mixture and throttle control wide open and turn on the booster pump.

Note: Let boost pump run for at least 5 minutes and check impact tubes for fuel leaks.

If any fuel is observed coming out of the impact tubes of the injector, this indicates that there is a centre body
seal leaking. Since this is part of the regulator system the mechanic may not make the necessary repairs,
but must remove the injector from the engine and send it to an overhaul facility for repair and re calibration.

In addition to a rough shut-down, the engine may display some other symptoms that may indicate that there
is a centre body seal leak. Some of theses indicators are as follows:

The engine is rich at idle and low power settings, or the pilot has to retard the mixture control upon flare-out
and landing to prevent the engine from becoming too rich and stopping.

Or if the mechanic has to adjust the idle mixture lean every few days or weeks, because it has drifted rich;
each of these symptoms indicate a drift to the rich side and may be warning you of an internal leak in your
injector.

Another area where problems may be encountered in the fuel injector is the possibility of scores on the main
meter jet and rotating plate assy.

Any scores in this area may be removed by lapping the main meter jet and rotating plate on a good smooth
lapping plate. The final repair should be made by lapping the jet and plate together.

When all scores are removed, clean thoroughly and re-assemble the injector, make sure new "O"-rings are
installed and bolts are safe.

An indication that the main meter jet is scored would be a rich idle mixture and by adjusting the mixture
control lean, the mechanic could get a satisfactory idle, but when the engine was accelerated, it would
stumble and not accelerate smoothly.

If there is any occasion when the fuel injector idle mixture adjusting wheel has been turned to its limit, either
rich or lean and the idle is not satisfactory, the linkage between the air valve (Butterfly) and the fuel valve
(main meter jet) on the injector may be removed and the idle mixture adjusting wheel positioned back to the
centre of its travel.

Prior to removing the linkage from the injector, make sure to measure the overall length of the linkage. This
must be the same after re-positioning the wheel back on centre as it was before removing it from the injector.
v
After the length of the linkage has been established, adjust the wheel back to centre of travel by backing
one end of the linkage assembly out half the distance and adjust the other end of the linkage in until you
come up with the same overall length you had prior to removing it from the injector.

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After the linkage is adjusted, assemble the linkage to the injector, make sure to install the wave washers one
on each side, install the pins cotter key and re install the safety spring back on the two pins.

Other items in the fuel injection system that could be a source of trouble are the flow divider, fuel lines and
injector nozzle.

If you suspect that the flow divider valve is sticking, remove the flow divider from the engine and carefully
disassemble it.

The valve can be freed by polishing the valve and the seat together using a mild abrasive. The best result
will be by use of toothpaste.

Do not interchange flow divider parts because they are matched assemblies.

After the valve is operating freely, clean thoroughly and re-assemble the flow divider.

If the fuel flow gauge suddenly shows an increase in flow, the first thing to do is to check for a plugged or
partially plugged fuel nozzle. The procedure for doing this is as follows.

Disconnect the fuel lines and remove the nozzles from the cylinders. Then attach the nozzles to the fuel lines
and direct the nozzles into bottles of equal size (baby food or coke bottles work very well).

Move the throttle and mixture controls full forward (open) and switch on the booster pump.

Fill the bottles approximately one-half full. Turn off the booster pump and retard the throttle and mixture.
Remove the bottles from the engine and set them on a table or other flat surface. A visual check of the fuel
contents in the bottles tell you which nozzle is plugged.

NOTE: While flowing fuel into the bottles, check each nozzle to make sure all of the fuel is coming out of the
discharge end of the nozzle in a solid stream approximately the size of the lead in a mechanical pencil and
that no fuel is coming out of the air bleed holes.

After locating the plugged nozzle, it can be cleaned in acetone 20-30 minutes or in MEK. Make sure after
cleaning to blow nozzle out with compressed air. If a thorough cleaning fails to remove the dirt, the nozzle
must be replaced.

Prior to replacing the nozzle, check the fuel line to. be sure someone did not us a primer line for a fuel line.

Primer lines are smaller on the inside diameter and will give a false reading on the fuel flow gauge.

Also check the flow divider for obstructions.

NOTE: When cleaning fuel nozzles, fuel lines or flow divider, NEVER use a small drill or a piece of lock wire,
or any other sharp object.

If, after all of the above remedies have been tried and did not cure the problem of rough running and erratic
fuel flow on ground and during flight, you may have air in the fuel line from the flow divider to the flow meter;
you must bleed the fuel system. Here is how you do it.

Start engine and run engine around 1700-1800 RPM, go behind the instrument panel, loosen up the nut at
the fuel flow gauge and drain a sufficient amount of fuel, until you are certain that there is no more air in the
system.

CAUTION: Keep in mind that there is a lot of electrical wiring behind the panel, therefore, make certain that
you do not spill an excessive amount of fuel around, it is of the utmost importance, that during this bleeding
1
the master electrical switch in is "turn-off position.

If your aircraft is equipped with a fuel pressure gauge, bleed the line first by the following procedure.

Turn on boost pump, loosen up the fitting at the rear of the pressure gauge and drain the air out of the line
and instrument. This procedure should help you in locating and correcting problems on your Bendix fuel
injector system.

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You might find that oil is coming out of one of your exhaust pipes. The reasonj for this is that one of your fuel
nozzles is partially or fully plugged. Glean or install a new one.

FUEL FLOW GAUGE INDICATIONS


All twin engine aircraft equipped with fuel injection have shown a problem of different indications on the fuel
flow gauge. The question of how much variation will be accepted has never been resolved. For instance, a
test pilot may arbitrarily select 2 GPH as an acceptable tolerance; however, 2 GPH on a PA-39 would be
13%, whereas on a PA-31-350 the same error of 13% on 4.2 GPH is rejected.

Also, different tolerances must be considered for:


1. Take-off power - full rich.
2. Climb power - rich or lean as recommended.
3. Cruise power - recommended leaning.

A turbocharged engine has more variables than a normally aspirated engine, and each type of turbocharging
control system has a different group of variables.

The basic fuel injector design is another major variable. Tolerances on aircraft instrumentation are another
variable.

Instruments which affect directly the variations are EGT, MP and fuel flow gauge. Tachometers are
eliminated because synchronisation of engines result in a minor difference in RPM.

We must decide what tolerance will be accepted and define the conditions at m which these tolerances will
be measured.

It is recommended that the following conditions be considered as a guide for determining acceptable
tolerances.

1. Take-off Power
(a) Engines synchronised at rated RPM.
(b) Manifold pressures within Lycoming limits.
(c) 8% difference permitted in fuel flow.
2. Climb Power
(a) Recommended climb power.
(b) Leaned to recommendation for that engine.
(c) EOT should be ± 25°.
3. Cruise Power
(a) Set up 75% power level flight.
(b) Lean to 1600°F. Compare fuel flow gauge readings. Should be within fuel flow gauge drawing
tolerances.
(c) Lean to same fuel flow. Compare EOT readings. Should be ±25°.
If engines fall out of these limits, a few simple tests can be conducted which m will help pinpoint the problem
area. For turbocharged engines using density control system (PA-23-250, PA-31, PA-31-350).
During ground run-up:
(a) At rated RPM take-off power, full rich, record EGT, MP, FF, RPM.
(b) Lean out engine with coldest EGT to EGT of other engine. Record EGT, MP, FF, RPM.

Observations
If in test (a) the fuel flow is high with a high EGT, consider plugged nozzle(s), leaky deck pressure gauge
line.

If in test (a) the fuel flow is high with a corresponding low EGT and matches the other engine when leaned to
the same EGT, then the injector is richer than the one with a high EGT full rich. 8% spread should be
acceptable.

NOTE: If MP readings are not same, check to see if they are in limits before complaining about fuel flow
spread. Check also that low MP is not caused my leaky differential controller.

If fuel flow is low with a low EGT then, either FF gauge or EGT gauge may be in error. Check for leak in fuel
pressure line to FF gauge.

Engine power may be low - check on Lycoming limits.


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If fuel flow is low with a high EGT, injector is too lean. If fuel flows match but EGT is low, check engine driven
fuel pump for leak into pump reference line. Check injector for internal leaks.

If fuel flows match but EGT is high, there could be a lean injector and plugged " nozzle on same engine.

Cruise Power
a) Props full forward, MP to obtain 2400.
b) Match MP if different.
c) With prop controls set up 2300.
d) Record MP, EGT, FF.
e) Lean to same EGT (at least 100° each eng.). Record FF.
f) Lean to same FF (3 GPH min. leaning). Record EGT.

The observations on the ground may not exactly duplicate those in flight, so take-off, climb and cruise
checks should be repeated and recorded in flight.

Engines with Variable Absolute Pressure Control

Generally, all of the preceding applies, however, no differential controller is used so reference to that
controller does not apply.

Manifold pressure is set to a definite value, so no check to a curve is required.

The PA-3 IP uses an injector without the 8% flow tolerance, at full throttle, so the permissible tolerance at
MCP would be 1% rather than 8%. The 8% tolerance would apply to part throttle, full rich conditions.

Variations in part throttle range are generally due to rigging of the controller and injector and correction
should be made by Lycoming personnel.

Any injector which is obviously out of limits must be replaced.

Trouble Shooting and Bleeding Recommendations for the IGSO-540 and IGSO-480 Series Engines If
Equipped with Fuel Flow Modulator.

When you have a power surge, manifold fluctuations, the engine cuts out during letdown, or if any
components from the fuel injection system have been removed for some reason (this also applies if the
injector fuel filter has been cleaned or any fuel lines have been disconnected), the following instructions must
be carried out before the aircraft is released for the next flight.

1. Remove the short fuel line from the modulator on nozzle (top of nozzle) on right hand side of engine
and block off line.
2. Disconnect line at rear of flow meter marked P and V.
3. Put a bucket, which holds a minimum of three to four gallons, under the lines, switch on boost pump,
mixture full rich and the throttle half open; drain at least two gallons of fuel from both lines.
4. Re-connect lines marked P and V at rear of flow meter. Connect the line on engine to the nozzle.
5. Start engine. Run engine minimum between 1200 and 1500 RPM and first loosen one line and then
the other (not both together) and bleed both lines until no more air bubbles are evident (the lines are
correctly bled if, when the lines are loosened, the engine does not lose any more RPM). When
tightening the fitting make sure that the boost pumps are on.
6. Stop engine. Switch off the boost pumps, mixture closed and throttle closed.
7. The following check can be carried out, when the engines are not running, to make sure the flow
meter is correctly bled:
Mixture full open, throttle half open, switch on and off the fuel boost pump (which means put switch on and
off several times) and then observe the flow meter. If the flow meter fluctuates more than half an inch to the
left or right this means that there is still air in the system. If there is air in the system the above procedure
must be repeated over again.
8. These instructions may have to be carried out several times before all of the air is drained out of the
fuel system.

CAUTION: Make sure , when the final bleeding is accomplished that a fire extinguisher is available because
you will be working behind the instrument panel where there are a lot of electrical wires. Also make sure not
to let fuel enter into the instrument. This can be eliminated by using fuel proof grease.
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NOTE: The above procedure should be followed every time the flow meter fluctuates during high altitude
flying.

TURBOCHARGER
Several Lycoming engines are equipped with AiResearch turbochargers which are designed to increase the
power output and the efficiency of an internal combustion engine by supplying compressed air to the engine
intake manifold. The power to drive the turbocharger is extracted from energy in the exhaust gas.

The purpose of the turbocharger on Lycoming engines is to maintain sea level atmospheric pressure over a
broad engine altitude operating range. The density controller used with this system prevents overboosting of
the engine at lower altitudes and maintains a supply of air to the intake manifold to produce sea level power
at a higher altitude.

Description (Fig. M)
The turbocharger compressor comprises a radial inward flow turbine, a centrifugal impeller (1), a centre
housing (6), which serves to support the rotating assembly, bearings (10), seal (11), a turbine housing (8),
and a compressor housing (2).

The compressor housing assembly is bolted to the compressor end of the centre housing. The turbine
housing assembly is bolted to the turbine end of the centre housing. Connections are provided on the centre
housing for the oil inlet and oil outlet lines. Engine oil is pumped under pressure through a strainer in the
centre housing and directed to the bearings (10), and thrust washers (5), through passages in the centre
housing and thrust plate (3). Oil is sealed from the compressor and turbine by seal arrangements at both
ends of the centre housing. Discharge oil drains by gravity.

Operation
During operation (Fig. N) exhaust gases from the engine pass through the turbine housing and cause the
turbine wheel to rotate. The compressor wheel, which is mounted on the same shaft, rotates with the turbine.
The compressor draws in ambient air, compresses and delivers it to the engine intake manifold.

FIGURE M TURBOCHARGER - MODEL Til


FIGURE N SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF THE TURBOCHARGER
FIG O SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR THE T10-540, 360, 86 720 TURBOCHARGER SYSTEMS
During operation, the turbocharger responds to engine demands by reacting to the flow of engine exhaust
gases. As the engine power output increases, the m speed of the rotating assembly and the output'of the
turbocharger increase proportionately.

Initial Run-in
If the turbocharger is to be installed on a newly overhauled engine, operate the engine for approximately one
hour without the turbocharger installed, or use a separate oil filter in the oil supply line to the turbocharger
during the first hour of operation. This must be done to ensure that no metal particles are carried from the
engine into the turbocharger lubrication system.

INSPECTIONS Remember - always refer to the approved Maintenance Manual.


Daily Pre-Flight Turbocharger Inspection
1. Inspect mounting and connections of the turbocharger for security, lubricant leakage or air leakage.
2. Check engine crankcase breather for restrictions to air flow.
3. Operate engine at rated output and listen for unusual turbocharger noise. If a shrill whine (over, and
above normal turbine whine) is heard, shut down immediately. The whine is indicative of imminent
turbocharger bearing failure. Remove turbocharger for overhaul. Other unusual noises could result
from improper clearance between turbine wheel and turbine housing. If such noises are heard,
turbocharger must be removed form engine, disassembled and inspected.
4. Check turbocharger for unusual vibrations while operating engine at rated output. If excessive
vibrations while operating engine are evident, remove turbocharger, disassemble and inspect.
5. Check engine under loaded conditions. Excessive exhaust smoke indicates improper fuel-air mixture
and could be the result of either engine over-loading or turbocharger malfunction.
6. Inspect and service engine air cleaner.

-
Fifty-Hour Turbocharger Inspection

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1. All fluid power lines and mounting brackets incorporated in turbocharger system should be checked
for leakage, tightness and any damage that may cause a restriction.
2. Check for accumulation of dirt or other interferences with linkage between the by-pass valve and the
actuator which may impair operation of turbocharger. Clean or correct cause of interference.
3. The vent line form the actuator should be checked for oil leakage. Any constant oil leakage is cause
of replacement of piston seal.

Hundred-Hour Turbocharger Inspection


1. Inspect all air ducting and connections in turbocharger system for leaks. Make inspection both with
engine shut-down and engine running. Check at manifold connections to turbine inlet and at engine
exhaust manifold gasket.

CAUTION: Do not operate the turbocharger if leaks exist in the ducting, or if air cleaner is not filtering
efficiently. Dust leaking into air ducting can damage turbocharger and engine.

2. Remove air inlet duct and compressor housing and check for dirt or dust build-up. Remove all such
foreign matter, determine and correct cause. Uneven deposits left on impeller can affect balance and
cause premature bearing failure.
3. With compressor housing removed, push impeller toward turbine end and turn rotating assembly by
hand. Check for binding and rubbing. Listen carefully for unusual noises. If binding or rubbing is in
evidence, remove the turbocharger for disassembly and inspection. If shims were removed for
inspection use the same thickness of shims at re-assembly.

NEWLY INSTALLED TURBOCHARGER

First Operation
Operation of a newly installed turbocharged engine model or when a turbocharger has been replaced.

CAUTION: Before operating the engine, ensure that the turbocharger and the oil supply lines have been
filled with engine oil.

Prior to the first start prime the turbocharger oil system as follows:
1. Disconnect the oil inlet line on top of the turbocharger (90° elbow) and fill the gear housing with
clean engine oil. Use a squeeze can. Make sure when filling that the impeller is rotated in order to
lubricate the bearings and thrust washer with oil.
2. Disconnect the oil supply line rear of the engine oil pump and also fill this line with clean engine oil. If
all the lines are filled, reconnect all lines and start engine.
3. After engine has started, bleed controller oil supply system as follows; loosen the oil inlet at the
density controller inlet and bleed a small quantity of oil out of this part. If there is no more air, re
torque line.
4. After performing the above procedures, check all line ducts for leaks. Do not operate engine if leaks
occur. Repair leaks before restarting.
5. Operate engine at rated power output and listen for abnormal sounds of metallic contact from the
turbocharger. If any such noises are heard, shut down immediately and correct the cause by using
the troubleshooting chart.

TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE GAUGE (TIT)


This is a required instrument with turbocharging. It is important for protecting the turbine wheel against failure
from excessive heat as well as protecting the engine. The pilot should be aware that errors can be created in
the TIT which would result in inaccurate temperature readings and dangerous to the turbine and the engine.

Therefore, the TIT must be reliably accurate and thus calibrated as stipulated in the instructions. Improved
test equipment has recently become available which will help with this problem. When re-installing the probe,
ensure that it is inserted at the proper depth of precisely .50 - .63 inches from the inside surface into the gas
stream. Varying depths of the probe will give varying readings. It is extremely important that the one-half inch
depth of the probe be carefully adhered to.

Operation of the TIT above 1650°F redline decreases probe life as well as endangers the turbine and
engine. Age of the probe also affects its reliability.

Periodic inspection is required as per the aircraft maintenance manual.

ENGINE BREAK-IN
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First, let us do away with the old concept of breaking in an engine gradually by "Babying" it. With the
advances in metallurgy, it not only is no longer necessary to an engine but it is downright harmful.

This is especially true in the case of engines with nitride cylinder barrels. Your engines will have nitride
cylinders and chrome plated piston rings. These two extremely hard surfaces require heat to seat the piston
rings and if you fly below 75% power the cylinder barrels may glaze over, the rings will not seat and the only
cure is to remove the cylinders and hone the barrels.

Two extremely hard surfaces give a long and satisfactory service lift, but they require a different break-in
procedure than you may have been using the past.

We recommend using a straight mineral oil (with the exception of TIO-541 and TIGO-541 engine models
ashless dispersant oil must be used during test run and break in) until the rings have seated (that point
where the oil consumption stabilises) and then you may switch to the ashless dispersant types if you wish.

We also recommend removing break-in preservative type oil at a maximum of 50 hours and preferably
before that.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR OIL CHANGES THE USE OF MINERAL AND ASHLESS DISPERSANT OIL
The procedure listed below must be followed for changing to ashless dispersant oil after up to 900 hours or
more of engine operation with mineral oil.
1. Engine time - 0 to 300 hours
Time since new or time since overhaul.
(a) Drain mineral oil and refill with ashless dispersant.
(b) Check oil screen and/or filter as usual - every 50 hours.
2. Engine time - 300 hours to time between overhaul.
(a) Drain mineral oil and refill with ashless dispersant oil.
(b) Make screen and/or oil filter checks every 5 hours until a total of 25 hours has been accrued - since
changing to ashless dispersant/ oil. If no screen deposits of sludge, carbon particles etc., are noted at these
5 hours checks, follow the usual procedure (50 hours oil change and screen inspection).
(c) If excessive screen deposits of sludge, carbon, etc., are noted at any of the 5 hour screen checks,
drain and refill with ashless dispersant oil and repeat the 5 hour checks until clean screens and/or filters are
noted. At this time the recommended 50 hour oil changes can then be followed.
Also check the latest service instructions.

TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE OVERHAULED ENGINE


The factory is always being asked by people in the field if a newly overhauled 1 engine can be run-in in the
aircraft when a test cell is not available. The Avco Lycoming overhaul manuals for fixed wing power plants
allow it with certain qualifications which will be listed here. But the "Overhaul Manual for Avco Lycoming
Helicopter Engines" limits its recommendation to the following statement:

"After the completion of assembly of the engine after overhaul, it is recommended that the engine be
mounted upon a test stand for its initial or run-in operation".
The test procedure for fixed wing engines, (quoted from the overhaul manuals), is as follows:

"Lycoming recommends that a test cell be used for run-in engines after overhaul. In the event that a test cell
is not available, it is permissible to mount the engine in the airframe for the run-in providing the following
requirements are observed:

1. The proper test club, not a flight propeller, is used.


2. A cooling shroud equivalent to a test cell cooling shroud is installed.
3. The airframe gauges may not be used. All necessary calibrated gauges shall be installed
independent of airframe".

IMPORTANT: Before installing a new replacement engine, all aircraft oil system components, oil coolers,
lines and supply tanks, where used, must be thoroughly cleaned. Avco Lycoming will not be held responsible
for contamination to the newly installed engine.

Pre-Flight Inspection
You should always visually check fuel and oil levels by looking in the tanks. This is particularly important at
strange airports. Furthermore, it is good procedure to consistently check fuel levels visually against fuel
gauges. An experienced pilot once trusted his fuel gauges and ran out of fuel on a twin engine aircraft at

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takeoff! On the first flight each day be sure to drain the water from the tanks. This is not accomplished by
eliminating a few drops of fuel, but by positive flow from the tank drain.

The first flight of the day pre-flight procedure should also include lifting the cowling for a visual inspection.
Inspect for cracked exhaust stacks, oil leaks, fuel leaks indicated by fuel dye stain, loose or broken ignition
harness and leads, and the overall general condition of the engine.

Starting Engines
If your aircraft has cowl flaps, they should be open for starting unless outside temperatures are freezing or
lower. In general, cowl flaps should be open for run-up and take-off. Operation with cowl flaps closed results
in baked and deteriorated ignition harness and hot cylinder and oil temperatures.

There is some difference of opinion in the field concerning the use of the booster pump during the starting
procedure. We cannot argue with any person who successfully starts the engines hot or cold with booster
pumps off. However, if you are not successful with that technique, then turn your boosters on as a consistent
procedure, particularly with a hot, fuel injected engine; and with any flat, opposed piston engine on a hot day.
In fact, to keep the engines running under hot-engine, hot-weather conditions you will find it necessary to
keep booster pumps on during the taxi period because of vapour lock. During the engine run-up before take-
off, you should flip them off temporarily to determine if your engine fuel pump is working. The booster pump
should be on for take-off.

Priming the modern engine takes a little know-how. A hot engine, or operation during warm weather should
not normally require priming. But in cold weather or on cool mornings, first starts usually require some
priming. (Of course, the colder the weather the more priming is required). If your aircraft has electric primers,
then a few brief seconds of prime will usually do the job. Hand priming is another problem because it is less
efficient. The first three or four strokes are used in filling the priming lines, and therefore, little fuel gets into
the cylinder. In very cold weather, it may be necessary to pump the hand primer 12 to 15 strokes.

The specific ignition system will dictate an important part of the starting procedure in both your aircraft
manual and engine operator's manual. If the instructions advise starting on the left magneto position for
example, then do not carelessly start on both unless you do not mind paying for a starter.

A single magneto starting instruction means that your aircraft has an impulse type magneto which retard the
spark for a slow turning start effort. If the "both" position is used for starting, the timing is too fast and tends
to fire the cylinders early causing a kickback of the engine frequently breaking the starter. Only go to "both"
position with this type after the engine has begun to run.

Modern flat opposed piston engines not only have a variety of ignition systems which affect the starting but
the varied fuel systems may confuse the pilot in going from one type to another. The important thing to
remember when handling a different type of equipment is that there is a correct source of information for
reference in the manuals.

Starting procedures for float type carburettors differ from pressure carburettors and some fuel injection
systems. As an example of what can happen due to failure of a pilot to acquaint himself properly with the fuel
metering system in a light twin, an operator flooded both engines badly which resulted in a fire that almost
destroyed the aircraft.

If the pilot should flood a hot engine and an engine fire results, do not panic and throw up your hands and
stop. Keep turning the engine as hard as you can as this will help suck the fire back in the engine and if you
can get the engine running, the prop blast will help blow it out. Meanwhile have somebody run for a fire
extinguisher.

Pilots ask if pulling on carburettor heat or alternate air as soon as a cold engine start has been accomplished
is recommended for better operation. It may help temporarily in some cases, but most of these systems
provide unfiltered air and on the ground this is dangerous for the engine in as much as any dust, sand or dirt
is going into the engine and this is murder for any powerplant.

Once an engine is started, the oil pressure should come up to minimum within 30 seconds. If this does not
happen and you should be even more alert for thi^ in cold weather, then shut the engine down and
investigate. Engines dare not' be run without oil pressure to lubricate those critical moving parts.
Idling a recently started engine is a common sense technique. It should be operated in lower ranges (1000 to
1200 RPM) where the engine has a chance to warm up gradually and normally, yet at a speed high enough

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to run alternators and generators and provide augmentor action if it has the latter type of exhaust and cooling
systems. Prolonged idle at slow speeds invites fouled spark plugs.

Engine Run-Up
Whenever possible head the aircraft into the wind during the ground run-up check.
Direct drive engines with a fixed prop can be run-up and the mags, checked whenever the engine can take
the power without missing or running rough.

But those powerplants with a controllable prop and governor and a reduction gear should have a little longer
run-up and thorough checking. Most checklists advise setting the RPM at 1500 and then running the props
back and forth between 1500 and down to 1000 RPM but not lower. This procedure not only checks the
feathering action of the prop (on a twin) but circulates the oil and purges the system of undesirable air. (If
your plane is a single engine, it is still good procedure for the same reasons except the prop feathering
check).

You might find an increasing reluctance of the prop to go into a lower RPM during this check as the engine
gets more time. We have made this check on strange aircraft and found it impossible to go into the feather
position. This could be serious in a twin engine. However, it is usually caused by an accumulation of lead
type sludge which accumulates from the fuel and collects in the prop hub. This should, of course, be cleaned
out at once.

After exercising and checking the prop we should also check our governor briefly, too. This is done, of
course, within the governing range (above 2000 RPM on direct drive engines and above 2500 RPM on
engines with reduction gear) of these engines we are discussing. Setting the prop at 2500 RPM for example
on a geared engine and pulling the prop control toward feather until a drop of 300 RPM is effected two or
three times, once a day is sufficient. Do not go lower than this because of excessive stresses on the prop
and engines.

The magneto check, after all these years, is frequently being accomplished improperly or what is really being
checked not understood. Therefore, let us review the purpose of making a mag. check and follow with a step
by step outline of the correct procedure.

By switching to one magneto the pilot is checking on the overall condition of the ignition system and also
general engine performance. Since there are two spark plugs in each cylinder, when the switch is turned to
one mag., the opposite plug in that cylinder is cut out resulting in a lower rate or less efficient combustion in
the cylinder. This in turn will normally cause some small loss of power and an RPM drop.

In most flat opposed piston engines the allowable drop in RPM is approximately 100 to 125. The important
aspect of this drop include whether the drop, although at a maximum allowable, is smooth or rough, or if
there is a noticeable difference in the amount of drop between the two magnetos. A smooth drop at the
maximum RPM allowable on an individual check of both magnetos is acceptable and usually indicates a lean
condition (but not dangerous) of the carburettor or fuel injector. If there is a noticeable difference between
the drop off of the right and left magneto without roughness, this can indicate a difference in timing between
the two mags., which immediately calls for a timing check by a qualified mechanic.

The amount of time involved in this check is approximately the same time (not to exceed 10 seconds) it
takes to read these two or three sentences which appl to this part of the magneto check. If the engine is run
on one magneto too long, then the opposite non-firing spark plug in the cylinders will begin to foul. So limit it
and use the following procedure:

Switch from both to right and return to both.

Normal drop 50 to 75 RPM.

Switch from both to left and return to both.

Normal drop 50 to 75 RPM.

Maximum difference between right and left 50 RPM.

No drop during the check may indicate a "hot magneto", meaning the mag. is not grounded and will continue
firing even though turned off. To check this, set throttle at low idle speed and turn mag. switch off.

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Check your operator's manual concerning the technique for the specific engine which recommends the
engine speed during the check. This varies with direct drive engines without a governor as opposed to
governed engines. As an engine manufacturer, we desire the operator use 50 to 65% rated power as
indicated by the manifold pressure gauge.

But final emphasis concerning the magneto check should be on engine smoothness. Any unusual roughness
on either magneto is usually an indication of faulty ignition caused by plug fouling or by malfunctioning of the
ignition system. If you run the engine for long on the ground fouled spark plugs may result, particularly if the
idle mixture is rich. To eliminate this kind of fouling, every 5 or 10 minutes, run the engine or engines up to
magneto check RPM for a few seconds, which tends to burn off this condition. The length and frequency of
this "burn-off" run-up will be dictated by the oil and cylinder head temperatures.

In the event magneto drop-off persistently exceeds the amount specified, an inspection of the engine should
be carried out to determine the cause. Common causes for excessive magneto drop-off include incorrect
grade of fuel; fouled or incorrectly gapped spark plugs; incorrectly timed magnetos; incorrect fuel/air ratio.

Power Check
A power check can be carried out but only if absolutely necessary. This check will cause a lot of strain on:
 Engine and transmission systems.
 Propeller systems.
 Airframe.
 Nose landing gear.

Refer to the aircraft manual for the procedure and remember - keep it as short as possible - IT SAVES FUEL
AND ENGINE WEAR.

Engine Instruments
During the engine run it is important to check the operation of all the other systems on the aircraft particularly
in relation to the indications in the cockpit. The sort of questions you should ask yourself during the run are:
 Are all the engine instruments working properly - r.p.m., oil temperature and pressure, torque, e.g.t.
If not, is it a gauging system that is at fault, or the engine?
 Are other indicators working correctly? - Battery charging light/indicator, fuel quantity, gyro operated
instruments, etc.
 What about systems? - lights, radio.

It looks a lot but usually takes but a minute or two to check. Engine Shut Down

After you are satisfied that everything that should be checked, has been, then the engine can be shut down.

Allow the engine to run at 1000 to 1200 r.p.m. for a few minutes then shut it down.

Remember to record running times in the engine log book as well as any other details of subsequent work
carried out on the engine.

Safety
The following points should be noted prior to and during an engine run.
 Face aircraft into wind in an area away from other aircraft where the slipstream will not be a problem.
 Make sure the engine, airframe and systems are fit for a run.
 Only qualified personnel are allowed to run engines.
 Have a look out man standing by the correct type of extinguisher.
 Ensure brakes are on.
 Ensure aircraft is fuelled.
 Some aircraft may be required to be tied down - check the manual.
 The area is to be kept clear of people and objects, but should anybody approach the aircraft without
authority the engine/s should be cut immediately.

AIRCRAFT OPERATION INSTRUCTIONS

Normal Control
The governor quadrant control is arranged to provide HIGH rpm when full forward and LOW rpm when pulled
back. The governor will control over a certain rpm band, which can be covered by moving the control through
a portion of its travel at the forward end of its range when the throttle is well forward.

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Most ground operation of the aircraft is done with full forward position of the governor, so starting and
stopping should likewise be done in low pitch, although there is no reason why other settings could not be
used.

An operational check of the governor and propeller should be made during run-up.

Take-off should be made with governor setting FULL FORWARD to obtain take-j off rpm.

During landing, the governor control should be FULL FORWARD so that propeller will act as a brake and be
in a position for immediate take-off or go-around if necessary.

Feathering Procedure
Feather the propeller several times after installation is made in order to purge air from system and at least
once during each run-up.

Feathering on the ground is accomplished by reducing rpm with throttle to 1000-1500 propeller speed and
pulling governor control FULL BACK against the stop, do not feather when operating at high manifold
pressure. Unfeathering is accomplished by returning governor control to normal range with engine running.

Emergency or practice feathering in flight is accomplished by pulling back on governor control to limit of
travel.

Unfeathering in flight is accomplished by:


a) Engine restart with the governor control in low rpm range. This will impose heavy loads on the
engine and mount unless care is exercised to keep manifold pressure low until the propeller blades
move enough to aid rotation.
b) The engine may also be cranked with the starter until the propeller blade angle is reduced and
windmilling begins.

NOTE: Restart or cranking imposes the danger of fire and always requires a good starter and battery. The
time required to unfeather may be appreciable.

c) Oil pumped to the propeller by an electric driven pump or oil stored in a hydraulic accumulator under
normal governor pump pressure is discharged through the governor to the propeller to rotate the
propeller blades and start the engine windmilling. The engine may then be started without imposing
any heavy load o n the engine or mounts and without a heavy drain on the battery. Fire hazard is
greatly reduced.

MAGNETO MALFUNCTIONING
We have run actual tests on phases of this problem and learned some interesting facts. Our Experimental
Engineering ran one of our four cylinder high compression engines at climb power (85%) full rich, alternately
on one magneto and then the other. They observed approximately a 3% horsepower loss and no detonation.

As a further check, during flight in a test aircraft, we ran on one magneto with one of our geared,
turbocharged, 400 horsepower powerplants at high altitude at 72% power leaned to the best power fuel flow
and measured 3% low of power and no detonation.

It is probable that a flat opposed engine will have a loss of at least 3% of the take-off power. Other facts will
affect the amount of power loss such as ambient temperature and condition and health of the engine.
However, if the engine gets rough in flight, but will run smoothly on one magneto, it appears that an aircraft
already airborne could probably continue to its destination without damage to the power plant. Furthermore,
it is not unusual to have rough engine operation on both mags, during flight, but it is possible in some
instances to eliminate the problem by switching to the smooth magneto.

We do not believe it necessary to comment or offer advice concerning a dead or rough magneto condition
observed during the ground run-up. Certainly a single engine aircraft would not attempt a take-off on one
magneto. Good judgement generally would recommend not taking off with an unhealthy engine.

Remember that the magneto generates a current of high voltage which is discharged at the proper time in
the cylinder and every modern aircraft powerplant has two mags, per engine. Furthermore, "bad mags."
could mean not only the magneto itself, but any part of the ignition system attached to that one magneto (i.e.
spark plug, harness, etc.). An unsatisfactory magneto check during run-up may also be an indication of
trouble in the engine other than the ignition system. However, if the pilot or mechanic understands what
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happens during a malfunctioning of the magneto, he can cope with this problem more efficiently during the
more critical in-flight situation.

SOME SELF TEST QUESTIONS


Have a 'go' at these questions. Read and understand the question, try to think * of the answer YOURSELF -
then check with the answer given. BE CRITICAL OF YOUR OWN ANSWER. Give yourself a pat on the back
if it was a good one.

1. Q. What harm is there in operating an engine at high-power with carb. heat hot? Answer:

About the same as too lean a mixture or too low a grade of fuel. All three (excessive carb. heat, too lean
mixture or low grade fuel) produce detonation. Detonation is explosive combustion, characterised by
"pinking" often heard in automotive engines in cars. In aircraft, however, there is too much prop and engine
noise to hear pinking - the result is burnt valves, scored pistons and broken piston rings. By the way,
detonation is produced by prolonged operation on one mag., oil in the gas, excessively high MAP (prop
takes too big a bite), or using lean mixture at high power settings.

2. Q. What harm is there in taxying with carb. heat hot? Answer:

With carb. heat hot, outside air (with its microscopic load of dust and sand) is drawn by the prop, across the
cylinders into the exhaust heat exchanger and, plop, into the engine; never even grazing the air filter.
Continued operation leads to fouled spark plugs and speedy cylinder wall wear. Cold air is filtered, hot is not.
3. Q. If, during a mag. check the engine developed excessive roughness on one mag., what would you
do? Answer:

Run up your engine by increasing power slowly to normal magneto check power setting , with mixture
adjusted to best power and hold it there for one minute before repeating he magneto check. With a
satisfactory magneto check the engine should be returned to idle and the mixture pushed full rich. Chances
are this technique will eliminate the mag. trouble, which was probably caused by fuel-carbon fouling from
idling too long or idling with carb. heat hot.

4. Q. Why do we check one mag., then switch back to "both" before checking the other mag.? Answer:

The answer is two fold. One, we are interested in seeing that the magneto is functioning and, second, in
comparing one mag's, drop with the other. When a mag. is switched "off* its spark plugs are not firing. By
switching back to both, we allow the plugs to warm again before testing.

5. Q. On aircraft equipped with an idle cut-off, why is the engine shut down with the mixture rather than
switching the magnetos off? Answer:

An aircraft engine runs at very high temperatures. When the mags, are turned off without first starving the
engine of the fuel, residual fuel remaining in the intake system ignites in the combustion chambers. This
produces "dieseling" or "after-firing" which imposes a severe strain on the engine. (You may have
experienced this condition with a car on a hot day or after a long climb).

6. Q. What is the danger in overleaning? Answer:

When super leaned, an engine detonates, producing the effects described in 1. Excessive heat builds up in
the cylinders causing cracked or "blown" jugs. Despite the danger of overleaning, however, every private
pilot applicant should be prepared to demonstrate correct leaning techniques. Proper leaning reduces fuel
consumption, increases range and increases engine power some 10 - 20%, depending on engine and
altitude. See answer 21.

7. Q. What is wrong with using automotive petrol (mogas) and oil in aircraft C engines. Answer:

Plenty. Due to the high temperature at which an aircraft engine operates, automotive petrol (with its wide
range of octane and high lead content) leads to detonation and combustion chamber deposits. By the same
token, automotive oil does not have a sufficiently high flash point for aircraft engines and will break down at
higher temperatures. (HINT. Read Airworthiness Notices on this one - number 98)

8. Q. What happens when the primer comes unlocked in flight? Answer:

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The pilot usually comes unglued. Fuel is drawn through the primer straight into the cylinder, bypassing the
carburettor metering jets. The engine will run excessively rich causing roughness and, in extreme cases,
engine stoppage.

9. Q. Explain the use and abuse of carb. heat. Answer:

Carb. heat, as we all know, prevents or eliminates carb ice which, if allowed to develop far enough, causes
engine stoppage. However, after all is said it is probably true that more harm has been done through carb.
over use than by lack of use.

Application of carb. heat at the wrong time or for too long a duration produces detonation, overheating, loss
of power (and subsequent loss ofJ engine cooling), an least of all, fouled spark plugs. The manufacturers
recommend carb. heat only when carb. ice is suspected, it is an interesting fact, on the other hand, that carb.
heat is guaranteed to be effective only when engine is developing at least 75% power. Therefore, during run-
up and carb. heat check, the heater should be left in the hot position for several seconds. Too quick a check
at run-up power won't melt ice that may have built up during taxi. After checking, return carb. heat to cold
before take-off.
In Arctic regions carb. heat is used extensively to promote fuel vaporisation rather than prevent carb. ice
which, by the way, does not develop much below -10° . I can never suppress a shudder when one of those
carb.-heat-compulsives slam on carb. heat right out of the blue. If the pilot monitors his RPM or MAP, he will
not get caught by carb. ice. Why scare the hell out of passengers at random intervals?

10. Q. Why is it good practice to avoid full-power checks during run-up? ^ Answer:

A full-power run-up, while sitting with brakes locked, shakes the aircraft, frightens passengers, overheats
cylinder heads (even though oil may be cold) and appalls most flight instructors, you are going to find out
soon enough if the engine develops full power. If it does not, you can always abort the take-off. If it does,
well man, go! Engine manufacturers advise against full power run-ups unless trouble is suspecte

11. Q. When idling an engine on the ground for an extended period, why is it advisable to run faster than
idle speed, say 1230 to 1300 rpm? Answer:

Higher RPM helps to:


1. Reduce spark plug fouling.
2. Give better cylinder head cooling.
3. Reduce vibration.
4. Increase oil pressure.
5. Alternator cuts in to charge the battery.
6. Eliminate plugged nozzles.

12. Q. How long need light aircraft engines be warmed up? (Only applies to non-geared supercharged
and turbocharged engines). Answer:

They need not be. The manufacturers recommend only 3-4 minutes, even in very cold climates. That is just
long enough to start the engine, taxi to the runway, complete the check list, perform engine run-up.
Remember, the cylinders can develop hot spots, even though oil temperatures are still cold. Modern, tightly
cooled engines depend upon forward speed and pressure changes over the baffling in order to cool.

A good rule of thumb states that if the engine accelerates smoothly, without coughing, spitting or back firing
during run-up and if oil pressure is within normal limits, it is warm enough for take-off.

13. Q. You have applied carburettor heat. How do you know if there is carb. Ice? Answer:

It is one of the disadvantages of this jet-like age that water does not support combustion. When carb. heat is
applied (with sufficient time allowed for reaction) ice melts, causing a loss of RPM and roughness. After the
ice has melted, carb. heat should be returned to "cold". RPM will increase to beyond the original setting due
to unrestricted airflow. If heat is applied without carburettor ice present, the engine will respond by losing
power; quickly returning to normal once heat is removed.

If you are unfortunate enough to have allowed a large quantity of carburettor ice to develop, the best way to
remove it is to use full heat momentarily until the engine falters, then return the heat control to the old
position, repeating this procedure until normal operation is restored.

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14. Q. During run-up one mag. shows no drop at all. What do you do? Answer:
Better cancel the flight. A healthy condition will always register a drop. Unlike an automotive ignition system,
when an aircraft mag. is grounded it is "off. If the contact is broken, it's "hot". In this case, one mag. remains
"hot". Hence, there is no way to check its condition.

15. Q. Why do many operators keep engine oil below the full mark? Answer:

To provide foaming space and prevent oil loss through the breather. It also reduces ugly oil streaks.

16. Q. Why one must guard against accidental selection of magnetos BOTH
OFF during run-up. Answer:

With the engine windmilling, unburnt fuel is carried through the engine into the exhaust system.
When the mags, are switched back ON these gases explode in the muffler.

No sweat. Chrome-moly mufflers cost only a few hundreds pounds. If you wish to check for BOT
OFF (and it is not recommended unless trouble is suspected) do so at idle where exhaust
scavenging is incomplete.

ENGINE MAINTENANCE
Indications of the kind of operation and maintenance engines receive in the field can be rather easily
determined when those power plants (both rotary wing and fixed wing) are returned to the factory for tear-
down. The engines which have had serious malfunction or failure usually show some pretty good indications
at tear-down as to what caused the problem. On the other hand, engines returned for remanufacture, which
have attained or exceeded the recommended overhaul life, show evidence of good maintenance and sound
operation.

We will review some specific examples of good and bad engines we have investigated in our factory and
what we have learned about their operation and maintenance.

Oil Starvation
A four-cylinder engine was returned to us as a failed power plant. At tear-down we noticed that the
connecting rod bearings were severely worn despite low time and the crankshaft bearings were showing
signs of scoring. Prior to tear-down a careful inspection of the engine did not reveal any area where oil had
leaked. Therefore, the failure was caused by oil starvation and in this model engine, lack of oil will cause the
rod bearings to fail first. Inquiry revealed that the operator has flown his non-aerobatic aircraft upside down
and lost most of his oil out the breather thereby causing the oil starvation condition.

Cold, Fast Starts


One of our direct drive six-cylinder engines came back to the factory with aluminium in the oil screens. At
tear-down we observed that the piston skirts were badly scuffed and the cylinder walls were scored. This
condition is primarily caused by a high RPM start of a cold engine in cold weather. One operator experienced
several cases of scuffed pistons and scored cylinder walls, so we journeyed to their facility and observed
their operation.

On a very cold day the aircraft had sat outside for several hours in the cold wind when the pilot finally got
aboard and 59 seconds after starting the engines applied full power for takeoff. When precautions were
taken to avoid hasty takeoff with a cold engine in very cold weather, the scuffing and scoring problem
disappeared.

Some of our supercharged engines have on occasion come back to us with a failure of unknown causes. At
tear-down we found in some cases that the supercharger bearing had failed due to a lack of lubrication,
which caused the failure of the engine. In the supercharged power plant, when outside temperatures drop to
around 15°F and below, the engine should be carefully preheated, since the oil is like tar.

This thick oil cannot lubricate the supercharger bearing, which is more vulnerable because the supercharger
impeller is turning more than 11 times faster than crankshaft speed. If the engine does not show minimum oil
pressure within 30 seconds after start in cold weather, the pilot must shut it down and preheat, otherwise he
is inviting a failure.

Oil Leaks
One engine cylinder engine, which was leaking oil, was torn down at our factory and carefully inspected. The
cause of the oil leaks was quite obvious; most of the rubber seals throughout the engine were baked and
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brittle; the ignition harness was likewise brittle and cracked. Such a condition was brought about by
excessive heat which baked and destroyed the rubber items in the engine.

This can be caused by prolonged running on the ground in warm weather, or leaking cowling or deteriorated
baffling. If the operator finds the rubber items in this undesirable conditions he should review his pilot
procedures, or have a competent mechanic check his cowling and baffles.

Flying the Turbocharger


A problem on turbocharged engines has been the deterioration of the turbocharger bearing due to coking of
the oil around the bearing. Helicopters are particularly vulnerable because they are pulling high power up to
the point of the touchdown and then power is suddenly cut off. If the engine is shut down too quickly the oil
lying around the turbocharger_bearing gets very hot and then cokes or hardens, thereby blocking needed
lubrication. After landing, a gradual cooling must be carried out in accordance with the instructions in the
specific aircraft owners's manual.

Overboosting
Turbocharged or supercharged engines which have been overboosted must be inspected in accordance with
Lycoming Service Bulletin. It is remotely possible to have a malfunctioning controller on a turbocharged
engine as a cause of overboost, however, attempting a takeoff with a cold engine and cold oil with an abrupt
movement of the throttle can cause an overboost.

In some of the engines we have torn down, we see evidence of overboost and
signs of detonation on the piston heads or exhaust valves - and in extreme conditions - burnt pistons. But
what we usually cannot see, even with magnaflux, is the damage done to the crankshaft. Our metallurgical
laboratory people advise that an overboost in excess of ten inches manifold pressure instantly ages a
crankshaft and it creates small subsurface cracks not even visible to the magnaflux machine. The crankshaft
will probably fail in the near future. Any engine which has been overboosted in excess often inches MP must
scrap the crankshaft.

Overspeed
Overspeeding appears to be a common problem in some helicopters. In one model light helicopter, frequent
overspeeding caused breakage of the piston compression rings. A helicopter engine at teardown that shows
any damage to the valve springs, valve keys and rockers has probably undergone overspeeding. Overspeed
could also occur on direct and geared and turbocharged engines if the prop governor fails and the fine pitch
stop in the propeller is not set correctly.

We urge operators to record all cases of overspeed or overboost in the engine log book.

The Log Book


And this brings up another important factor; operators should keep good log books and return them to the
factory with the engine. The information in the engine log book, if properly recorded, will be helpful to both
the owner and manufacturer. We study those log books because they give us important information of the
overall background of the individual engine and for either a high time or a malfunctioning power plant, the
information in the log book is significant to us. (Remember to keep one for the V.P. prop as well).

Cylinder Head Cracks


Cracks in the cylinder head around the spark plug or valve ports tell us a story. Where this is observed in
several cylinders, it frequently indicates an abrupt change in temperature. In the operation of any type of
piston engine it means that the pilot has been operating the engine at a fairly high temperature and then
reducing the power or closing the throttle and suddenly cooling the L cylinder head down. In order to prevent
this condition, the pilot must operate ' his power plant so that his engine does not undergo any sudden
changes of temperature. Cylinders with cracks are costly to replace.

Detuned Counterweights
Poor pilot techniques are most evident in torn down engines when we inspect the crankshaft counterweights.
If the pilot has frequently snapped the throttle closed from a high speed, high MP position, it would show as
strike indentations on the bottom of the counterweight where it made a hard contact with the crankshaft,
known as detuning the counterweights. Remember, a good pilot is a smooth pilot. For further information
refer to the appropriate Service Bulletin.

Clean Oil

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• One area of an engine we always examine - if we are trying to determine maintenance procedures - is the
oil pump and oil pump gears. If the gears are well worn and the pump walls scratched, it tends to indicate
dirty oil and long periods between oil changes.
In addition, the overall internal condition of the engine will also reveal something about maintenance. It is
true that the ashless dispersant oils keep the internal portion of the engine cleaner than a straight mineral oil,
but despite use of an AD oil - if the oil is not filtered or frequently changed - the engine reflects the treatment.

The Air Filter


Similarly, if the powerplant has not had a good air filter, it will show in the dirt found in the engine at
teardown.

A dirty air filter may cause unusual wear at critical moving parts such as the piston rings. Where necessary,
our laboratory will take samples of the oil in the engine, or samples of the sediment on top of the pistons and
verify the heavy presence of dust or dirt resulting from a poor air filter.

The Proper Fuel


It is not too difficult to determine why an engine failed when lower octane fuel was used, for which the engine
was not certified. Since fuels are coloured to identify their octane ratings, it is almost impossible not to find
some fuel dye somewhere in the fuel metering or induction systems. The pistons may show signs of
detonation, the cylinders may be discoloured from heat and the exhaust valves show signs of deterioration or
grooving. Automotive or lower octane aviation fuels cannot be used in aircraft engines which have been
certified for a higher octane aviation fuel.

Pre-Ignition
Pre-ignition effects on an engine can frequently be identified by cupping (sometimes called tulipped) intake
valves, or in more severe cases, burned intake valves. Cupping makes the valve longer and results in held
open valves. Severe pre-ignition causes rapid valve burning with the valve face quickly burned and melted.
Some causes of pre-ignition are:
1. Spark plugs with cracked or broken ceramic cores.
2. Spark plugs with too high a heat range.
3. Detonation.
4. Sharp edges in the cylinder.
5. Carbon deposits that remain incandescent.

The Spark Plug


In previous articles and discussions we have said the spark plug manufacturers and engine manufacturers
agree that spark plugs removed from an engine tell a story. We see engines that have come back to us with
spark plugs not approved by the engine manufacturer. The power plant manufacturers publish service
bulletins or instructions concerning spark plugs which they have approved. The spark plug should have the
correct heat range and length or it can cause engine malfunctioning.

With both short reach and long reach plugs today, the mechanic must make sure of the correct reach plug.
Modern high performance engines also require the correct torque on the spark plug. On the older, low
compression power plants of years back, a carelessly torqued spark plug usually did not create a problem
but not so with the modern high compression engines. This care includes replacing the gasket when
reinstalling the spark plugs. The spark plug also reacts unfavourably to exhaust leakage directly on it by
inviting detonation.

Rust and Corrosion


Rust and corrosion are no problem in aircraft frequently flown, but planes used infrequently or with long gaps
of time between flights require more attention. Rust and corrosion can build up in the cylinders of idle aircraft.
Because engines are affected so much by rust and corrosion, manufacturers establish minimum's on the
chronological as well as flight time on their engines. Lycoming, for example, stipulates that the minimum
should be 30 hours per month, and owners should accumulate a full time engine within at least six years.

Engines which are used infrequently are easily detected at tear down because black spots will show on the
cylinder walls, due to rust; in severe cases, pitting shows on the walls, cam followers, or camshaft lobes.
Infrequent use can cause water and acids to collect in the engine, which are normally cooked out when an
engine is used frequently. Infrequent use of an engine may result in "washboard-type" cylinder walls,
because rust has formed beneath the piston and rings during the inactivity.

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Some people try to prevent the above conditions by running the engine on the ground but this is not
recommended. The best method is to fly the aircraft, using longer climb periods and high power cruise. This
helps scrub out the rust and cooks out the water and acids.

MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Now let us talk about good maintenance practices.

First, you should follow the instructions outlined in your engine operator's manual for pre-flight, 50 and 100
hour inspections. Most important is that the engine is always timed properly, the oil filter cartridge and
screens are cleaned at regular intervals, proper lubricating oil is used, spark plugs are cleaned and properly
gapped (spark plugs tell a story of the inside of the engine, study them carefully).

In addition to the regular inspections outlined, we occasionally issue a service bulletin or service instruction
which requires an additional inspection. All maintenance facilities should keep an up-to-date file of these
bulletins and maintenance personnel should become familiar with these publications. They are available at
no charge from your distributor, or you may subscribe to the factory mailing service for a subscription fee.

Not enough emphasis can be placed on the importance of keeping the air intake filter clean. When operating
in sandy areas, it may be necessary to clean the filter once or twice a day. Remember, nothing will wear out
piston rings and cylinder barrels quicker than dirt being ingested into the engine through the air induction
system.

It is important to check the cylinder baffles, loose or damaged baffles cause m hot spots which in turn, can
cause a malfunction such as a burned piston, broken piston ring, etc. One very important thing is to torque
the generator or alternator bracket to proper torque every 100 hours (72"lbs). If this bracket is allowed to
work, the crankcase will crack and since this is one of the places that cannot be welded, a replacement
crankcase must be purchased.

If oil pressure is low at idle, check with distributor or factory as you have problems which will not be cured by
adjustment. Install stronger spring. Lower oil pressure at high altitude is characteristic of some installations
and no cause for alarm.

Most oil temperature problems are indicator problems. This can be easily checked by .dropping a
thermometer into the sump through the oil filler tube and compare with gauge.

Broken starter housings can be prevented by following some very simple rules/ Always start your engine per
your particular ignition system. Starting an engine on both when you should be starting on left only can
cause kickbacks resulting in a broken starter housing. If you have a twist to start system, twist firmly; push to
start, push firmly.

If you have a low cylinder head temperature problem either the probe is not installed properly, the probe is
bent, or the mixture is too rich. If cylinder temperature is too high, inspect the probe for exhaust leaks,
routing of the probe lead, move probe to another cylinder and compare readings, check plugs on probed
cylinder, check baffles and baffle stripping, check timing and lastly, check for lean mixture.

For best service life, keep cylinder head temperatures below 400°F. Even though higher temperatures are
permissible and may not be harmful at the time, these high temperatures can shorten the service life of your
engine.

Now let me dwell for just a moment on lubricating oil. When detergent oils first came on the market, we took
a really good hard look at these products and saw some things we did not like.

Principally, oil companies were using metallic additives which cause pre-ignition problems and the detergent
qualities of the oil could loosen sludge deposits and cause a blocked oil passage, thus starving some vital
part of lubrication.

The next thing we looked at was the ashless dispersant oil being marketed by two oil companies. We liked
what we saw because the ashless quality eliminated the metallic additive, in turn eliminating the pre-ignition
problem and sludge is held in suspension rather than washed loose.

We then engaged in some closely controlled field tests and found these lubricants did a superior lubricating
job as well as maintaining an exceptionally clean engine. Parts showed less wear at overhaul than the same
parts operated on straight mineral oil.
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Today, practically all the major oil companies have an ashless dispersant oil and we strongly recommend
use of these products after you have used straight mineral oil to break in your engine. They are compatible
with one another and you can add straight mineral oil in a pinch where ashless dispersant oil is being used
with no harmful effects.

In passing from this subject, let me recommend marking the oil filter access door with the type of oil being
used.

We think very highly of the fine wire spark plugs on the marker, especially where lead fouling is a problem.
We do not object to top overhaul but always replace the exhaust valves and piston rings on all cylinders
being topped, we believe very highly in the differential compression check using 80 pounds of air. When any
cylinder shows a drop of more than 15 to 20 pounds, we recommend investigation to determine the problem.
A 25 pound loss should be an absolute maximum.

The latest edition of our service instruction, sets forth factory recommended overhaul periods. Some direct
drive engines with 1/2" diameter exhaust valves are now up to 2000 hours. After 1000 hours, it might be a
good idea to run a differential and horoscope every 100 hours. Spectrometric oil analysis is now becoming
quite popular in the field. We think it is one means of determining the health of engines but it is only one tool
and must be used in conjunction with the other tools such as differential compression check, horoscope
inspection, etc.

A spectrometric history is imperative if this tool is used.

One tip on spectrometric oil analysis: Avco Lycoming engines may run high in copper content early in the life
of the engine. This is no cause for alarm and will diminish as the engine wears. It may take 400 to 500 hours
to come down to what is considered normal. Use your primer only in extremely cold conditions. Your
carburetor has a throttle pump and usually priming with the throttle is all that is required.

After submitting scheduled oil samples to the laboratory, if the wear rates of the various elements do not
show a sharp rise, the operator can be assured that his engine is in good health at the time of the analysis.
Oil analysis will also detect dirty induction systems and it is most important that clean air be provided to
engines to obtain our recommended overhaul life. This condition of dirty induction systems is brought on by
worn, dirty or mis-aligned air filters.

It should be pointed out that the amount of metal carried in the engine oil is most often high in a new engine
or an overhauled engine during its break-in period because of new parts mating together. After
approximately
25 hours of operating time, the metal content tends to decrease to a level that essentially remains constant
under normal conditions.

If abnormal wear takes place, it does not necessarily mean that failure is imminent; however, it does mean
that a careful investigation of the engine should be made, such an investigation of air and oil filters, a
boroscopic examination of the combustion chamber and a differential compression check made.

An engine should not necessarily be changed because of one high wear rate report oil analysis. A running
log should be maintained of samples taken at specified intervals and a review of the log should indicate any
trend and the recommended investigation made. Then a sound decision can be made concerning what to do
about the engine.

As a final word here on oil analysis, we would point out that it should be used as another tool in the
maintenance of modern reciprocating piston engines. It does not replace tried and proven maintenance
techniques but augments them.

ENGINE MOUNTED FULL-FLOW OIL FILTERS


There is no doubt that clean engine oil is essential to long engine life, consequently for the past three years
Lycoming has recommended full-flow oil filters wherever they could be used. As a result, many of our
engines built at our factory now have the oil filter as standard equipment and for turbocharged engines it is
also required.

The full-flow filter element is quite capable of removing most contaminants that would be injurious to the
engine. However, the full-flow filter does not remove the lead sludge from the oil usually found in the
propeller domes of controllable props.
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The most worthy advantage of the full flow filter is that it permits longer periods of operation between oil
changes so that oil change interval can be increased by 25 to 100 percent, depending on environmental
conditions and provided the oil filter element is replaced after each 50 hours of engine operation.

Before discarding the filter element it should be opened and the material trapped inside carefully examined
for symptoms or evidence of internal engine damage or unusual wear.

SPARK PLUGS TELL A STORY


Spark plugs provide excellent signals or symptoms about the condition of an engine when removed and the
skilled mechanic can interpret these signals and do something about them. Spark plugs cannot be blamed
for the engine troubles they may reflect.

Oil Fouling.
This may be observed as black, wet deposits on the spark plug insulator tip and electrodes. Possible engine
problems are faulty piston rings, sticking valves, worn valve guides or faulty ignition supply. Therefore, an oil
fouled spark plug should be regarded as a warning of possible trouble and the competent mechanic should
use these symptoms to find the cause and correct it.

Carbon Fouling
This consists of fluffy, dry black deposits indicating a fuel-air mixture that is too rich. This may be due to
excess idling, a too rich idle or cruise mixture, or faulty carburetor adjustment.

Lead Fouling
This has the appearance of a light tan or brown coloured film on the insulator tip and electrode surfaces, or
in heavier accumulations may appear as fused globules of lead. If lead fouling is heavy, it is sometimes
caused by abnormal temperatures in the cylinder. If this heavy lead fouling persists, the mechanic must
investigate and determine the cause of the abnormal heat.

Copper Run-out
This is free copper in the form of globules or as a fused mass at the end or side of the centre electrode. The
spark plug manufacturers advise this condition is brought on by detonation or pre-ignition. The mechanic
must investigate and determine the cause of the pre-ignition or detonation.

INCREASED OIL CONSUMPTION


It is not unusual for a new or overhauled power plant to experience a higher than normal oil consumption
rate during the break-in period while the piston rings are seating. However, any time after this period, if there
is a noticeable increase in oil consumption over at least 25 hours of flight time, this could be a danger signal
and an investigation should be made.

The oil screens and filter should be carefully observed for signs of metal. Maintenance should take a good
differential compression check at such a time.

They should also look inside the cylinders with a horoscope or gooseneck light J to detect any unusual
conditions in the combustion chamber.

If nothing is detected, change oil and fly 25 hours with a careful check of oil levels during this period. Then
drain the oil and again carefully check the screens and filter. Any serious problem will have usually revealed
itself over this period of flight time. The spectrometric oil analysis could also be utilised with this kind of
problem. Time and space will not permit listing all the possible influences on a high oil consumption problem
but the above procedure for checking has been used by the factory with considerable success.

FUEL METERING PROBLEMS


Any radical change in fuel consumption on the lean side of the manufacturer's predicted fuel flows,
particularly at take-off and climb powers, can cause detonation and/or pre-ignition and result in damage to an
engine.

An engine, particularly a high time engine, which has been in detonation or pre-ignition might necessitate an
engine change. If detonation or pre-ignition have been experienced, consult your maintenance people and
investigate possible damage to the engine; but if no damage is found, at least change or repair the
carburetor or fuel injector at once.

COMPRESSION CHECK SYMPTOMS


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The differential compression check has been a very simple but helpful maintenance aid. Where it has been
used during the life of an engine, any trend in at least two consistent checks is worth investigating if the
differential check reveals 25% loss or more.

ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION
Any signal, like an unusual engine instrument reading, would suggest that a cross check with other engine
instruments be made

No engine can survive without oil pressure within the limits prescribed by the engine manufacturer. A higher
than normal oil temperature is not an alarming item but it should call for an investigation of the cause. But in
the final analysis, the cylinder head temperature gauge is the basic reference with fuel flow and leaning the
mixture.

Most Lycoming engines should not be operated continuously above a CHT of 425°F in order to achieve its
normal life wear. If cylinder head temperatures tend to be consistently high within the range, unless the
engine is being affected by operation in an unusual environment, the cause of this high temperature should
be investigated and corrected.

CYLINDER BAFFLES
Loose or damaged cylinder baffles may seem trivial, however, their detrimental effect on the temperature
characteristics of the cylinder may be considerable. Therefore, inspection of the baffle should be a 50 hours
procedure.

PERIODIC BENDIX IMPULSE COUPLING INSPECTION


| Make sure every time you remove a Bendix magneto on which an impulse coupling is installed that you
check the following:

1. Use the shank of a new No. 35 drill (equal to 2.9" millimeters) as a


gauge. Hold the flyweight so that its outer radius is in alignment with the rim of the cam engine and try to
insert drill shank between flange and flyweight. If the drill can be inserted the parts are worn excessively;
replace coupling.

NOTE: Do not force the drill

2. Look at the outer periphery of the triggering ramp of each flyweight. A shiny area means the
flyweight has been hitting the stop in while the engine was turning. This could cause the flyweight to
engage the stop pin at high speed with possible damage. Replace coupling.
3. Make a wide hook and, with the flyweight triggering ramp lined up with the stop pin, reach between
flyweight and cam and pull flyweight out as far as possible.
Holding flyweight in this position, insert a 0.10 inch feeler between flyweight and stop pin. If the clearance is
less than .010 inches, the parts are worn excessively and may cause trouble before the next inspection.

Replace Coupling
If for some reason an impulse coupling must be removed, use the following method:

Apply penetrating thread release compound, such as CRC-36 (CRC Checmicals Landkill Pike, Dresher, Pa.
19026, U.S.A.), or Motion Fluid 60, Federal Research and Development Corp., Tylersport, PA., 18971,
U.S.A., or use any other make of penetrating oils.

NOTE: Make sure, before you install a new or newly overhauled coupling, that you apply NO-LOK OIL on
magneto shaft. This chemical is supplied by Go-Jer Inc., Akron, Ohio 44309, U.S.A.

WARNING:
If you have to "beat" the coupling off the magneto shaft, you will brinnell the bearings so that they are no
longer air worthy. Do not use that magneto until it has been completely overhauled.

SUMMING UP
The engine and airframe manufacturers are dedicated to producing the safest product possible. The
manufacturers are also dedicated to reliability and at the same time obligated to the versatility needs of
modern aircraft. And as an engine manufacturer, we constantly study the service records out in the field with
the purpose of maintaining their reliability and extending the engine life.

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The operator must also accept his responsibility for the care and operation of his engine. We attempted to
call to the attention of pilots and mechanics some symptoms in an engine which are signals of possible
engine trouble that might affect safe operation. Then we suggested the maintenance, observation and
remedy of minor engine symptoms before they become major powerplant problems.

We will close with a reminder to the operators that a well maintained and properly operated engine inevitably
has given long service, and certainly can regarded as a safer powerplant.

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